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The Walt Disney Concert Hall at 111 South Grand Avenue in downtown Los Angeles, California, is the fourth hall of the Los Angeles Music Center and was designed by Frank Gehry. It was opened on October 24, 2003. Bounded by Hope Street, Grand Avenue, and 1st and 2nd Streets, it seats 2,265 people and serves, among other purposes, as the home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic orchestra and the Los Angeles Master Chorale. The hall is a compromise between a vineyard-style seating configuration, like the Berliner Philharmonie by Hans Scharoun, and a classical shoebox design like the Vienna Musikverein or the Boston Symphony Hall. Lillian Disney made an initial gift of $50 million in 1987 to build a performance venue as a gift to the people of Los Angeles and a tribute to Walt Disney's devotion to the arts and to the city. Both Gehry's architecture and the acoustics of the concert hall, designed by Minoru Nagata, the final completion supervised by Nagata's assistant and protege Yasuhisa Toyota, have been praised, in contrast to its predecessor, the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion. ==Design== The Walt Disney Concert Hall was designed by world-renowned architect Frank Gehry. Despite being a well-accomplished architect at the time of design, Gehry found himself an unlikely candidate for the job when the Disney family was looking for the hall's designer. Even with the location of the Walt Disney Concert Hall set to be in his hometown of Los Angeles, California, Gehry, when discussing his thoughts at the time the architect was selected, said, “it was the least likely thing that I thought would ever happen to me in my life”. Gehry's opinion was supported by the representative of the Disney family. Gehry says he was told, "that under no circumstances would Walt Disney’s name be on any buildings that I design". Much of this doubt came from Gehry's reputation for relying on the use of cheap materials in his architecture that were used in unconventional ways. With the Walt Disney Concert Hall being a project that demanded a high budget and an elegant style, Gehry did not seem like the right candidate for the job. However, Gehry's determination landed him the job of designing the hall, as he produced a design that caught the eye of Walt Disney's widow, Lilian. His design included some of the elements of the deconstructivist architecture that he was known for, while still producing an elegant structure. == Construction == thumb|Disney Hall midway through construction, July 14, 2001 The project was initiated in 1987, when Lillian Disney, widow of Walt Disney, donated $50 million. Frank Gehry delivered completed designs in 1991. Construction of the underground parking garage began in 1992 and was completed in 1996. The garage cost had been $110 million, and was paid for by Los Angeles County, which sold bonds to provide the garage under the site of the planned hall. Construction of the concert hall itself stalled from 1994 to 1996 due to lack of fundraising. Additional funds were required since the construction cost of the final project far exceeded the original budget. Plans were revised, and in a cost-saving move the originally designed stone exterior was replaced with a less costly stainless steel skin. The needed fundraising restarted in earnest in 1996, headed by Eli Broad and then-mayor Richard Riordan. Groundbreaking for the hall was held in December 1999. Delay in the project completion caused many financial problems for the county of LA. The County expected to repay the garage debts by revenue coming from the Disney Hall parking users. Due to the mathematical complexity of Gehry's innovative design, he relied on computer software to produce his design in a way that could be completed by contractors. The technology, called CATIA (computer-aided three-dimensional interactive application) is typically used in the design process for French fighter jets, but its mathematical ability aided Gehry in his process of designing the Walt Disney Concert Hall. Perhaps it is the angle-based design of the concert hall that required the use of CATIA, which can be seen on the exterior of the building. For example, the box columns on the north side of the Walt Disney Concert Hall are tilted forward at seventeen degrees. The angular design was used by Gehry to "symbolize musical movement and the motion of Los Angeles". Upon completion in 2003, the project cost an estimated $274 million; the parking garage alone cost $110 million. The remainder of the total cost was paid by private donations, of which the Disney family's contribution was estimated to $84.5 million with another $25 million from The Walt Disney Company. By comparison, the three existing halls of the Music Center cost $35 million in the 1960s (about $330 million in 2021 dollars). == Acoustics == thumb|The auditorium As construction finished in the spring of 2003, the Philharmonic postponed its grand opening until the fall and used the summer to let the orchestra and Master Chorale adjust to the new hall. Performers and critics agreed that it was well worth this extra time taken by the time the hall opened to the public. During the summer rehearsals a few hundred VIPs were invited to sit in including donors, board members and journalists. Writing about these rehearsals, Los Angeles Times music critic Mark Swed wrote the following account: The hall met with laudatory approval from nearly all of its listeners, including its performers. In an interview with PBS, Esa-Pekka Salonen, former music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, said, "The sound, of course, was my greatest concern, but now I am totally happy, and so is the orchestra," and later said, "Everyone can now hear what the L.A. Phil is supposed to sound like." This remains one of the most successful grand openings of a concert hall in American history. As he was designing the Walt Disney Concert Hall, Gehry committed to producing a building that would promote the best acoustics possible. In order to do this, Gehry used ratios to test the acoustics of a model of the building, which was a 1:10 replica. Gehry had to scale all elements of the design accordingly, including the sound that he pumped into the model. Gehry reduced the wavelength of the sounds by a factor of ten in order to discover how his design would respond to the orchestras that would later perform in it to provide the best possible acoustics. The walls and ceiling of the hall are finished with Douglas-fir while the floor is finished with oak. Columbia Showcase & Cabinet Co. Inc., based in Sun Valley, CA, produced all of the ceiling panels, wall panels and architectural woodwork for the main auditorium and lobbies. The Hall's reverberation time is approximately 2.2 seconds unoccupied and 2.0 seconds occupied. ===Regional Connector tunnel=== Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority has an agreement with the Los Angeles Music Center to use the most advanced noise-suppression measures for construction of the Regional Connector subway under 2nd Street where it passes the hall and the Colburn School of Music. Metro will use procedures to ensure that the rumble of trains does not intrude on the sound quality of recordings made in the venues or mar audiences' musical experience within this sensitive stretch of the tunnel. Metro will also build an elevated walkway from the Grand Av Arts/Bunker Hill station to the concert hall. == Reflection problems == thumb|Walt Disney Concert Hall sign 225px|thumb|right|The exterior of Founders room after panels were re-surfaced Originally, Frank Gehry had designed the Disney Concert Hall with a facade of stone, because "at night stone would glow," he told interviewer Barbara Isenberg. "Disney Hall would look beautiful at night in stone. It would have just been great. It would have been friendly. Metal at night goes dark. I begged them. No, after they saw Bilbao, they had to have metal." After the construction, modifications were made to the Founders Room exterior; while most of the building's exterior was designed with stainless steel given a matte finish, the Founders Room and Children's Amphitheater were designed with highly polished mirror-like panels. The reflective qualities of the surface were amplified by the concave sections of the Founders Room walls. Some residents of the neighboring condominiums suffered glare caused by sunlight that was reflected off these surfaces and concentrated in a manner similar to a parabolic mirror. The resulting heat made some rooms of nearby condominiums unbearably warm, caused the air- conditioning costs of these residents to skyrocket and created hot spots on adjacent sidewalks of as much as . There was also the increased risk of traffic accidents due to blinding sunlight reflected from the polished surfaces. After complaints from neighboring buildings and residents, the owners asked Gehry Partners to come up with a solution. Their response was a computer analysis of the building's surfaces identifying the offending panels. In 2005, these were dulled by lightly sanding the panels to eliminate unwanted glare. == Concert organ == 250px|thumb|The stage and organ before a concert The design of the hall included a large concert organ, completed in 2004, which was used in a special concert for the July 2004 National Convention of the American Guild of Organists. The organ had its public debut in a non- subscription recital performed by Frederick Swann on September 30, 2004, and its first public performance with the Philharmonic two days later in a concert featuring Todd Wilson. The organ's façade was designed by architect Frank Gehry in consultation with organ consultant and tonal designer Manuel Rosales. Gehry wanted a distinctive, unique design for the organ. He would submit design concepts to Rosales, who would then provide feedback. Many of Gehry's early designs were fanciful, but impractical: Rosales said in an interview with Timothy Mangan of the Orange County Register, "His [Gehry's] earliest input would have created very bizarre musical results in the organ. Just as a taste, some of them would have had the console at the top and pipes upside down. There was another in which the pipes were in layers of arrays like fans. The pipes would have had to be made out of materials that wouldn't work for pipes. We had our moments where we realized we were not going anywhere. As the design became more practical for me, it also became more boring for him." Then, Gehry came up with the curved wooden pipe concept, "like a logjam kind of thing," says Rosales, "turned sideways." This design turned out to be musically viable. The organ was built by the German organ builder Caspar Glatter-Götz under the tonal direction and voicing of Manuel Rosales. It has an attached console built into the base of the instrument from which the pipes of the Positive, Great, and Swell manuals (keyboards) are playable by direct mechanical, or "tracker" key action, with the rest playing by electric key action; this console somewhat resembles North-German Baroque organs, and has a closed-circuit television monitor set into the music desk. It is also equipped with a detached, movable console, which can be moved about as easily as a grand piano, and plugged in at any of four positions on the stage, this console has terraced, curved "amphitheatre"-style stop-jambs resembling those of French Romantic organs, and is built with a low profile, with the music desk entirely above the top of the console, for the sake of clear sight lines to the conductor. From the detached console, all ranks play by electric key and stop action. In all, there are 72 stops, 109 ranks, and 6,125 pipes; pipes range in size from a few inches/centimeters to the longest being 32 feet (9.75m) (which has a frequency of 16 hertz). The organ is a gift to the County of Los Angeles from Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. (the U.S. sales, marketing, service, and distribution arm of Toyota Motor Corporation). == In popular culture == * The Hall was spoofed in The Simpsons episode "The Seven- Beer Snitch"; Gehry voiced himself in the episode where the town of Springfield had him design a new Concert Hall for the town.simp15.jpg The Concert Hall was then transformed into a jail by Mr. Burns. The character Snake eventually escapes from the prison while saying, "No Frank Gehry- designed prison can hold me!" * The first ever movie premiere at the concert hall was in 2003, when The Matrix Revolutions held its world premiere. *The Walt Disney Concert Hall was briefly featured in the opening of the 2004 crime thriller Collateral. It is seen where the film's main protagonist, Max Durocher (Jamie Foxx), is carrying a bickering couple (Debi Mazar and Bodhi Elfman) in his cab. * The Hall is featured in the video game Midnight Club: Los Angeles. * In the opening moments of "Day 6" of 24, a suicide bomber destroyed a bus in the vicinity of the Concert Hall. * The 2007 film Fracture has a scene at the concert hall. * The Concert Hall held Ellen DeGeneres co- hosting for American Idol during the special week of Idol Gives Back. Rascal Flatts, Kelly Clarkson, and Il Divo performed here. * This building was also used in the Iron Man (2008 release) movie briefly for a party for Stark Industries. * The finale of the 2008 movie Get Smart was filmed at the Concert Hall. * In the promotion picture for the television series Shark, the cast is standing in front of the Concert Hall. * In the original pilot of the American TV remake of Life on Mars, the Hall features prominently in the sequence where Sam travels back to 1972. It is an emblem of the ultra-modern landscape that Sam is about to leave behind. * On Everyday Italian, Giada De Laurentiis was preparing foods for her family and friends before she went there. * "One Hour", a 3rd-season episode of NUMB3RS, extensively features the concert hall. The action begins outside the hall, and after a long series of events around town, the FBI winds up going inside the hall in order to rescue a young boy from his captors. * Both the interior and the exterior of the building were filmed in extensively during the production of the 2009 film, The Soloist. * Filming was done on location at the Concert Hall for a fictional Boomkat music video in the CW's Melrose Place. * The ABC show Brothers and Sisters often shows an exterior shot of Senator Robert McCallister's office that includes the concert hall. Also, Kitty proposed to Robert at a fundraiser held at the hall. * It was featured in the 2007 film, Alvin and the Chipmunks. * It was featured in the History Channel show Life After People, where its stainless steel protects it from a raging wildfire. * The exterior is featured prominently in the 2012 film Celeste and Jesse Forever. * In the fifth episode of the French reality show Amazing Race, the show's contestants had to identify the Disney song a saxophonist was playing outside the concert hall. * It was also the place of shooting for various scenes from Glee's latest seasons as part of the fictional academy NYADA (New York Academy of Dramatic Arts). * The Concert Hall's 2014–15 Opening Night Concert, a tribute to American composer John Williams, was recorded on September 24, 2014, for the television special A John Williams Celebration Gala. * It was featured in the 2015 film Furious 7 during a chase. * On the children's series SpongeBob SquarePants, the Philharmonic Concert Hall featured in the season 10 episode "Snooze You Lose" is modeled closely after the Walt Disney Concert Hall. * The sixth episode of Top Chef: All-Stars L.A. featured the concert hall with contestants tasked with preparing dishes for the Los Angeles Philharmonic. *The seventh episode of the sixth and final season of Lucifer that aired in 2021 featured the hall as the venue of the show's iconic wedding and after party scene. * The Hall appeared in the Mickey Mouse episode, "Outback at Ya!" in the place of Sydney Opera House. * In the 2021 film Annette, star soprano Ann Defrasnoux (Marion Cotillard) performs in a fictional opera at the Concert Hall. Sparks, the writer-composers of Annette, played two sold-out shows in the hall in February 2022 including songs from the film. * In the second season of Star Trek: Picard, it was used as the stand-in for the Confederacy of Earth's Presidential Palace. == Restaurant == The concert hall houses Ray Garica's Astrid with collaborations with levy restaurants which offer other dining options throughout The Music Center complex. == Gallery == File:Walt Disney Concert Hall Panoramic.jpg|Panoramic view of Frank Gehry's Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles File:Walt Disney Concert Hall at sunset June 2013.jpg|Walt Disney Concert Hall at sunset June 2013 File:LAtrip.jpg|View from opposite corner of Grand Ave and 2nd Street File:WaltDisneyConcertHall.jpeg|Profile view from Grand Avenue; the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion is to the right in the rear File:Waltdisneycloseup.jpg|Detail near entrance File:WaltDisneyConcertHall-LA- CA-OTH11.jpg|Detail from the inner atrium File:Lightmatter disneyhall5.jpg|Viewed at night File:Lightmatter waltdisney concerthall.jpg|Viewed looking north File:Walt Disney Concert Hall Partial View sw 2013.jpg|Partial view File:Disneyconcerthall2.jpg|Main entrance at night File:Waltdisney2007.jpg|The exterior in winter 2007 File:WD Concert Hall USGS.jpg|Viewed from satellite File:Waltdisneyhall.jpg|Detail atop main entrance File:Disney Concert Hall - Under Const 01 - 2001-05.jpg|During construction in May 2001 File:Disney Concert Hall - Under Const 02 - 2001-05.jpg|During construction in May 2001 == See also == * List of concert halls * List of works by Frank Gehry * The organization of the artist * Guggenheim Museum Bilbao * Joel Wachs, Los Angeles City Council member honored with Joel Wachs Square near the concert hall ==References== ==Further reading== * Symphony: Frank Gehry's Walt Disney Concert Hall. NEW YORK: Harry O. Abrams, 2006. , . == External links == * Official website at Los Angeles Music Center * Walt Disney Concert Hall – web page of the Los Angeles Philharmonic * Archive of stories from the Los Angeles Times * Article and images at arcspace.com * Images in B&W; of the Disney Concert Hall * Photographs of exterior and interior of the Disney Concert Hall * Photograph: Exterior detail of the Disney Concert Hall * Photographs of Disney Concert Hall exterior and architectural details * Controlling Chaos * Recent Photos of Disney Concert Hall * Photos of Disney Concert Hall * Virtual Tour of Walt Disney Concert Hall *Walt Disney Concert Hall Calendar * Theatre Consultant Theatre Projects website Category:Frank Gehry buildings Category:Concert halls in California Category:Music venues in Los Angeles Category:Buildings and structures in Downtown Los Angeles Category:Bunker Hill, Los Angeles Category:Civic Center, Los Angeles Category:Art in Greater Los Angeles Category:Landmarks in Los Angeles Category:Walt Disney Category:Music venues completed in 2003 Category:2003 establishments in California Category:2000s architecture in the United States Category:Deconstructivism Category:Expressionist architecture Category:Postmodern architecture in California
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The Judiciary of the Czech Republic is set out in the Constitution, which defines courts as independent institutions within the constitutional framework of checks and balances.Czech Republic. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "The System of Independent Courts." Hello Czech Republic (Czech Republic - The Official Website) . Ministerstvo zahraničních věcí ČR, 01 Jan. 2010. Web. 07 Dec. 2012. The whole of chapter four of the Constitution of the Czech Republic is dedicated to defining the role of judicial power in the Czech Republic. It states the main function of courts of law is the protection of rights in a manner defined by legislation, and gives them sole responsibility for determining guilt and administering penalties for criminal offences.Constitution, Art. 90 Courts are defined as independent,Constitution, Art. 81 although their administration is in the hands of the Ministry of Justice. Czech courts are presided over by professional judges, who are named for life by the President and normally may not be recalled or transferred against their will.Constitution, Art. 82 The Czech Republic has a four-tier system of courts and two-instance proceedings.European Union. European Commission. "The System of Courts in the Czech Republic". European Judicial Atlas in Civil Matters. European Commission, 28 Feb. 2007. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. Most of the higher courts are seated in Brno; this is to counterbalance the concentration of power in the capital (). == Courts == thumb|General courts in the Czech Republic thumb|Allegory of Justice on the facade of the District Court in Olomouc thumb|right|The "Ruling in the Name of the Republic" () of the Regional Court in Prague in a civil matter thumb|right|Courtroom at district court While the broad strokes are set out in the Constitution and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms,Charter..., Chapter Five: The Right to Judicial and Other Legal Protection the organization of the judiciary is detailed in the Act No. 6/2002 Coll. on Courts and Judges.zákon č. 6/2002 Sb. o soudech, soudcích, přísedících a státní správě soudů a o změně některých dalších zákonů (zákon o soudech a soudcích) The four tiers of Czech courts are:The four levels are specifically named in the Constitution, Art. 91 # 2 supreme courts () – one for ordinary and one for administrative matters # 2 high courts () – one in Prague and one in Olomouc # 8 regional courts () # 86 district courts () There are three different jurisdictions: * courts of general jurisdiction * administrative courts * the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic The latter two are specialised jurisdictions – if a matter is not assigned to them specifically (by legislation), it will be dealt with the courts of general jurisdiction. === The Constitutional Court === The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic () stands outside the general courts structure. Its status and powers are enshrined directly in the Constitution of the Czech Republic.Constitution, Art. 89–89 It is the judicial body responsible for constitutionality and the protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms that arise from constitutional orderor constitutional laws, different renderings of Czech of the Czech Republic and to guarantee the constitutional character of the exercise of state power. This it achieves mainly through its power to annul statutes (or parts of them) if they are in conflict with the constitutional order (most important of them, the Constitution and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms). This is because laws that are part of the constitutional order are legislative acts of the highest force, their enactment also requires a special majority in the parliament. Any other legislation is subordinate. This process is called the judicial review. Related to this is the power of the court to decide about the conformity with the constitutional order of an international treaty prior to its ratification.Czech Republic. Constitutional Court. "Competences." Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic. Ústavní soud ČR, n.d. Web. 07 Dec. 2012. The seat of the court is in Brno.Czech Republic. Constitutional Court. "Home Page." Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic. Ústavní soud ČR, n.d. Web. 07 Dec. 2012. === Ordinary courts === Both criminal and civil cases can start at either a district court or a regional court; in other words, district and regional courts act as courts of the first instance. For example, in criminal proceedings, the district courts would generally hear cases in the first instance. However, when the penalty for the crime in question exceeds 5 years, the case will be tried by a regional court in the first instance. Boundaries of the district court jurisdictions are, confusingly, non- conterminous with those of the administrative districts.District courts were originally conterminous with the districts of the Czech Republic (). But the municipalities for each district court were explicitly named in the Law on Courts and Judges of 2002, and in 2007 the borders of the districts of the Czech Republic were slightly adjusted and many municipalities are now within different districts of the Czech Republic, making district court boundaries non-conterminous with these new districts of the Czech Republic. Of the two high courts, one is seated in Prague with jurisdiction over Bohemia, and the other in Olomouc with jurisdiction over Moravia and Silesia. These handle appeals of cases heard in the first instance by a regional court. The Supreme Court of the Czech Republic (), seated in Brno, is the highest judicial authority both in civil (including commercial) and criminal matters, except for issues that fall within the competence of the Constitutional Court or the Supreme Administrative Court.Constitution, Article 92 As a court of third instance it works on the principles of cassation (review) and appeal.Czech Republic. Supreme Court. "General Information." The Supreme Court of the Czech Republic. Nejvyšší soud ČR, 2010. Web. 07 Dec. 2012. === Administrative courts === Czech administrative judiciary (správní soudnictví) has two layers. The lower one consists of specialised administrative chambers within regional courts, which act as courts of first instance. The court of second and last instance is the Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic (), seated in Brno, which, as the name suggests, is dedicated exclusively to administrative justice.Czech Republic. Supreme Administrative Court. "Introduction." Supreme Administrative Court. Nejvyšší správní soud ČR, 14 Aug. 2012. Web. 07 Dec. 2012 Matters falling within the competence of administrative courts include cases relating to elections, registration of political parties and movements and actions for competence issues between government agencies. == Officials == The most important characters in all proceedings are professional judges () and advocates (), in criminal trials also state prosecutors (), and sometimes lay judges (). Note that other legal professions exist, not directly involved in court proceedings – notaries () and bailiffs (). === Judge === The judge () is indeed the central figure of the Czech judiciary, as only his position is defined by the Constitution itself. There is no such thing as jury in Czech courts and the judge himself (or a panel of judges) decides both the verdict and the sentence. The Czech Republic has a system of career judiciary. The Constitution stipulates that judges are appointed for life by the President of the Republic, and cannot normally be recalled.Constitution, Art. 63 Submitted by the Minister of Justice, the appointments are subject to co-signing by the Prime Minister. The Constitution requires a judge to be a graduate of a law school, a person with full integrity (no criminal record) and states the position is incompatible with political functions.Constitution, Article 93 Further regulations specifies he must be at least 30 and go through a three years of specialised training within the courts. Since the judiciary is to be kept from influences of the executive and the legislator, all disciplinary matters of judges (as well as state prosecutors) are to be dealt with by the judiciary itself, in particular by the disciplinary chambers of the Supreme Administrative Court.Czech Republic. Supreme Administrative Court. "Disciplinary Chambers." Supreme Administrative Court. Nejvyšší správní soud ČR, 14 Aug. 2012. Web. 07 Dec. 2012 It does not help the reputation of judges, that around 1,000 of them have been members of the pre-1989 Communist Party, according to a list published by the Ministry of Justice. In the socialist legal system, law and judges were tools of the state, dedicated to punishment of its enemies. === Public prosecutor === The only body capable of bringing a criminal court action is the state prosecutor. The State Prosecutors' Bureau () is part of the Ministry of Justice. === Advocate === All legally educated persons providing legal representation in court (and giving advice and other services) are called . To be allowed to legally practise law in the Czech Republic, an advocate must first obtain a master's degree from a faculty of law, a prospective advocate must complete 3 years of professional training crowned by passing the bar examination. He must then become a member of the Czech Bar Association (). Members of equivalent bodies in other EU member states are also allowed."Welcome at the Czech Bar Association". Czech Bar Association, n.d. Web. 28 Dec. 2012. === Lay judge === Lay judges sit with a professional judge in the first instance of a non-specialized trial. They are appointed by local councils; by municipal councils () in district courts, and by regional councils () in regional courts. The whole institution is a bit of a leftover of the communist idea of popularization of justice. == Law == '' The Czech Republic has a legal system of the continental type, rooted in Germanic legal culture. The main source of law is written legislature. Its main areas are systematically codified, mainly in Civil Code and Criminal Code. The form of court proceeding is prescribed in the Codes of Criminal, Civil and Administrative Procedure. The legal force of different Czech legal sources is hierarchical. === Procedure === Court proceedings are oral and public, with exceptions stated by law (juvenile justice etc.). The procedure is based on inquisitorial system with features of the adversarial system. There is no jury. For criminal procedure, the chief regulation is Act No. 141/1961 Coll., the Code of Criminal Procedure. In the chapter on preparatory procedure it sets out the role of the bodies involved in criminal proceedings (, namely the police, the public prosecutor and the court) while preparing the prosecution, such as interviewing the witnesses and gathering evidence. The chapter on court proceedings sets out procedures for criminal charge, trial, and appeal process. Although in force since 1961, the code has been amended many times since 1989, adding radically new features, such as plea bargaining (in 2012). In Act No. 218/2003 Coll., on Juvenile Criminal Procedure, separate procedure has been introduced for minors. The civil procedure is governed by a number of statutes, most importantly Act. No. 99/1963 Coll., the Code of Civil Procedure. Administrative justice, deals with claims of natural and legal persons, who seek protection from illegal decisions or action of public authorities. While in many respects similar to civil procedure, the administrative court procedure is different in that the defendant here is not an entity of private law, but a public body. Not being a legal person, such a public body could not be sued otherwise. Administrative matters are usually adjudicated by regional courts, and follow the procedure set out in Act. No. 150/2002, the Code of Administrative Procedure.Official translation available, translated as the Code of Administrative Justice zákon č. 150/2002 Sb., soudní řád správní === Pardon and amnesty === Czech president is endowed by the Constitution with extrajudicial power of interfering in criminal proceedings, before, during and after the trial. He can "pardon and mitigate penalties imposed by the court, order not to initiate criminal proceedings and suspend them if they are already initiated, and expunge sentences" (as if they never happened).Constitution, Art. 62 When he does so en masse, this is called amnesty. This prerogative had been used several times by Václav Havel in order to stress the discontinuity with pre-1989 socialist regime. In 2013 Václav Klaus gave amnesty to about a third of prisoners disillusioning the public and attracting criticism from many, including senior judges. In the heart of the controversy appeared stopping of serious fraud cases, when the court proceedings had dragged on for more than eight years. Defending the step, Klaus mentioned the critique by the EU for lengthy court proceedings. His critics, on the other hand, argued that he needlessly interrupted delivering of justice in difficult, high-profile cases of serious financial crime, rouge privatisation and corruption. The Senate took a court action against the president, alleging high treason at the Constitutional Court. However, the Constitutional Court rejected the treason charges on the grounds that Klaus could not be charged with constitutional violations - given the fact that the charges came on the eve of the end of Klaus's term. == Analysis and criticism == === Access to justice === The report of European Union Agency for Fundamental RightsAccess to justice in Europe: an overview of challenges and opportunities. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. doi: 10.2811/171 criticizes the Czech Republic mainly for costs and length of legal proceedings, which is a long-term and endemic problem. It says: "In the Czech Republic, for example, where a considerable length of proceedings is suggested to be de-motivating for victims of discrimination, the average duration of civil proceedings can take several years in one region, yet only a few months in another." It is also said to be the most frequent problem across the EU. Other issues mentioned are that legal aid is not quite sufficient (a new law is being prepared) as well as an imperfect Antidiscrimination Act, which, among other things, stipulates reverse burden of proof in antidiscrimination cases. Amnesty International's reports on the state of human rights repeatedly bring up the discrimination against Roma, especially in education.Czech Republic. Amnesty International Annual Report 2011. 31 Dec. 2012 == See also == * Czech law * Czech law schools * Doctor of Law in the Czech Republic * Law enforcement in the Czech Republic * Ombudsman in the Czech Republic * Politics of the Czech Republic == References == == Further reading == ; Statutes (in English) * ústavní zákon č. 1/1993 Sb. Ústava České republiky * Resolution no. 2/1993 Coll. of the Presidium of the Czech National Council of 16 December 1992 on the declaration of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms as a part of the constitutional order of the Czech Republicusnesení č. 2/1993 Sb. Předsednictva České národní rady o vyhlášení LISTINY ZÁKLADNÍCH PRÁV A SVOBOD jako součásti ústavního pořádku České republiky ; Statutes (in Czech) == External links == * Finding competent courts, on the pages of European Judicial Atlas in Civil Matters of the European Commission. * Přehled soudů published by the Ministry of Justice. A complete list of Czech courts, their addresses, content details and much more. * Search of lawyers and legal trainees, a registry of the Czech Bar Association.
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Tobacco smoking has serious negative effects on the body. A wide variety of diseases and medical phenomena affect the sexes differently, and the same holds true for the effects of tobacco. Since the proliferation of tobacco, many cultures have viewed smoking as a masculine vice, and as such the majority of research into the specific differences between men and women with regards to the effects of tobacco have only been studied in-depth in recent years. == Countries and regions == 300px|right|thumb|Female smoking by country === Egypt === === Gaza === ==== Religious bans on female smoking ==== In 2010 the Hamas-led Islamist government of Gaza imposed a ban on women smoking the popular nargilas in public. A spokesman for the Interior Ministry explained that "It is inappropriate for a woman to sit cross-legged and smoke in public. It harms the image of our people."Gaza ban on women smoking pipes, Reuters, 19 July 2010, The Independent. The ban was soon lifted later that year and women returned to smoking in popular venues like the cafe of Gaza's Crazy Water Park."Edict lifted for female smokers" Jason Koutsoukis, July 29, 2010, The Sunday Morning Herald. The park was burned down by masked men in September 2010, after being closed by the Hamas.Gunmen torch Gaza beach club shuttered by Hamas, AFP 19-09-2010 The Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Gaza Strip) has arrested women for smoking in public.Jonathan Spyer, Analysis: The Islamic republic of Gaza, Jerusalem Post 29-09-2009 === Japan === In Edo period or earlier than it, tobacco had come to Japan. were the main smokers among Japanese women by the early 19th century. === North Korea === === Syria === === United States === thumb|1900 cigarette ad; targeting women is not a new strategy The cigarette industry began a propaganda campaign geared toward women beginning in the 1920s in the United States. These campaigns became more aggressive as time has progressed and marketing in general became more prominent. The practice of marketing aimed exclusively at women has continued into the present day and has now expanded globally. With gender-targeted marketing, including packaging and slogans (especially "slimmer" and "lighter" cigarettes), and promotion of women smoking in movies and popular TV shows, the tobacco industry was able to increase the percent of women smoking. In the 1980s, tobacco industries were made to have the surgeon general's warning printed on each packaging of the tobacco products. This slowed the rate of women smoking but later it slightly increased after the advertisements started to look more present day and have more appealing packaging, that appealed to the younger generation. In more recent times, cigarette smoking has been banned from public places and this has decreased smoking rates in the United States. ==== Pre-1920s ==== In January 1908, the New York City Board of Aldermen unanimously passed the Sullivan Ordinance; it prohibited smoking by women in public places.Brandt, Allan M. (2007). The Cigarette Century. New York: Basic Books, page 57. The mayor at the time, George B. McClellan Jr., vetoed the ordinance in February. There were many other such laws and rules. In 1911, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act divided the American Tobacco Trust into several different companies, making market share critical to each company's survival. The resulting competition spurred innovations in both product and marketing, and eventually progressed to the idea of brands. By 1915, Reynolds' Camel had become the first truly national brand. Soon to follow were Liggett & Myers' Chesterfield and the American Tobacco Company's Lucky Strike. These brands were modern and appealed to the modern sensibilities that were taking over the people of the United States at the time.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, pp. 54–55 ==== 1920s–1940s ==== In the early part of the 20th century, the anti-tobacco movement was aimed primarily at women and children. Smoking was considered a dirty habit and smoking by women was seriously frowned upon by society. As the century progressed so did women's desire for equality.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, pp. 57–59 The suffrage movement gave many women a sense of entitlement and freedom and the tobacco industry took advantage of the marketing opportunity. "Torches of Freedom" was a phrase used to encourage women's smoking by exploiting women's aspirations for a better life during the early twentieth century first-wave feminism in the United States. The term was first used by psychoanalyst A. A. Brill when describing the natural desire for women to smoke and was used by Edward Bernays to encourage women to smoke in public despite social taboos. Cigarettes were described as symbols of emancipation and equality with men. Tobacco companies began marketing cigarettes to appeal to women during the burgeoning women's movement of the 1920s. The American Tobacco Company began targeting women with its ads for Lucky Strikes. They employed ads featuring prominent women, such as Amelia Earhart, and promised slimming effects. Most of the ads also conveyed a carefree and confident image of women that would appeal to the modern woman of the 1920s. The ads grew more extravagant with paid celebrity testimonials and far-reaching claims of how Lucky Strikes could improve their lives. Their most aggressive campaign directly challenged the candy industry by urging women to "reach for a Lucky instead of a sweet". These aggressive campaigns paid off, making Lucky Strike the most smoked brand within a decade.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, pp. 70–73 Other companies followed the successful ad campaigns of the American Tobacco Company with their own versions. The Phillip Morris Company introduced Marlboro cigarettes in 1925. Marlboros were advertised as being as "mild as May" and featured elegant ivory tips that appealed to women. Other brands offered similar ads appealing to a woman's sense of beauty and style and made cigarettes an alluring part of many women's lives. Fear of weight gain remains a chief reason women continue to smoke. The ad campaigns successfully promoted cigarettes as a product possessing specific qualities including equality, autonomy, glamour, and beauty.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, pp. 71–78 In 1929 Edward Bernays decided to pay women to smoke their "torches of freedom" as they walked in the Easter Sunday Parade in New York. This was a shock because until that time, women were only permitted to smoke in certain places such as in the privacy of their own homes. He was very careful when picking women to march because, "while they should be good looking, they should not look too model-y", and he hired his own photographers to make sure that good pictures were taken and then published around the world. Ruth Hale called for women to join in the march saying, "Women! Light another torch of freedom! Fight another sex taboo!"Brandt, Allan M. (2007). The Cigarette Century. New York: Basic Books, pp. 84-85. Once the footage was released, the women's walk was seen as a protest for equality and sparked discussion throughout the nation. The targeting of women in tobacco advertising led to higher rates of smoking among women. In 1923 women only purchased 5% of cigarettes sold; in 1929 that percentage increased to 12%, in 1935 to 18.1%, peaking in 1965 at 33.3%, and remaining at this level until 1977. In 1934, Edward Bernays was asked to deal with women's apparent reluctance to buy Lucky Strikes because their green and red package clashed with standard female fashions. When Bernays suggested changing the package to a neutral color, George Washington Hill, head of the American Tobacco Company, refused, saying that he had already spent millions advertising the package. Bernays then endeavored to make green a fashionable color.Larry Tye, The Father of Spin (1999), p. 35-38. The centerpiece of his efforts was the Green Ball, a social event at the Waldorf Astoria, hosted by Narcissa Cox Vanderlip. The pretext for the ball and its unnamed underwriter was that proceeds would go to charity. Famous society women would attend wearing green dresses. Manufacturers and retailers of clothing and accessories were advised of the excitement growing around the color green. Intellectuals were enlisted to give highbrow talks on the theme of green. Before the ball had actually taken place, newspapers and magazines (encouraged in various ways by Bernays's office) had latched on to the idea that green was all the rage.Tye (1999), p. 39. "Vogelman signed up and invited fashion editors to the Waldorf for a Green Fashions Fall Luncheon with, of course, green menus featuring green beans, asparagus-tip salad, broiled French lamb chops with haricots verts and olivette potatoes, pistachio mousse glacé, green mints, and crème de menthe. The head of the Hunter College art department gave a talk entitled "Green in the Work of Great Artists," and a noted psychologist enlightened guests on the psychological implications of the color green. The press took note, with the New York Sun headline reading, "It looks like a Green Winter." The Post predicted a "Green Autumn," and one of the wire services wrote about "fall fashions stalking the forests for their color note, picking green as the modish fall wear." In a content analysis of North American and British editions of Vogue, Cheryl Krasnick Warsh and Penny Tinkler trace representations of women smokers from the 1920s through the 1960s, concluding that the magazine "located the cigarette within the culture of the feminine elite," associating it with "the constellation of behaviours and appearances presented as desirable characteristics of elitism, through the themes of lifestyle, 'the look', and feminine confidence". ==== 1950s–1970s ==== The late 1950s and early 1960s brought about a new onslaught of cigarette brands. Each new brand of cigarette introduced during this time advertised its unique benefits. The major new innovation in tobacco marketing was the filtered cigarette. Filters made cigarettes less harsh to smoke and offered the appearance of removing potentially harmful particles. The 1950s began the rebranding of Marlboros from an elite cigarette to an everyman's cigarette and also saw the introduction of strong Marlboro men, such as athletes, and more famously cowboys.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, pp.262–263 This change in Marlboro branding meant Philip Morris was lacking a cigarette aimed at women. The 1950s also began a boom in advertising for tobacco companies. Ads featuring prominent movie and television stars became commonplace and tobacco companies also began sponsoring television shows, game shows, and other widespread media. One of the most popular was Philip Morris's sponsorship of the I Love Lucy show. The opener featured the two stars of the show with a giant pack of Philip Morris cigarettes. The show Your Hit Parade was proudly sponsored by American Tobacco's Lucky Strike brand. In 1965, it was reported that 33.9% of women were smoking. Virginia Slims came on the market in 1968, and used the catch phrase "You’ve come a long way baby." This was the first cigarette to be marketed solely as a woman's cigarette. The cigarettes were longer, slimmer, and overall more elegant and feminine. The ads depicted photos of glamorous women set against photos of women doing mundane tasks such as laundry or housework.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, p. 325 1970 saw the release of Liggett & Myers Tobacco Company's entry into women specific cigarettes, Eve. Eve cigarettes were decidedly more feminine than Virginia Slims. Eve featured flowers or other feminine motifs on both the packaging and the cigarette themselves. The 1970s ushered in the end of television advertising and the beginning of print ads carrying health warnings regarding the dangers of smoking. The 1970s also brought nearly annual reports from the Surgeon General's office regarding the health consequences of smoking. In 1970, a reported 31.5% of women were smokers. Tobacco companies were barred from advertising on television, but smartly moved the market focus to sponsoring sporting and entertainment events. In 1973, a widely publicized tennis match dubbed "The Battle of the Sexes" featured Billie Jean King, a long-time spokesperson for Virginia Slims, bedecked in the brand's sequins and colors. American was tennis wild in the 1970s and Billie Jean King was a superstar. Virginia Slims sponsored the Women's Tennis Association Tour for close to twenty years. The 1970s ended with filtered cigarettes almost completely overtaking the market. ==== 1980s-2010s ==== The 1980s began with the first Surgeon General's Report on the Health Consequences of Smoking for Women. This report—published nearly 15 years after the original 1964 Surgeon General's Report—came nearly sixty years after tobacco companies began marketing their products to women. The smoking rate of women in 1980 was at 29.3%. In 1987, Brown & Williamson introduced the Capri cigarette, which following suit with other feminine cigarettes was a long, slim, elegant cigarette geared toward feminine hands. 1990 saw the women's smoking rate at 22.8%, continuing its slow decline. The Virginia Slims tennis tour came to an end in 1994, after 23 successful years. This was just one of many broad spectrum advertising methods that ended in the 1980s and 1990s as public sentiments regarding smoking began their shift. The 1990s were marked by continued restrictions on smoking in public and workplaces. The late 1980s and 1990s were also marked by increased marketing to teenagers and young adults. Many of the same marketing strategies used with women were used with this target group. By 1998, the women's smoking rate had dropped to 22%. 1998 also marked the year of the Master Settlement Agreement. The beginning of the 21st century saw women smoking at a rate of 22.8%, which was a slight increase compared to the previous decade. Advertising and marketing remained static after the 1998 Settlement Agreement. Advertising campaigns looked to present more modern and cutting-edge packaging and language, appealing to a younger and hipper demographic. In 2001, the most recent Surgeon General's Report in regards to women and smoking was released. RJ Reynolds entered the women's market in 2007, with its Camel No. 9 cigarette. The packaging is very contemporary in feel, and very feminine at the same time. It features pink edging as a distinct contrast on the black packaging and the interior of the package is lined in pink foil. The cigarettes are sold in light and menthol light varieties, with the latter featuring a teal highlight and foil, instead of the pink of the regular lights. The first decade of this century has also been marked by mass smoking regulations. A multitude of cities, municipalities, and states passed legislations prohibiting smoking in public places, such as bars, restaurants, and an assortment of other public venues. This is a growing phenomenon, which aided in reducing smoking rates in the United States. The overall smoking rate in the United States dropped from approximately 46% in 1950 to approximately 21% in 2004."Cigarette Smoking Among Adults—United States, 2004", Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report 54, no. 44 (2005). Smoking rates continued to slowly decline throughout the 2000s and 2010s. By 2017 the percentage of current smokers had fallen to 14.0% and the proportion of ex-smokers increased, these rates remained at a stand-still throughout the end of the decade. Compared to their male peers women were significantly less likely smoke; while 15.3% of men still smoked, only 12.7% of women were current smokers. ==== 2020s and onward ==== == General health effects == According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States and produces substantial health-related economic costs to society."Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Economic Costs – United States, 1995—1999", MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51, no. 14 (April 12, 2002): 300-3 During the time between 1995 and 1999, smoking resulted in approximately 440,000 premature deaths per year and about $157 billion in "health-related economic losses". Smoking has been known to increase to the risks of, and has been linked to, a plethora of adverse health effects. For instance, "Cigarette smoking accounts for about one-third of all cancers, including 90 percent of lung cancer cases. [Smoking also] causes lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema, [and can] increase the risk of heart disease, including stroke, heart attack, vascular disease, and aneurysm."Institute on Drug Abuse, "Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products", June 2009, http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/infofacts/Tobacco09.pdf According to the Surgeon General's Report of 2004, titled "The Health Consequences of Smoking", other consequences of smoking include increased risk of cataracts, lowered levels of antioxidants, especially vitamin C, heightened inflammation, and periodontitis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2004 == Unique gender differences and health effects for women == In the United States, although general rates of smoking are declining – "24.1% in 1998 to 20.6% in 2008",Cigarette Smoking Among Adults and Trends in Smoking Cessation – United States, 2008 and there are higher rates among men – the gendered health consequences illustrate that women are at a greater disadvantage. "In 2008, smoking prevalence was higher among men (23%) than women (18.3%)"; however that gender gap appears to be narrowing. Prior to recent increasing smoking rates, women usually experienced different effects of smoking compared to men. For instance, a decrease in lifetime expectancy is greater for female smokers compared to male smokers. On average, while an adult male loses 13.2 years due to smoking, an adult female smoker loses 14.5 years of life."Annual Smoking-Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Economic Costs – United States, 1995—1999". This decreased life expectancy for male smokers mirrors the gender differences in life expectancy overall. However, when it comes to smokers in particular, males tend to smoke more heavily than women do.National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. Women under the Influence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. Yet still women continue to show more deleterious results. As previously mentioned, smoking is attributable to the majority of lung cancer cases. Over the years lung cancer mortality has dramatically increased among women. "In 1987, lung cancer surpassed breast cancer to become the leading cause of cancer death among U.S. women."CDC. "Highlights: Health Consequences of Tobacco Use Among Women. Smoking now accounts for 80% of lung cancer deaths among women. Although there has been a more pronounced campaign to raise funds for breast cancer research and a possible cure, more women are dying from lung cancer. Research also continues to question whether women tend to be more susceptible to lung cancer, regardless of similar exposure as their male counterparts. However, making a definitive answer has been difficult, and the issue remains controversial.Freedman, N. D., et al., "Cigarette smoking and subsequent risk of lung cancer in men and women: analysis of a prospective cohort study", Lancet Oncology 9, no.7 (Jul 2008): 649-56 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is another major issue among women who smoke. The risk of having COPD is increased with amount and duration and smoking accounts for 90 percent of COPD mortalities.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2001 The effects of smoking on cardiovascular health also shows sex differences. Heart diseases continue to be the leading cause of death nationwide,CDC. "Deaths and Mortality" < https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/deaths.htm> and one of the risk factors is smoking. Unique to women, smoking lowers their estrogen and their high-density lipoproteins that prevent arteries from blockage.Rosenfield, L. E., "Women and Heart Disease" For many women the effects of smoking on the heart's health become obvious later on in life. Among current female smokers, "the chance of dying from heart disease or lung cancer exceeds the chance of dying from breast cancer from 40 on (and does so by at least a factor of 5 after age 55)."Woloshin, S., et al., "The risk of death by age, sex, and smoking status in the United States: Putting health risks in context", Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 100, no. 12 (2008): 845-53 The habit becomes particularly crucial when women are also taking birth control because these two in concert increases, even more so, women's chances of having a stroke or a heart attack.Harvard Medical School. "His and hers heart disease", Harvard Health Letter 34, no. 11 (2009): 1 When observing older women, those who smoke in their postmenopausal stages tend to have a lower bone density along with more hip fractures when compared to their non-smoker counterparts.Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General For the younger cohort of women, during their reproductive stages, smoking affects their reproductive health as well as pregnancy outcomes. Research has revealed that smoking makes it more difficult for women to conceive and it can also result in infertility. Women who smoke while they are pregnant increase their chances of having an early delivery and low-birth weight babies.American Cancer Society. "Women and Smoking" One of the many serious effects on the fetus itself is sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Studies have shown that "infants of mothers who smoke during and after pregnancy are 3 to 4 times more likely to die from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) than babies to non-smoking mothers". Smoking during pregnancy could also cause stillbirth, preterm birth, placental abruption. == The future: women, smoking, and globalization == As smoking levels decline in the developed world they are increasing in the developing world. The major cigarette manufacturers have more than tripled the number of cigarettes exported in the last 35 years.Brandt, Allan M. 2007. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York: Basic Books, p. 450. Tobacco companies are using similar strategies to attract women in other countries that they used in the early days of attracting American women. Offering appealing ads that depict cigarettes as modern, empowering, and liberating draws in women smokers who make every effort to be as western as possible.Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78 (7) p. 893 The smoking bans occurring in the United States are happening around the globe. In other countries (as in the United States), tobacco manufacturers circumvent advertising restrictions by sponsoring events, retail endorsements, and advertising in alternative markets such as satellite television channels. These methods have proven quite successful for the tobacco industry. Overwhelmingly, in the global market the trends point toward the market becoming increasingly female in the future.Drug and Alcohol Dependence Volume 104, Supplement 1, 1 October 2009, Pages S11–S16 ===Delving deeper: Women, smoking and globalization=== When discussing smoking among women it is crucial to also take into account the fact that smoking, and tobacco use in general, is a global issue that is not confined to the borders of the Western world. The World Health Organization (WHO) notes the stark difference between women in various geographic locations as it states that "[a]bout 22 percent of women in developed countries and 9 percent of women in developing countries smoke tobacco".World Health Organization. "Female Smoking" However, numerically the number of women could be more in developing countries.Mackay, J. and Amanda Amos. "Women and Tobacco", Respirology 8 (2003):123-130 In his article, Fred C. Pampel looks into why these differences may exist and suggests reasons pertaining to gender equality, cigarette diffusion, economic factors and smoking policies.Pampel, F. C. "Global Patterns and Determinants of Sex Differences in Smoking", International Journal of Comparative Sociology 47, no. 6 (2006):466-87. For women in countries where traditional gender roles have changed, it becomes more socially acceptable for women to initiate smoking. However, this evidence should not hinder a deeper look into the smoking among women in developed countries. Though the rates of smoking among people in developed countries are on a slow decline, smoking rates among middle and low-income countries are increasing. This particularly affects women within developing regions because they are most at risk when male cigarette use is high. About 70% of tobacco users live in developing countries, and about half of the men in these countries are smokers.Doskoch, P. "Many Pregnant Women Use Tobacco in Some Developing Countries" International Family Planning Perspective 34, no. 4 (December 2008): 199-200 Although women are not mainly the ones to smoke, they are still exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). When among men who smoke, the risks of passive smoking increase for women whether they are at home or at work. Smoking and second-hand smoke not only affects the female body but has detrimental results on the health of their children. This issue is compounded in developing nations that may already have limited medical care for women. A study that focused on pregnant women in a few Latin American and African countries, India and Pakistan showed that "[w]omen in Latin America had the highest level of tobacco use." The probability of living with a tobacco user was also high in Latin America but highest in Asia. Argentina and Uruguay had the highest percentages of women who were once regular smokers, who had smoked during their current pregnancy and who thought it was acceptable for women to smoke. One-fifth of the world's largest tobacco producers are in the Latin American region, which includes Argentina and Brazil.Müller, F. and Luis Wehbe. "Smoking and smoking cessation in Latin America: a review of the current situation and available treatments", International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 3, no. 2 (June 2008): 285-293. With such increased production in these countries, the prices of cigarettes are significantly lowered. In these two latter countries, a pack of premium cigarettes such as the Marlboro brand can cost between US$1 and US$1.99, rendering cigarettes more accessible and encouraging more consumption. This has serious implications for the population as whole. The smoking rates among women alone are also a point of concern. In Argentina, 22.6% of the women smoke, while in other countries such as Uruguay the percentage is 25.1 percent. As the rate of tobacco use among men is predicted to decrease, the rate among women is estimated to rise to 20% of the woman population by 2025. A major catalyst for this increase in smoking among women is globalization because it allows for the increase in the marketing of tobacco products to middle and low-income areas. In their efforts to expand their markets, multinational tobacco companies are paying particular attention to women. The advertisements tend to include words such as 'menthol', 'mild' and 'light,' and seek out women through "alluring marketing campaigns, linking smoking with emancipation and glamour". Consequently, the rates of tobacco use among women in regions such as Asia, Africa and Latin America have increased.Glynn, T. et al., "The Globalization of Tobacco Use: 21 Challenges for the 21st Century", CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 60, no. 1 (2010): 50-61. The lack of strict tobacco control policies in developing countries sets up an environment where little to no advertising restrictions and taxationAndrews, J. O. and J. Heath. "Women and the global tobacco epidemic: nurses call to action", International Nursing Review 50 (2003): 215-228 are in place to buffer the impending increase in smoking among women. What puts women in developing regions at an even greater disadvantage is the significant shift in tobacco production to their areas, where they are mainly involved in the harvesting. With all these influences, cessation can be very difficult for women. There has been research surrounding this topic among many developed nations in order to explore and find the most successful methods, even for women. Many of these studies have expressed that women who attempt to quit on their own "were less likely to quit initially or to remain abstinent at follow up". When speaking of women in developing countries, however, they would experience added barriers due to their low-income status. While women in the developed countries have cessation programs available, not many programs are available to women in developing countries. The latter group of women could significantly benefit from educational programs that teach of the adverse effects of smoking on their health as well as the health of their children. Although these programs may not be set in place in the various areas they are most needed, several organizations have made an effort to draw smoking among women to the public's attention. For instance, the World Health Organization (WHO) published The Tobacco Atlas which is helpful in showing the scope of the issue among women on a worldwide scale. This organization has also negotiated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control which is a treaty supported by 164 Parties and was done "in response to the globalization of the tobacco epidemic". This initiative has been particular about pointing out how women are also being affected. In sum, when looking at smoking among women beyond the boundaries of the Western world, the full scope of the issue comes into view. ==See also== *History of nicotine marketing *Nicotine marketing *Ovarian cancer ==References== ==External links== * WHO - Gender, women, and the tobacco epidemic * CDC - Women's Health - Topics A-Z - Smoking and Tobacco Category:Smoking Category:Women in society
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Iker Muniain Goñi (, ; born 19 December 1992) is a Spanish footballer who plays for Athletic Bilbao, where he is captain, mainly as a left winger. Due to his style of play and stature, he was dubbed "the Spanish Messi" by the media. He has spent all of his professional career with Athletic Bilbao after debuting in 2009 as their youngest player in a competitive match. He helped the team reach the final of the UEFA Europa League in 2012 as well as four Copa del Rey finals in nine years, though finished on the losing side each time; in 2022 he became the sixth player to make 500 appearances for the club. Muniain made 59 appearances for Spain at youth level, winning the European Under-21 Championship in 2011 and 2013. He also featured at the 2012 Olympics, in the same year as his senior Spain debut. He was selected again in 2019, gaining a second international cap seven years after the first. ==Club career== ===Precocious debut=== Born in Pamplona, Navarre, Muniain was a product of Basque giants Athletic Bilbao's youth ranks after joining at the age of 12. In January 2009, he made his debut for the reserve team Bilbao Athletic in the Segunda División B, aged 16 years and 16 days, and scored his first goal at that level 19 days later. Muniain made his first-team debut on 30 July 2009, in a UEFA Europa League qualifying match against BSC Young Boys: he entered the field as a 59th-minute substitute for Gaizka Toquero in an eventual 1–0 home defeat, thus becoming the youngest player in 94 years to wear Athletic's shirt in an official game at 16 years, 7 months and 11 days old, only behind Domingo Acedo who scored on his debut in 1914. One week later, in the return leg in Switzerland, he netted his first goal, in a 2–1 win that qualified for the playoff rounds; he again entered the club's record books as the joint-second-youngest player to find the net (16 years, 7 months and 18 days) in a competitive match – behind Acedo and level with Agustín Gaínza– and the youngest ever in a European match. Another record fell on 30 August 2009, as Muniain started in the 1–0 home victory over RCD Espanyol, 2009–10's opener, becoming the youngest player to have donned the club's shirt in La Liga (overtaking Patxi Ferreira). Two weeks later he scored again in European competition, 3–0 at home against FK Austria Wien, after a good team move involving Andoni Iraola and veteran Joseba Etxeberria. On 4 October 2009, Muniain became the youngest player to score in a first division match as he achieved that feat in a 2–2 draw at Real Valladolid, aged 16 years and 289 days– that record was surpassed by Málaga CF's Fabrice Olinga in August 2012. On 1 December he signed his first professional contract, running until June 2015. On the 6th, after nearly one month out due to injury, he returned to action, scoring as a 51st-minute substitute to give his team the lead, albeit in a 2–1 loss to Valencia CF. He set up both goals in the next game, a 2–1 win at Real Zaragoza, and finished his first senior season with 35 appearances and six goals across all competitions. ===2010s=== Muniain was an undisputed starter in the 2010–11 campaign, featuring as a left winger for the Joaquín Caparrós-led side. On 17 April 2011, he scored a last-minute goal in a 2–1 away defeat of CA Osasuna in his hometown; he was initially booked for taking his hand to his ear during his celebrations (before signing for Athletic he played for UDC Txantrea in Pamplona, and always considered Osasuna a rival organisation. He did clarify that, just because he had affection for a particular organisation, it did not mean he held any animosity towards any others) which meant a suspension for his fifth yellow card of the season, but it was later lifted. Now allowed to take part in the following matchday, the derby against Real Sociedad, he netted another in a 2–1 home victory. Muniain took part in 58 games overall in 2011–12, scoring on nine occasions as the Lions reached both the Europa League and the Copa del Rey finals. In early 2012, he was linked with a move away from Athletic, although a move never materialised as he did not push for a move with three years still left on his contract. He scored just once in 33 league appearances the following campaign, netting the only goal on 10 March 2013 in a home win over Valencia which eased doubts over a possible relegation battle. On 1 December 2013, Muniain was again the sole name on the scoresheet at the new San Mamés Stadium, to hand FC Barcelona their first league loss of that season. Eighteen days later, he celebrated his 21st birthday by grabbing a brace in a 4–0 domestic cup home victory against RC Celta de Vigo, which signified his team progressed through to the round of 16 4–1 on aggregate. In that period, media reports suggested that his progression as a footballer in his 20s had slowed after showing such high potential as a young teenager. ===Knee injuries=== On 4 April 2015, during a game against Sevilla FC, Muniain suffered the first serious injury of his career, being sidelined for several months with an anterior cruciate ligament ailment to his left knee– this meant he was unable to take any part in the year's Spanish Cup or Supercopa de España finals. After suffering some setbacks in his recovery process he returned to action on 20 December, replacing Iñaki Williams for the last minutes of a 2–0 home defeat of Levante UD. Muniain successfully regained his first-team place in December 2015 and made 86 further appearances between then and 28 September 2017, when he suffered another serious ACL injury (this time to his right knee) in the closing stages of a Europa League fixture at home to FC Zorya Luhansk, potentially ending his season. After an absence of just over six months, he returned to action as a substitute in a domestic league match against Villarreal CF on 9 April 2018, scoring his side's third in a 3–1 away win. Muniain signed a new deal with Athletic Bilbao in November 2018 to run until summer 2024, as his link was set to expire; unusually, it did not include any buyout clause. He said: "I didn’t want a release clause because I do not want to have a price or be for sale. I want to go hand in hand with Athletic to the end... I want to be here for the rest of my career helping the club achieve nice things." Following the departures of Ander Iturraspe and Markel Susaeta in summer 2019 he was appointed as the club captain, and also reached the milestone of ten years with the first team. ===2020s=== On 19 January 2020, Muniain became the 18th player in Athletic's history to play 400 official games, against Celta. In July of that year, his 420th match set the club record for a player from Navarre, surpassing Ismael Urzaiz. On 8 November, he made his 430th appearance to enter its top 10 (equalling Julen Guerrero's total) at the age of 27. In early 2021, with the team playing a more attacking style under new coach Marcelino García Toral, Muniain recorded eight assists in three competitions between 17 January and 15 February (bettering his total for some entire seasons previously), including two in the Spanish Supercup final as his team won the trophy. During April of that year he took the field in the 2020 (delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic) and 2021 Spanish Cup finals, both played in an empty Estadio de la Cartuja – the same venue as the Supercup win – due to the pandemic restrictions. Athletic lost the first match 1–0 to Real Sociedad, with Muniain breaking a footballing superstition before kick-off by touching the trophy (considered to be 'bad luck') but praised for his sportsmanship for staying on the pitch after the final whistle to applaud the winners. A pre-match injury doubt for the second final two weeks later, he stated to the press "Cups and trophies are not won or lost because one touches it or not. They are won on the pitch, and that is the only reality", but this time it was noted he kept his hands well away from the prize; nevertheless his team were defeated 4–0 by Barcelona and he was withdrawn at half-time with the score at 0–0 and did not feature again that season, missing the last eight league fixtures. On 31 October 2021, Muniain scored a late equaliser in the Basque derby via a free kick and was again conspicuous for his sportsmanship in consoling the opposing goalkeeper Álex Remiro, a former Athletic player whose error had contributed to the goal. In February 2022, it was assessed that he had created 60 scoring chances in that league campaign and 72 in all competitions, the most by any player by both counts. Muniain made his 500th appearance for Athletic on the first matchday of 2022–23 against RCD Mallorca, reaching the milestone at a younger age than the five other players to do so. He was honoured in a reception after that match, and was presented with a momento by two of those men – José Ángel Iribar and Susaeta – on the pitch before the next fixture against Valencia six days later. ==International career== On 8 February 2011, at the age of only 18, Muniain made his debut with the Spain under-21 team in a match against Denmark, replacing Adrián López. Subsequently, he was selected by manager Luis Milla to the squad that appeared in the 2011 UEFA European Championship, appearing in all the games as the nation won its third title in the category and qualified to the 2012 Summer Olympics. On 24 February 2012, Muniain was called up to the senior side for the first time, for a friendly with Venezuela. Five days later, he came on for Cesc Fàbregas in the 74th minute of the 5–0 win in Málaga. Later that year, at the Summer Olympic Games in London, he made two appearances as Spain exited in the group stage without scoring a goal. Muniain earned 31 caps for the under-21s, which was a national record for three years before being surpassed by Gerard Deulofeu. In 2019, after showing fine form for his club, he was selected in the senior squad for two UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying matches; he played his second match more than seven years after the first, as well as his competitive debut, as a substitute in a 2–0 victory over Malta on 26 March. Muniain also featured for the unofficial Basque Country regional team. ==Personal life== Muniain has two older cousins who are also footballers, were both Athletic youth players and were briefly his teammates at Bilbao Athletic. Adrien Goñi, a midfielder, made a handful of first-team appearances before embarking on a career in the Spanish third division. Winger Julen Goñi eventually moved to Barakaldo CF also in that tier, but departed when they were relegated and did not find another club at that level. Muniain's son was born in February 2015, with the player announcing his girlfriend's pregnancy in August 2014 by gesturing while celebrating his goal against S.S.C. Napoli in the play-off of the UEFA Champions League. He is an admirer of Sergio Agüero, and named his pet Labrador Kun after the Argentina international; Muniain's own nickname, Bart Simpson, was given to him by Fernando Amorebieta due to his mischievous personality as well as his diminutive stature and fair hair. Having vowed to have the Europa League trophy tattooed on his body if Athletic Bilbao won the 2012 final, which did not happen, Muniain did have the Supercopa de España trophy 'inked' on his leg in 2015 following the team's victory (albeit he took no part in the matches due to injury). Another tattoo on the rear of his neck, XIX, (19 in Roman numerals) refers to his birth date and that of his brother, and was his original Athletic squad number for several seasons although he wore 27 as a promoted youth player in his breakthrough campaign, and in 2016 changed to the traditional playmaker's number 10. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League Copa del Rey Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Bilbao Athletic 2008–09 Segunda División B 13 1 – – – 13 1 2009–10 6 2 – – – 6 2 Total 19 3 – – – 19 3 Athletic Bilbao 2009–10 La Liga 26 4 0 0 9 2 0 0 35 6 2010–11 35 5 3 0 – – 38 5 2011–12 33 2 9 2 16 5 – 58 9 2012–13 33 1 2 0 8 1 – 43 2 2013–14 35 7 4 2 – – 39 9 2014–15 25 1 7 0 9 1 – 41 2 2015–16 20 2 3 0 5 0 0 0 28 2 2016–17 35 7 3 0 8 0 – 46 7 2017–18 14 4 0 0 6 1 – 20 5 2018–19 34 7 3 0 – – 37 7 2019–20 31 5 7 1 – – 38 6 2020–21 28 5 5 0 – 2 0 35 5 2021–22 35 4 4 2 – 2 0 41 6 2022–23 30 0 6 2 – – 36 2 Total 414 54 56 9 61 10 4 0 535 73 Career total 433 57 56 9 61 10 4 0 554 76 ===International=== Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals Spain 2012 1 0 2019 1 0 Total 2 0 ==Honours== Athletic Bilbao *Supercopa de España: 2020–21 *Copa del Rey runner-up: 2011–12, 2014–15, 2019–20, 2020–21 *UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2011–12 Spain U21 *UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2011, 2013 Spain U19 *UEFA European Under-19 Championship runner-up: 2010 Spain U17 *FIFA U-17 World Cup third place: 2009 Individual *La Liga Breakthrough Player of the Year: 2010–11 *European Golden Boy: shortlisted 2010, 2011, 2012 *La Liga Team of the Season: 2021–22 ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * * Category:1992 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Pamplona Category:Spanish footballers Category:Men's association football wingers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:La Liga players Category:Segunda División B players Category:Athletic Bilbao B footballers Category:Athletic Bilbao footballers Category:Spain men's youth international footballers Category:Spain men's under-21 international footballers Category:Spain men's under-23 international footballers Category:Spain men's international footballers Category:Olympic footballers for Spain Category:Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics Category:Basque Country men's international footballers
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The history of Covington, Kentucky began in 1815, with the city's founding. thumb|right|500px|Skyline of Covington Kentucky ==Founding== In 1814, John Gano, Richard Gano, and Thomas Carneal purchased on the west side of the Licking River at its confluence with the Ohio River, referred to as "the Point," from Thomas Kennedy for $50,000. The men named their new riverfront enterprise the "Covington Company," in honor of their friend, Gen. Leonard Covington, an American officer who once trained troops in the area and was killed in the War of 1812 at Crysler's Farm. The investors prepared a plat for the new city that was approximately five blocks wide by five blocks deep. The platted streets lined up with the streets of Cincinnati across the Ohio River, symbolically tying the future of the fledgling city to its larger neighbor to the north. The first five streets, running north to south, were named for Kentucky's first five governors: Shelby, Garrard, Greenup, Scott, and Madison. In February 1815, the Kentucky General Assembly incorporated the land as the town of Covington. At the time of its incorporation, Covington and all of today's Kenton County was a part of Campbell County. Shortly after its incorporation, the investors began selling lots in the new city for $385 a lot. However, for the next 15 years, lot sales were slow and disappointing. By 1830, the young city had a population of only 715 and lot prices were selling for half their value in 1815. Image:Licking Riverside Mansion1.jpg| Image:Licking Riverside Mansion2.jpg| Image:Licking Riverside Mansion4.jpg| ==Housing and population growth== After 1830, in large part because of the influx of German immigrants, Covington's population began to grow significantly, creating a number of distinct and diverse neighborhoods within the city. This growth was recognized by the Kentucky legislature, which, in February 1834, incorporated the town as a city. By 1840, the population in the city increased to 2,026, which included eleven free blacks and 89 slaves. ===Mutter Gottes/Old Town and Mainstrasse=== This population resided not only within the established boundaries of the city but outside, causing the city to undertake its first annexation, which extended the city to Main Street to the west and 12th Street to the south. This annexation brought the neighborhoods now known as Mutter Gottes/Old Town and Mainstrasse. Fueled in part by the European revolutions of the mid-19th century, many Europeans, particularly Germans, immigrated to Covington. At this time, the primary commercial district and gathering place was on Main Street near Sixth Street, the area now known as "Mainstrasse." Sixth Street was laid out with a wide width that allowed the city, in 1861, to establish a public market in the center of the street with traffic lanes on either side. The nearby Mutter Gottes Kirche (Mother of God Church), built in 1871, was the center of another German- speaking neighborhood. ===Old Seminary Square and Westside=== At the same time the western area of the city was growing, development began to stretch to the south. In the late 1830s, the Western Baptist Education Society purchased , which would define the city's southern boundary in 1841. On this tract, the organization established a seminary and set aside for a cemetery, which in 1843 would become known as Linden Grove Cemetery, the final resting place for several Civil War soldiers. To raise money to build its campus, the Baptists entered into the real estate market, subdividing the land and selling lots around its campus and cemetery. Many graves were left untouched as the building of structures progressed into an area now known as Old Seminary Square, Mainstrasse Village and the Westside. In 1843, the city annexed most of the Society's subdivisions, which expanded the city's boundaries to 15th Street. Within two years of opening the Western Baptist Theological Institute on Russell Street in 1845, the trustees of the organization became embroiled over the slavery issue. This ultimately ended with the dissolution of the institute in 1853 and the division of the property between the opposing factions. At the same time, the tracks for the Covington and Lexington Railroad were laid in the area, bisecting the college campus. Fifteen years later, the original St. Elizabeth Hospital moved into one of the old college buildings, where it operated from 1868 to 1911. ===Austinburg and Lewisburg=== At the same time that the Society was developing its property, Seneca Austin and his wife purchased and started developing along the Licking River from approximately 16th Street to 20th Street, creating the neighborhood we now call Austinburg. In 1851, the city annexed all of the Austins' land to Wallace Avenue as well as the western neighborhood now known as Lewisburg. Both communities were settled by largely German contingents, who established churches and parishes as focal points in their communities: St. Benedict's Catholic Church and parish in Austinburg, and St. John's the Evangelist Catholic Church and parish in Lewisburg. Image:St. Benedict's Church2.jpg|Facade of St. Benedict's Catholic Church by Br. Paul Byrd, OP Image:A Snow Storm over Austingburg, Covington, KY.jpg|A snow storm in Austinburg, looking east toward the Licking River. ===Wallace Woods and Levassor Park=== Immediately south of Austinburg were three large estates owned Robert Wallace, Daniel Holmes, and Eugene Levassor, all of whom were successful merchants. In 1867, on that he had acquired next to the Wallace and Levassor estates, Holmes constructed a 32-room redbrick English-Gothic "castle," which was called Holmesdale. After Holmes died and his wife and children had returned to their native New Orleans, the family sold the mansion and to the Covington Board of Education in 1915. The mansion served as the Covington High School until 1936, when the structure was razed and a new high school was constructed. This building and five others now occupy the former estate grounds as part of the Holmes High School campus. In the 1890s, the Wallace and Levassor estates on either side of the Holmes estate were developed, creating upscale neighborhoods at the end of the streetcar line. Many stately homes were constructed on large lots in these neighborhoods. ===Peaselburg=== Just west of Wallace Woods and the railroad tracks, a German, working-class neighborhood developed in the latter years of the 19th century. This community was known by its inhabitants as "Peaselburg." In 1880, the community incorporated as an independent municipality and changed its name to Central Covington. In 1894, the Wallace Woods heirs agreed to be annexed by far less wealthy Central Covington because its tax rates were substantially lower than those assessed by the City of Covington. The next year, Covington attempted to annex Central Covington, but support for the effort did not materialize. However, a decade later, many Central Covington businesses and homes were flooded by the eruption of a major sewer line. Covington offered to help the smaller municipality but only if the residents agreed to annexation, which occurred in 1907. Thus, Central Covington (and indirectly Wallace Woods) became a part of Covington. Six years later, St. Augustine Catholic Church was constructed on 19th Street, serving as this neighborhood's focal point and community gathering place. ===Latonia and Rosedale=== In 1882, a group of investors formed the Latonia Agricultural and Stock Association to create a horseracing track south of Covington. Purchasing more than north of Banklick Creek in an area then known as Milldale, and using the name of the nearby resort of Latonia Springs, the investors renamed this area Latonia. The track opened in June 1883, but it wasn't until 1890 that Kenton County granted the Covington electric streetcar company the right to lay tracks from the Covington city boundary to this area of the county. In 1896, a portion of this area was incorporated as the city of Latonia, with a starting population of about 1,500. Adjacent to Latonia to the south was a community known as Rosedale, which was actually a part of Latonia. In 1909, Covington annexed Latonia and Rosedale, in part to relieve Latonia of financial difficulties it was encountering. ===West Covington=== The independent city of West Covington, formerly known as Economy and now known as Botany Hills, is located along the Ohio River on the hills west of downtown Covington. This city was platted in 1846 and St. Ann's Church was constructed in the area in 1862 and served this primarily German-Catholic community. After an unsuccessful attempt to annex this city in 1873, Covington annexed it in 1916, in part because of water problems in the area and a lack of a high school. ===Smaller annexations in the mid 20th century=== After the annexation of West Covington in 1916, the boundaries of Covington remained the same for the next 35 years while other municipalities were established in areas surrounding Covington, such as Park Hills, Fort Wright, and Lakeside Park, to name a few. In the 1950s and 1960s, the city annexed small tracts of land – in Lewisburg in 1951, in Latonia in 1956, and that was formerly occupied by a Benedictine Monastery (now the Monte Casino neighborhood) in 1963 – but these annexations were of a small scale compared to tracts annexed during the first 100 years of the city's existence. ===1960s annexations (Kenton Hills and South Covington)=== During the 1960s, the city annexed a considerable amount of property that would establish the current boundaries of the city. Starting in 1965, the city annexed near Kyles Lane. In 1965, the city added near Devou Park, which was then known and is still known as Kenton Hills. Finally, in 1965, the city undertook its biggest annexation effort ever when it added of unincorporated land in Kenton County south of Latonia, creating the community now known as South Covington. ==Population growth== The population of Covington grew from 743 in 1830 to 24,505 in 1870 to 42,938 in 1900. From this number, the population grew to its highest recorded count – 65,252 – in 1930. Perhaps due to problems associated with the Great Depression in the 1930s, U.S. Census Bureau recorded the city's first drop in population in its history in 1940, when the population was documented at 62,018. For the next two decades, the population would remain in the low- to middle- 60,000s. Due in large part to urban flight that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, the city's population dropped from 60,376 in 1960 to the lowest recorded census count in recent history in 2010, 40,640. In the most recent U.S. Census estimate, conducted in 2014, the city's population increased slightly to 40,944. ==Economic growth== ===First commercial development=== In its infancy, most of the commerce in Covington was connected with the rivers that formed the northern and eastern boundaries of the city. Because the Kentucky side of the Ohio River was relatively shallow compared to the Ohio side of the river, Covington was never able to develop its riverfront as a viable public landing for boats and steamships, which instead moored on the Cincinnati side of the river, where steamship building facilities were located. The city's first manufacturing concern, a cotton factory, was built near the river in 1828, and three years later, another business, a rolling mill and nail factory, was established along Scott Street near the riverfront. ===First commercial center=== The first commercial center of the city was established around the "public square" platted between Third and Fourth Streets and Scott Boulevard and Greenup Street. At this location, a market house was constructed in 1831 and a public well was dug approximately one block from the square. During the 1830s, along with the public market, retail stores, businesses offices, and other commercial establishments flourished in this area. In the mid-19th century, two things promoted the growth of Covington. First, in 1840, the Kentucky General Assembly severed Kenton County from Campbell County. Despite the legislative directive that county seat be at the center of the county, Covington served as the de facto county seat until the City of Independence was incorporated in 1842. Because Independence was sparsely populated and approximately from Covington, the residents and lawyers of the thriving urban area found it more convenient to transact business and administer justice at the Covington courthouse, which was constructed near the public square in 1843. Recognizing that Covington was serving as the de facto county seat, the Kentucky legislature, in 1860, enacted a law authorizing Covington as the site for the recording of deeds and mortgages – making Kenton County only one of two counties in Kentucky with dual county seats (the other being Newport and Alexandria in Campbell County). ===Madison and Pike Street commercial corridor=== 150px|left|thumb|Restored, Odd Fellows Hall, on Madison Ave. The other major development occurring during this time period was the construction of the Covington and Lexington Railroad in 1853. While the public square remained a hub for the "courthouse crowd," in large part because of the railroad, the area of Madison Avenue and Pike Street became the city's primary commercial center during the rest of 19th century and into the 20th century. With a train stop at Russell and Pike Streets, which was also near the terminus of the Covington and Lexington Turnpike, the area of the city soon became a beehive of commercial activity. Packing houses, groceries, dry goods stores, meat markets, printers, jewelers, saloons, lumber yards, machine shops, hardware stores, and more than 20 hotels cropped up in this area of the city. In the years following the Civil War, Covington largely prospered as a result of the city's access to the tobacco grown around the Bluegrass, with numerous cigar factories around the town. Its iron mills, distilleries, glassworks, and stove makers were also noteworthy. Birdsill Holly's innovative water supply network was introduced in 1871. As with Cincinnati, many immigrants to the area were German and many were Catholic. A parochial orphanage was established about 4 miles outside town, and the St Elizabeth Hospital and the Benedictine priory of St Joseph and nunnery of St Walburga were among the city's principal buildings. By the time of the First World War, Covington was serviced by the Chesapeake & Ohio and Louisville & Nashville railroads. It was the state's second-largest city and its second-largest municipal economy. It received a Catholic bishopric and a Gothic cathedral. Its factories at the time had grown to include textile mills, foundries, machine shops, and cordage makers. ===Covington-Cincinnati Suspension Bridge=== The next major project that spurred the economic growth of Covington was the decade-long construction of the Covington-Cincinnati Suspension Bridge between Covington and Cincinnati. Built by John A. Roebling, construction started in 1856. Work on the bridge continued for two years before the effects of the 1857 depression brought construction to a halt. Work on the bridge resumed in 1863 but once again was delayed because of the Civil War. The bridge formally opened on January 1, 1867, promoting further commerce between Kentucky and Ohio. In part because of depressions of 1873 and 1893, commercial construction was not significant in Covington during the latter part of the 19th century. However, that would change dramatically in the early 20th century for a number of reasons. One of these reasons was that the Suspension Bridge – originally designed for horse cars and pedestrians – was reconstructed in the late 1890s to accommodate electric streetcars – and in a few years, automobiles. During the early 20th century, many new commercial and governmental structures were constructed in Covington. ===Heyday=== The heyday for Covington as the commercial center for all of Northern Kentucky was the first two decades of the 20th century. During these decades, particularly the 1920s, the city's downtown was a bustling place of activity, with numerous restaurants, department stores, shops, saloons, banks, theaters, and offices bringing swarms of people to the downtown commercial district. Among the buildings that were constructed during this high-growth period were several near the public square, such as the city and county building, dedicated in 1902 and the Cincinnati, Newport, and Covington Railway Company headquarters, completed in 1903 (later acquired by the Citizens Telephone Company), to name a few. In addition, a number of other commercial structures were constructed in the downtown commercial district that survive today, such as the Masonic Lodge at the corner of Fourth and Scott Boulevard, the Kentucky Times-Star Building in the 500 block of Scott, the Edward Pieck pharmacy building located on the corner of Sixth and Main Street, and the Greyhound Bus Station building at the southeast corner of Fifth Street and Madison Avenue. It was also during this time period that Covington became the financial center of Northern Kentucky, housing the following lending institutions, primarily on Madison Avenue: the First National Bank, German National Bank, Covington Savings Bank & Trust Co., Citizens National Bank, and Peoples Savings Bank and Trust Company, to name a few. This was also a period when the manufacturing industry significantly increased in Covington. Of particular note was the growth of The Stewart Iron Work Company, which employed as many as 600 people in 1915. It was a highly guarded secret that Stewart Iron Works made the special "non- sawable" bars for the cells at Alcatraz Prison. The Bavarian Brewery was a large employer in the west side with strong sales until Prohibition in 1918. Other manufacturing firms that operated during this time period include the United States Motor Truck Company and Kelley-Koett Manufacturing Corp. of Covington, Ky., one of the country's earliest manufacturers of x-ray accessories and equipment. Known for many of its beautiful churches, this was also the time frame during which one of the city's icons, St. Mary's Basilica Cathedral of the Assumption, was built; it was dedicated in 1910. It was also during this time frame when the city acquired two of its most prized parks: Goebel Park in the Mainstrasse neighborhood and Devou Park, more than 500 acres (2 km2) of pristine land in the western hills of the city. ===Decline=== While the Great Depression of the 1930s devastated many Covington businesses and residents, the city's decline did not become pronounced until the 1960s. As mentioned above, the city's population remained somewhat stagnant for three decades. But post-World War II urban flight, coupled with a substantial reduction in the city's manufacturing sector, caused a significant decline in the city's workforce as well as its resident population. If the 1920s was the last great decade for Covington, then the 1970s – and to a certain extent the early 1980s – was the nadir for the city, at least with respect to its downtown. Despite construction of the IRS service center by the federal government in the 1960s, which brought many new jobs to the city, the city began a downward spiral of disinvestment, which continued for several decades. In fact, in the late 1970s, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development identified Covington as one of the country's "most distressed cities." During this time period, as new retail centers and malls grew in the suburbs, long-established Covington retail firms either closed or left downtown Covington. Among the stores and shops that left or closed were Goldsmith's Department Store, Eilermann's Department Store, Coppin's Department Store, Montgomery Ward, S.S. Kresge Co., Herzog's, Louis Marx & Sons Furniture, Modern Furniture, Woolworth's, Penney's, Sears, the First National Bank, and the Madison and Liberty theatres, to name a few. Many of these storefronts remained empty during this time period or were replaced with less attractive commercial endeavors or social service agencies. ===Rebirth=== thumb|300px|left|Covington's downtown neighborhoods have many wooded streets and historic buildings, some of which date to the nineteenth century. Beginning in the mid-to-late-1980s, Covington began its revival. New buildings were constructed, jobs were created, and the population loss began to stabilize. The rebirth of Covington as a commercial center occurred in the same place where the city commercial growth first occurred – along the Ohio River and in one of the city's first commercial districts, Main Street. The rebirth on the river began modestly in 1984 when developer David Herriman built the $4.4-million, 34-unit Riverside Terrace condominium complex on Riverside Drive. Two years later, Herriman constructed the 43-unit Riverside Plaza, a companion condominium project just south of Riverside Terrace, for $7.5 million. With the city and state investing approximately $7 million in infrastructure improvements in the late 1970s and early 1980s, including construction of the Carroll Chimes Bell Tower with its carillon and glockenspiel in Goebel Park, Main Street and Sixth Street was renamed "Mainstrasse," and returned to its roots as a German village with restaurants, taverns, and specialty retail shops. In the mid-to-late-1980s, the city, using state and local funds, began acquiring properties along the Ohio River for redevelopment. In 1988, the city and local developer Corporex entered into a master development agreement to redevelop the city's riverfront, which kicked the city's renaissance into high gear. The first phase of this redevelopment occurred in 1990 when the $110-million, 18-story Rivercenter office tower and a 230-room Embassy Suites hotel was built atop a 1,100-space parking garage constructed by the city. In 1994, Fidelity Investments established a campus in Covington, constructing three office buildings on the campus, totaling approximately and employing 2,000 employees. At the same time the Fidelity campus was underway, Wessels Construction built the IRS Gateway Center on Scott Boulevard, between Third and Fourth Streets, which would employ approximately 2,000 IRS employees when completed. In 1997, Rivercenter II was built next to Corporex's first downtown office tower, and during the same year, across Madison Avenue from the Rivercenter complex, a new garage was funded by the Commonwealth of Kentucky and built by Corporex. A year after the garage was finished, a 300-room Marriott hotel was built atop a portion of the garage. Two years later, on the remaining portion of the parking garage, eleven floors of office space was constructed, now known as Madison Place, and on top of this office space four floors of multimillion-dollar residential condominiums called Domaine de la Rive were built. In 1998, across the street from the Marriott hotel, the Commonwealth of Kentucky contributed $30.5 million to build the Northern Kentucky Convention Center. In 2001, a block away from the convention center, Wessels Construction would add a expansion of the Gateway Center on Madison Avenue and Third Street. Another block away, Towne Properties would build Roebling Row Apartments, an 86-unit luxury apartment building with architectural features compatible with nearby structures in the surrounding historic Licking Riverside neighborhood. Meanwhile, a housing boom was taking place in the southern part of the city. Among new subdivisions built in South Covington in the 1990s were Ridgeport (275 homes), Clover Meadow (88 homes), and Heathermoor (100 upscale homes). ==The 21st century== 250px|thumb|Skyline of downtown Covington Covington has continued its struggle to rebound into the 21st century. The redevelopment along the riverfront in the 1980s and 1990s slowly moved southward into the downtown area. A few existing structures were rehabilitated and new businesses located there, but by December 2011, nearly one third of the commercial spaces still remained vacant. In 2005, in an attempt to attract the "creative class" into the commercial district, the City of Covington created the Covington Arts and Technology Zone ("CATZ") on Pike Street . After six years of struggling, it became obvious to city leaders that it did not work as a redevelopment tool and the City Commission voted to repeal the "Covington Arts and Technology Zone" in 2011. In 2008, Corporex completed the 22-story luxury condominium project, The Ascent at Roebling's Bridge. Designed by world-renowned architect Daniel Libeskind, with help from local architect GBBN, the wedge-shaped structure won the 2008 CNBC property award for best high-rise in the Americas, and was a featured project in the AIA April 2008 newsletter. ===Viral video controversy=== On January 19, 2019, a video appearing to involve students from Covington Catholic High School and a Native American man engaged in a form of conflict was released and quickly gained attention. As a result, Covington city officials have reported receiving threats of violence toward them, as well as the city itself. A "suspicious package" was also found outside of the Diocese of Covington. However, despite the school's name, Covington Catholic High School is not located in Covington, Kentucky, but in Park Hills, Kentucky, which is a neighboring city. In response to the increasing calls for boycotts against Covington and its businesses, hostilities toward the city, and calls for violence, due to the misidentification, Covington's mayor, Joe Meyer, released a statement on the issue, saying in part "Over the past few days, we at the City of Covington have been cursed and threatened by email, over the phone, and in person. Our City is collateral damage in an incident that had nothing to do with us, happened 500 miles away, and coincidentally involves a school that actually isn’t even in Covington." ==Covington's Neighborhood Movement== Covington owes many of its more recent accomplishments to the action of dedicated residents and neighborhood groups. The first round of this neighborhood movement came about in the mid-to-late-1970s as part of a reformist movement to improve the city. Many neighborhood associations were formed at the time, and the Covington Neighborhood Action Coalition, or CNAC, was established. CNAC served as an umbrella organization for many active neighborhood associations, with each organization having delegates as part of annual CNAC conventions. CNAC addressed citywide concerns and endorsed neighborhood issues, such as opposition to the proposed location of a coal dock in Latonia and advocating for the improvement of sewers in Peaselburg. CNAC also received federal funding from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) to create the city's first block watch, a forerunner to today's Neighborhood Watch. The neighborhood movement reached its peak in the early 1980s. By the mid-1980s, CNAC membership waned as many citywide issues had been addressed and no funding was available for staff assistance to the neighborhood groups. Several neighborhood associations, such as those in Wallace Woods and Licking Riverside, persisted despite the decline of CNAC. The Neighborhood Watch Program began in 1985 when Latonia residents began organizing neighborhood watches after a murder and several break-ins in their neighborhood. Watch members work closely with the Covington Police and Code Enforcement Departments and play an instrumental role in making our community safer. In 1996, residents initiated a call for a new CNAC-like organization. At the same time, the Center for Great Neighborhoods of Covington, then known as the Covington Community Center, was reorganizing and defining strategic growth areas for its organization. At the request of residents, the Center agreed to help organize and staff the new organization, the Covington Neighborhood Collaborative. Today, CNC has 12 member organizations and works on both citywide and neighborhood issues. Several other neighborhoods, including the Eastside, South Covington, and Mainstrasse, also have active neighborhood associations that are not currently a part of CNC. ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * ==Further reading== * ==External links== * Historical Texts and Images of Covington, Kentucky Covington Category:Covington, Kentucky
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Cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs) are a superfamily of enzymes containing heme as a cofactor that mostly, but not exclusively, function as monooxygenases. In mammals, these proteins oxidize steroids, fatty acids, and xenobiotics, and are important for the clearance of various compounds, as well as for hormone synthesis and breakdown. In 1963, Estabrook, Cooper, and Rosenthal described the role of CYP as a catalyst in steroid hormone synthesis and drug metabolism. In plants, these proteins are important for the biosynthesis of defensive compounds, fatty acids, and hormones. P450 enzymes have been identified in all kingdoms of life: animals, plants, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archaea, as well as in viruses. However, they are not omnipresent; for example, they have not been found in Escherichia coli. , more than 300,000 distinct CYP proteins are known. P450s are, in general, the terminal oxidase enzymes in electron transfer chains, broadly categorized as P450-containing systems. The term "P450" is derived from the spectrophotometric peak at the wavelength of the absorption maximum of the enzyme (450 nm) when it is in the reduced state and complexed with carbon monoxide. Most P450s require a protein partner to deliver one or more electrons to reduce the iron (and eventually molecular oxygen). ==Nomenclature== Genes encoding P450 enzymes, and the enzymes themselves, are designated with the root symbol CYP for the superfamily, followed by a number indicating the gene family, a capital letter indicating the subfamily, and another numeral for the individual gene. The convention is to italicise the name when referring to the gene. For example, CYP2E1 is the gene that encodes the enzyme CYP2E1—one of the enzymes involved in paracetamol (acetaminophen) metabolism. The CYP nomenclature is the official naming convention, although occasionally CYP450 or CYP450 is used synonymously. These names should never be used as according to the nomenclature convention (as they denote a P450 in family number 450). However, some gene or enzyme names for P450s are also referred to by historical names (e.g. P450BM3 for CYP102A1) or functional names, denoting the catalytic activity and the name of the compound used as substrate. Examples include CYP5A1, thromboxane A2 synthase, abbreviated to TBXAS1 (ThromBoXane A2 Synthase 1), and CYP51A1, lanosterol 14-α-demethylase, sometimes unofficially abbreviated to LDM according to its substrate (Lanosterol) and activity (DeMethylation). The current nomenclature guidelines suggest that members of new CYP families share at least 40% amino-acid identity, while members of subfamilies must share at least 55% amino-acid identity. Nomenclature committees assign and track both base gene names (Cytochrome P450 Homepage ) and allele names (CYP Allele Nomenclature Committee). == Classification == Based on the nature of the electron transfer proteins, P450s can be classified into several groups: ;Microsomal P450 systems: in which electrons are transferred from NADPH via cytochrome P450 reductase (variously CPR, POR, or CYPOR). Cytochrome b5 (cyb5) can also contribute reducing power to this system after being reduced by cytochrome b5 reductase (CYB5R). ;Mitochondrial P450 systems: which employ adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin to transfer electrons from NADPH to P450. ;Bacterial P450 systems: which employ a ferredoxin reductase and a ferredoxin to transfer electrons to P450. ;CYB5R/cyb5/P450 systems: in which both electrons required by the CYP come from cytochrome b5. ;FMN/Fd/P450 systems: originally found in Rhodococcus species, in which a FMN-domain-containing reductase is fused to the CYP. ;P450 only systems: which do not require external reducing power. Notable ones include thromboxane synthase (CYP5), prostacyclin synthase (CYP8), and CYP74A (allene oxide synthase). The most common reaction catalyzed by cytochromes P450 is a monooxygenase reaction, e.g., insertion of one atom of oxygen into the aliphatic position of an organic substrate (RH), while the other oxygen atom is reduced to water: Many hydroxylation reactions (insertion of hydroxyl groups) use CYP enzymes. ==Mechanism== === Structure === The active site of cytochrome P450 contains a heme-iron center. The iron is tethered to the protein via a cysteine thiolate ligand. This cysteine and several flanking residues are highly conserved in known P450s, and have the formal PROSITE signature consensus pattern [FW] - [SGNH] - x - [GD] - {F} - [RKHPT] - {P} - _C_ \- [LIVMFAP] - [GAD].PROSITE consensus pattern for P450 Because of the vast variety of reactions catalyzed by P450s, the activities and properties of the many P450s differ in many aspects. In general, the P450 catalytic cycle proceeds as follows: ===Catalytic cycle=== # Substrate binds in proximity to the heme group, on the side opposite to the axial thiolate. Substrate binding induces a change in the conformation of the active site, often displacing a water molecule from the distal axial coordination position of the heme iron, and changing the state of the heme iron from low-spin to high-spin. # Substrate binding induces electron transfer from NAD(P)H via cytochrome P450 reductase or another associated reductase. # Molecular oxygen binds to the resulting ferrous heme center at the distal axial coordination position, initially giving a dioxygen adduct similar to oxy-myoglobin. # A second electron is transferred, from either cytochrome P450 reductase, ferredoxins, or cytochrome b5, reducing the Fe-O2 adduct to give a short-lived peroxo state. # The peroxo group formed in step 4 is rapidly protonated twice, releasing one molecule of water and forming the highly reactive species referred to as P450 Compound 1 (or just Compound I). This highly reactive intermediate was isolated in 2010, P450 Compound 1 is an iron(IV) oxo (or ferryl) species with an additional oxidizing equivalent delocalized over the porphyrin and thiolate ligands. Evidence for the alternative perferryl iron(V)-oxo is lacking. # Depending on the substrate and enzyme involved, P450 enzymes can catalyze any of a wide variety of reactions. A hypothetical hydroxylation is shown in this illustration. After the product has been released from the active site, the enzyme returns to its original state, with a water molecule returning to occupy the distal coordination position of the iron nucleus. # An alternative route for mono-oxygenation is via the "peroxide shunt" (path "S" in figure). This pathway entails oxidation of the ferric- substrate complex with oxygen-atom donors such as peroxides and hypochlorites. A hypothetical peroxide "XOOH" is shown in the diagram. ===Spectroscopy=== Binding of substrate is reflected in the spectral properties of the enzyme, with an increase in absorbance at 390 nm and a decrease at 420 nm. This can be measured by difference spectroscopies and is referred to as the "type I" difference spectrum (see inset graph in figure). Some substrates cause an opposite change in spectral properties, a "reverse type I" spectrum, by processes that are as yet unclear. Inhibitors and certain substrates that bind directly to the heme iron give rise to the type II difference spectrum, with a maximum at 430 nm and a minimum at 390 nm (see inset graph in figure). If no reducing equivalents are available, this complex may remain stable, allowing the degree of binding to be determined from absorbance measurements in vitro C: If carbon monoxide (CO) binds to reduced P450, the catalytic cycle is interrupted. This reaction yields the classic CO difference spectrum with a maximum at 450 nm. However, the interruptive and inhibitory effects of CO varies upon different CYPs such that the CYP3A family is relatively less affected. ==P450s in humans== Human P450s are primarily membrane-associated proteins located either in the inner membrane of mitochondria or in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells. P450s metabolize thousands of endogenous and exogenous chemicals. Some P450s metabolize only one (or a very few) substrates, such as CYP19 (aromatase), while others may metabolize multiple substrates. Both of these characteristics account for their central importance in medicine. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are present in most tissues of the body, and play important roles in hormone synthesis and breakdown (including estrogen and testosterone synthesis and metabolism), cholesterol synthesis, and vitamin D metabolism. Cytochrome P450 enzymes also function to metabolize potentially toxic compounds, including drugs and products of endogenous metabolism such as bilirubin, principally in the liver. The Human Genome Project has identified 57 human genes coding for the various cytochrome P450 enzymes. ===Drug metabolism=== thumb|400px|Proportion of antifungal drugs metabolized by different families of P450s.[http://www.doctorfungus.org/thedrugs/antif_interaction.php doctorfungus > Antifungal Drug Interactions] Content Director: Russell E. Lewis, Pharm.D. Retrieved on Jan 23, 2010 P450s are the major enzymes involved in drug metabolism, accounting for about 75% of the total metabolism. (Metabolism in this context is the chemical modification or degradation of drugs.) Most drugs undergo deactivation by P450s, either directly or by facilitated excretion from the body. However, many substances are bioactivated by P450s to form their active compounds like the antiplatelet drug clopidogrel and the opiate codeine. ====Drug interaction==== Many drugs may increase or decrease the activity of various P450 isozymes either by inducing the biosynthesis of an isozyme (enzyme induction) or by directly inhibiting the activity of the P450 (enzyme inhibition). A classical example includes anti-epileptic drugs, such as Phenytoin, which induces CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4. Effects on P450 isozyme activity are a major source of adverse drug interactions, since changes in P450 enzyme activity may affect the metabolism and clearance of various drugs. For example, if one drug inhibits the P450-mediated metabolism of another drug, the second drug may accumulate within the body to toxic levels. Hence, these drug interactions may necessitate dosage adjustments or choosing drugs that do not interact with the P450 system. Such drug interactions are especially important to consider when using drugs of vital importance to the patient, drugs with significant side-effects, or drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, but any drug may be subject to an altered plasma concentration due to altered drug metabolism. Many substrates for CYP3A4 are drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, such as amiodarone or carbamazepine. Because these drugs are metabolized by CYP3A4, the mean plasma levels of these drugs may increase because of enzyme inhibition or decrease because of enzyme induction. ====Interaction of other substances==== Naturally occurring compounds may also induce or inhibit P450 activity. For example, bioactive compounds found in grapefruit juice and some other fruit juices, including bergamottin, dihydroxybergamottin, and paradicin-A, have been found to inhibit CYP3A4-mediated metabolism of certain medications, leading to increased bioavailability and, thus, the strong possibility of overdosing. Because of this risk, avoiding grapefruit juice and fresh grapefruits entirely while on drugs is usually advised. Other examples: *Saint-John's wort, a common herbal remedy induces CYP3A4, but also inhibits CYP1A1, CYP1B1. *Tobacco smoking induces CYP1A2 (example CYP1A2 substrates are clozapine, olanzapine, and fluvoxamine) *At relatively high concentrations, starfruit juice has also been shown to inhibit CYP2A6 and other P450s. Watercress is also a known inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 CYP2E1, which may result in altered drug metabolism for individuals on certain medications (e.g., chlorzoxazone). * Tributyltin has been found to inhibit the function of cytochrome P450, leading to masculinization of mollusks. * Goldenseal, with its two notable alkaloids berberine and hydrastine, has been shown to alter P450-marker enzymatic activities (involving CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4). ===Other specific P450 functions=== ====Steroid hormones==== A subset of cytochrome P450 enzymes play important roles in the synthesis of steroid hormones (steroidogenesis) by the adrenals, gonads, and peripheral tissue: *CYP11A1 (also known as P450scc or P450c11a1) in adrenal mitochondria affects "the activity formerly known as 20,22-desmolase" (steroid 20α-hydroxylase, steroid 22-hydroxylase, cholesterol side-chain scission). *CYP11B1 (encoding the protein P450c11β) found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of adrenal cortex has steroid 11β-hydroxylase, steroid 18-hydroxylase, and steroid 18-methyloxidase activities. *CYP11B2 (encoding the protein P450c11AS), found only in the mitochondria of the adrenal zona glomerulosa, has steroid 11β-hydroxylase, steroid 18-hydroxylase, and steroid 18-methyloxidase activities. *CYP17A1, in endoplasmic reticulum of adrenal cortex has steroid 17α-hydroxylase and 17,20-lyase activities. *CYP21A2 (P450c21) in adrenal cortex conducts 21-hydroxylase activity. *CYP19A (P450arom, aromatase) in endoplasmic reticulum of gonads, brain, adipose tissue, and elsewhere catalyzes aromatization of androgens to estrogens. ====Polyunsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids==== Certain cytochrome P450 enzymes are critical in metabolizing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to biologically active, intercellular cell signaling molecules (eicosanoids) and/or metabolize biologically active metabolites of the PUFA to less active or inactive products. These CYPs possess cytochrome P450 omega hydroxylase and/or epoxygenase enzyme activity. *CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP2E1 metabolize endogenous PUFAs to signaling molecules: they metabolize arachidonic acid (i.e. AA) to 19-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (i.e. 19-HETE; see 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid); eicosapentaenoic acid (i.e. EPA) to epoxyeicosatetraenoic acids (i.e. EEQs); and docosahexaenoic acid (i.e. DHA) to epoxydocosapentaenoic acids (i.e. EDPs). *CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, and CYP2J2 metabolize endogenous PUFAs to signaling molecules: they metabolize AA to epoxyeicosatetraenoic acids (i.e. EETs); EPA to EEQs; and DHA to EDPs. *CYP2S1 metabolizes PUFA to signaling molecules: it metabolizes AA to EETs and EPA to EEQs. *CYP3A4 metabolizes AA to EET signaling molecules. *CYP4A11 metabolizes endogenous PUFAs to signaling molecules: it metabolizes AA to 20-HETE and EETs; it also hydroxylates DHA to 22-hydroxy-DHA (i.e. 12-HDHA). *CYP4F2, CYP4F3A, and CYP4F3B (see CYP4F3 for latter two CYPs) metabolize PUFAs to signaling molecules: they metabolizes AA to 20-HETE. They also metabolize EPA to 19-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (19-HEPE) and 20-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (20-HEPE) as well as metabolize DHA to 22-HDA. They also inactivate or reduce the activity of signaling molecules: they metabolize leukotriene B4 (LTB4) to 20-hydroxy-LTB4, 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) to 5,20-diHETE, 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE) to 5-oxo,20-hydroxy-ETE, 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) to 12,20-diHETE, EETs to 20-hydroxy-EETs, and lipoxins to 20-hydroxy products. *CYP4F8 and CYP4F12 metabolize PUFAs to signaling molecules: they metabolizes EPA to EEQs and DHA to EDPs. They also metabolize AA to 18-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (18-HETE) and 19-HETE. *CYP4F11 inactivates or reduces the activity of signaling molecules: it metabolizes LTB4 to 20-hydroxy-LTB4, (5-HETE) to 5,20-diHETE, (5-oxo-ETE) to 5-oxo,20-hydroxy-ETE, (12-HETE) to 12,20-diHETE, EETs to 20-hydroxy-EETs, and lipoxins to 20-hydroxy products. *CYP4F22 ω-hydroxylates extremely long "very long chain fatty acids", i.e. fatty acids that are 28 or more carbons long. The ω-hydroxylation of these special fatty acids is critical to creating and maintaining the skin's water barrier function; autosomal recessive inactivating mutations of CYP4F22 are associated with the Lamellar ichthyosis subtype of Congenital ichthyosiform erythrodema in humans. ===CYP families in humans=== Humans have 57 genes and more than 59 pseudogenes divided among 18 families of cytochrome P450 genes and 43 subfamilies.Nelson D (2003). Cytochromes P450 in humans. Retrieved May 9, 2005. This is a summary of the genes and of the proteins they encode. See the homepage of the cytochrome P450 Nomenclature Committee for detailed information. Family Function Members Genes Pseudogenes CYP1 drug and steroid (especially estrogen) metabolism, benzo[a]pyrene toxification (forming (+)-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide) 3 subfamilies, 3 genes, 1 pseudogene CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1 CYP1D1P CYP2 drug and steroid metabolism 13 subfamilies, 16 genes, 16 pseudogenes CYP2A6, CYP2A7, CYP2A13, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP2F1, CYP2J2, CYP2R1, CYP2S1, CYP2U1, CYP2W1 Too many to list CYP3 drug and steroid (including testosterone) metabolism 1 subfamily, 4 genes, 4 pseudogenes CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7, CYP3A43 CYP3A51P, CYP3A52P, CYP3A54P, CYP3A137P CYP4 arachidonic acid or fatty acid metabolism 6 subfamilies, 12 genes, 10 pseudogenes CYP4A11, CYP4A22, CYP4B1, CYP4F2, CYP4F3, CYP4F8, CYP4F11, CYP4F12, CYP4F22, CYP4V2, CYP4X1, CYP4Z1 Too many to list CYP5 thromboxane A2 synthase 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP5A1 CYP7 bile acid biosynthesis 7-alpha hydroxylase of steroid nucleus 2 subfamilies, 2 genes CYP7A1, CYP7B1 CYP8 varied 2 subfamilies, 2 genes CYP8A1 (prostacyclin synthase), CYP8B1 (bile acid biosynthesis) CYP11 steroid biosynthesis 2 subfamilies, 3 genes CYP11A1, CYP11B1, CYP11B2 CYP17 steroid biosynthesis, 17-alpha hydroxylase 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP17A1 CYP19 steroid biosynthesis: aromatase synthesizes estrogen 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP19A1 CYP20 unknown function 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP20A1 CYP21 steroid biosynthesis 1 subfamilies, 1 gene, 1 pseudogene CYP21A2 CYP21A1P CYP24 vitamin D degradation 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP24A1 CYP26 retinoic acid hydroxylase 3 subfamilies, 3 genes CYP26A1, CYP26B1, CYP26C1 CYP27 varied 3 subfamilies, 3 genes CYP27A1 (bile acid biosynthesis), CYP27B1 (vitamin D3 1-alpha hydroxylase, activates vitamin D3), CYP27C1 (vitamin A1 to A2) CYP39 7-alpha hydroxylation of 24-hydroxycholesterol 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP39A1 CYP46 cholesterol 24-hydroxylase 1 subfamily, 1 gene, 1 pseudogene CYP46A1 CYP46A4P CYP51 cholesterol biosynthesis 1 subfamily, 1 gene, 3 pseudogenes CYP51A1 (lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase) CYP51P1, CYP51P2, CYP51P3 == P450s in other species == === Animals === Other animals often have more P450 genes than humans do. Reported numbers range from 35 genes in the sponge Amphimedon queenslandica to 235 genes in the cephalochordate Branchiostoma floridae. Mice have genes for 101 P450s, and sea urchins have even more (perhaps as many as 120 genes). Most CYP enzymes are presumed to have monooxygenase activity, as is the case for most mammalian CYPs that have been investigated (except for, e.g., CYP19 and CYP5). Gene and genome sequencing is far outpacing biochemical characterization of enzymatic function, though many genes with close homology to CYPs with known function have been found, giving clues to their functionality. The classes of P450s most often investigated in non-human animals are those either involved in development (e.g., retinoic acid or hormone metabolism) or involved in the metabolism of toxic compounds (such as heterocyclic amines or polyaromatic hydrocarbons). Often there are differences in gene regulation or enzyme function of P450s in related animals that explain observed differences in susceptibility to toxic compounds (ex. canines' inability to metabolize xanthines such as caffeine). Some drugs undergo metabolism in both species via different enzymes, resulting in different metabolites, while other drugs are metabolized in one species but excreted unchanged in another species. For this reason, one species's reaction to a substance is not a reliable indication of the substance's effects in humans. A species of Sonoran Desert Drosophila that uses an upregulated expression of the CYP28A1 gene for detoxification of cacti rot is Drosophila mettleri. Flies of this species have adapted an upregulation of this gene due to exposure of high levels of alkaloids in host plants. P450s have been extensively examined in mice, rats, dogs, and less so in zebrafish, in order to facilitate use of these model organisms in drug discovery and toxicology. Recently P450s have also been discovered in avian species, in particular turkeys, that may turn out to be a useful model for cancer research in humans. CYP1A5 and CYP3A37 in turkeys were found to be very similar to the human CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 respectively, in terms of their kinetic properties as well as in the metabolism of aflatoxin B1. CYPs have also been heavily studied in insects, often to understand pesticide resistance. For example, CYP6G1 is linked to insecticide resistance in DDT-resistant Drosophila melanogaster and CYP6M2 in the mosquito malaria vector Anopheles gambiae is capable of directly metabolizing pyrethroids. === Microbial === Microbial cytochromes P450 are often soluble enzymes and are involved in diverse metabolic processes. In bacteria the distribution of P450s is very variable with many bacteria having no identified P450s (e.g. E.coli). Some bacteria, predominantly actinomycetes, have numerous P450s (e.g.,). Those so far identified are generally involved in either biotransformation of xenobiotic compounds (e.g. CYP105A1 from Streptomyces griseolus metabolizes sulfonylurea herbicides to less toxic derivatives,) or are part of specialised metabolite biosynthetic pathways (e.g. CYP170B1 catalyses production of the sesquiterpenoid albaflavenone in Streptomyces albus). Although no P450 has yet been shown to be essential in a microbe, the CYP105 family is highly conserved with a representative in every streptomycete genome sequenced so far. Due to the solubility of bacterial P450 enzymes, they are generally regarded as easier to work with than the predominantly membrane bound eukaryotic P450s. This, combined with the remarkable chemistry they catalyse, has led to many studies using the heterologously expressed proteins in vitro. Few studies have investigated what P450s do in vivo, what the natural substrate(s) are and how P450s contribute to survival of the bacteria in the natural environment.Three examples that have contributed significantly to structural and mechanistic studies are listed here, but many different families exist. * Cytochrome P450 cam (CYP101A1) originally from Pseudomonas putida has been used as a model for many cytochromes P450 and was the first cytochrome P450 three-dimensional protein structure solved by X-ray crystallography. This enzyme is part of a camphor-hydroxylating catalytic cycle consisting of two electron transfer steps from putidaredoxin, a 2Fe-2S cluster-containing protein cofactor. * Cytochrome P450 eryF (CYP107A1) originally from the actinomycete bacterium Saccharopolyspora erythraea is responsible for the biosynthesis of the antibiotic erythromycin by C6-hydroxylation of the macrolide 6-deoxyerythronolide B. * Cytochrome P450 BM3 (CYP102A1) from the soil bacterium Bacillus megaterium catalyzes the NADPH-dependent hydroxylation of several long-chain fatty acids at the ω–1 through ω–3 positions. Unlike almost every other known CYP (except CYP505A1, cytochrome P450 foxy), it constitutes a natural fusion protein between the CYP domain and an electron donating cofactor. Thus, BM3 is potentially very useful in biotechnological applications. * Cytochrome P450 119 (CYP119A1) isolated from the thermophillic archea Sulfolobus solfataricus has been used in a variety of mechanistic studies. Because thermophillic enzymes evolved to function at high temperatures, they tend to function more slowly at room temperature (if at all) and are therefore excellent mechanistic models. === Fungi === The commonly used azole class antifungal drugs work by inhibition of the fungal cytochrome P450 14α-demethylase. This interrupts the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol, a component of the fungal cell membrane. (This is useful only because humans' P450 have a different sensitivity; this is how this class of antifungals work.) Significant research is ongoing into fungal P450s, as a number of fungi are pathogenic to humans (such as Candida yeast and Aspergillus) and to plants. Cunninghamella elegans is a candidate for use as a model for mammalian drug metabolism. === Plants === Cytochromes P450 are involved in a variety of processes of plant growth, development, and defense. It is estimated that P450 genes make up approximately 1% of the plant genome. These enzymes lead to various fatty acid conjugates, plant hormones, secondary metabolites, lignins, and a variety of defensive compounds. Cytochromes P450 play an important role in plant defense– involvement in phytoalexin biosynthesis, hormone metabolism, and biosynthesis of diverse secondary metabolites. The expression of cytochrome p450 genes is regulated in response to environmental stresses indicative of a critical role in plant defense mechanisms. Phytoalexins have shown to be important in plant defense mechanisms as they are antimicrobial compounds produced by plants in response to plant pathogens. Phytoalexins are not pathogen-specific, but rather plant- specific; each plant has its own unique set of phytoalexins. However, they can still attack a wide range of different pathogens. Arabidopsis is a plant closely related to cabbage and mustard and produces the phytoalexin camalexin. Camalexin originates from tryptophan and its biosynthesis involves five cytochrome P450 enzymes. The five cytochrome P450 enzymes include CYP79B2, CYP79B3, CYP71A12, CYP71A13, and CYP71B15. The first step of camalexin biosynthesis produces indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx) from tryptophan and is catalyzed by either CYP79B2 or CYP79B3. IAOx is then immediately converted to indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN) and is controlled by either CYP71A13 or its homolog CYP71A12. The last two steps of the biosynthesis pathway of camalexin are catalyzed by CYP71B15. In these steps, indole-3-carboxylic acid (DHCA) is formed from cysteine-indole-3-acetonitrile (Cys(IAN)) followed by the biosynthesis of camalexin. There are some intermediate steps within the pathway that remain unclear, but it is well understood that cytochrome P450 is pivotal in camalexin biosynthesis and that this phytoalexin plays a major role in plant defense mechanisms. Cytochromes P450 are largely responsible for the synthesis of the jasmonic acid (JA), a common hormonal defenses against abiotic and biotic stresses for plant cells. For example, a P450, CYP74A is involved in the dehydration reaction to produce an insatiable allene oxide from hydroperoxide. JA chemical reactions are critical in the presence of biotic stresses that can be caused by plant wounding, specifically shown in the plant, Arabidopsis. As a prohormone, jasmonic acid must be converted to the JA-isoleucine (JA-Ile) conjugate by JAR1 catalysation in order to be considered activated. Then, JA-Ile synthesis leads to the assembly of the co- receptor complex compo`sed of COI1 and several JAZ proteins. Under low JA-Ile conditions, the JAZ protein components act as transcriptional repressors to suppress downstream JA genes. However, under adequate JA-Ile conditions, the JAZ proteins are ubiquitinated and undergo degradation through the 26S proteasome, resulting in functional downstream effects. Furthermore, several CYP94s (CYP94C1 and CYP94B3) are related to JA-Ile turnover and show that JA- Ile oxidation status impacts plant signaling in a catabolic manner. Cytochrome P450 hormonal regulation in response to extracellular and intracellular stresses is critical for proper plant defense response. This has been proven through thorough analysis of various CYP P450s in jasmonic acid and phytoalexin pathways. Cytochrome P450 aromatic O-demethylase, which is made of two distinct promiscuous parts: a cytochrome P450 protein (GcoA) and three domain reductase, is significant for its ability to convert Lignin, the aromatic biopolymer common in plant cell walls, into renewable carbon chains in a catabolic set of reactions. In short, it is a facilitator of a critical step in Lignin conversion. == P450s in biotechnology == The remarkable reactivity and substrate promiscuity of P450s have long attracted the attention of chemists. Recent progress towards realizing the potential of using P450s towards difficult oxidations have included: (i) eliminating the need for natural co-factors by replacing them with inexpensive peroxide containing molecules, (ii) exploring the compatibility of P450s with organic solvents, and (iii) the use of small, non-chiral auxiliaries to predictably direct P450 oxidation. ==InterPro subfamilies== InterPro subfamilies: *Cytochrome P450, B-class *Cytochrome P450, mitochondrial *Cytochrome P450, E-class, group I *Cytochrome P450, E-class, group II *Cytochrome P450, E-class, group IV *Aromatase Clozapine, imipramine, paracetamol, phenacetin Heterocyclic aryl amines Inducible and CYP1A2 5-10% deficient oxidize uroporphyrinogen to uroporphyrin (CYP1A2) in heme metabolism, but they may have additional undiscovered endogenous substrates. are inducible by some polycyclic hydrocarbons, some of which are found in cigarette smoke and charred food. These enzymes are of interest, because in assays, they can activate compounds to carcinogens. High levels of CYP1A2 have been linked to an increased risk of colon cancer. Since the 1A2 enzyme can be induced by cigarette smoking, this links smoking with colon cancer. == See also == * Steroidogenic enzyme * Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase deficiency * CYP11 family * Cytochrome P450 engineering == References == == Further reading == * * * * * * == External links == * * * * * Category:EC 1.14 Category:Pharmacokinetics Category:Metabolism Category:Integral membrane proteins
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Vakhtang I Gorgasali (; or 443 – 502 or 522), of the Chosroid dynasty, was a king of Iberia, natively known as Kartli (eastern Georgia) in the second half of the 5th and first quarter of the 6th century. He led his people, in an ill- fated alliance with the Byzantine Empire, into a lengthy struggle against Sasanian Iranian hegemony, which ended in Vakhtang's defeat and weakening of the kingdom of Iberia. Tradition also ascribes him reorganization of the Georgian Orthodox Church and foundation of Tbilisi, Georgia's modern capital.Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, p. 320. Peeters Publishers, Dating Vakhtang's reign is problematic. Ivane Javakhishvili assigns to Vakhtang's rule the dates c. 449–502 while Cyril Toumanoff suggests the dates c. 447–522. Furthermore, Toumanoff identifies Vakhtang with the Iberian king Gurgenes known from Procopius' Wars of Justinian.Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian History, pp. 368–9. Georgetown University Press. Vakhtang is a subject of the 8th or 11th century vita attributed to Juansher, which intertwines history and legend into an epic narrative, hyperbolizing Vakhtang's personality and biography. This literary work has been a primary source of Vakhtang's image as an example warrior-king and statesman, which has preserved in popular memory to this day. He emerged as one of the most popular figures in Georgia's history already in the Middle AgesRapp (2003), passim. and has been canonized by the Georgian Orthodox ChurchMachitadze, Archpriest Zakaria (2006), "The Holy King Vakhtang Gorgasali (†502)", in The Lives of the Georgian Saints . Pravoslavie.Ru. Retrieved on April 19, 2009. as The Holy and Right-Believing King Vakhtang () and is commemorated on . ==Name== According to the Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali, the king was given at his birth an Iranian name Varazkhosrovtang, rendered in Georgian as Vakhtang.Thomson, Robert W. (1996), Rewriting Caucasian History, p. 156. Oxford University Press, The name may indeed be derived from Iranian *warx-tang (vahrka-tanū)—"wolf- bodied", a possible reflection of the wolf cult in ancient Georgia.Gamkrelidze, Tamaz; Ivanov, Vyacheslav; Winter, Werner (transl. by Nichols, Johanna; 1995), Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: a reconstruction and historical analysis of a proto-language and a proto- culture, p. 416. M. de Gruyter, Beginning in the late 13th century, numerous Georgian princes and kings took the name Vakhtang. Toumanoff observes that the name Vakhtang has no Classical equivalent and infers that the king's sobriquet Gorgasal—given to Vakhtang because of the shape of the helmet he wore—was rendered by the 6th-century Roman historian Procopius as Gurgenes (). Toumanoff's identification of Vakhtang with Gurgenes has not been universally accepted.Greatrex, Geoffrey (1998), Rome and Persia at war, 502–532, p. 129. Francis Cairns, ==Early reign== thumb|200px|left|The largest expansion of Iberia under Vakhtang I Beyond the Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali (hereinafter LVG), the medieval Georgian sources mention Vakhtang only briefly, yet with respect rarely afforded to the pre-Bagratid Georgian monarchs. Notwithstanding its semi-legendary epic character, the LVG provides many important details, which can be combined with the sources closer to the period in question, such as Lazarus of Parpi and Procopius. Vakhtang is reported by the LVG to have succeeded at the age of 7 his father King Mihrdat (V). His mother, a Christianized Persian Sagdukht, assumed regency in Vakhtang's minority. The author then describes the grave situation in which Iberia was at that time, troubled by the Sassanids' Zoroastrianizing efforts and a ravaging raid by the "Ossetians" from the north, this latter being a possible reference to the invasion by the Huns (which may have included Alans) through the Caspian Gates mentioned by Priscus. At the age of 16, Vakhtang is said to have led a victorious retaliatory war against the "Ossetians", winning a single combat against the enemy's giant and relieving his sister Mirandukht from captivity. At the age 19, Vakhtang married Balendukht, "daughter" of the Great King Hormizd (apparently Hormizd III, r. 457–459). Soon, upon the Great King's request, Vakhtang took part in the campaign in "India", probably in Peroz's abortive expedition against the Hephthalites in the 460s, and against the Roman Empire in 472, in which Vakhtang is reported to have gained control of Egrisi (Lazica) and Abkhazia.Thomson, Robert W. (1996), Rewriting Caucasian History, pp. 153–251. Oxford University Press, М. Лордкипанидзе, Д. Мусхелишвили (Ред., 1988), Очерки истории Грузии. Т.2: Грузия в IV-X веках. АН ГССР, Ин-т ист., археол. и этнографии – Тб. : Мецниереба: Тип. АН ГССР. ==Church affairs== Returning to Iberia, Vakhtang took up a series of measures aimed at strengthening the royal authority. Resenting Iranian encroachments on his independence, Vakhtang reversed his political orientation and effected a rapprochement with the Roman government. He married Helena, "daughter" (possibly relative) of Emperor Zeno, and received permission from Constantinople to elevate the head of the church of Iberia, the bishop of Mtskheta, to the rank of catholicos, whom he sent, together with twelve newly appointed bishops, to be consecrated at Antioch. These rearrangements did not pass smoothly and the king had to overcome opposition, especially in the person of Mikel, the deposed bishop of Mtskheta. Javakhishvili explains this conflict on account of doctrinal differences between the Monophysite Vakhtang and Diophysite Mikel, a presumption supported by Toumanoff, who points out, that the change of prelate and his subordination to Antioch could "only imply acceptance of Zeno's formulary of faith", i.e., the moderately Monophysite Henotikon of 482. On his part, another Georgian historian, Simon Janashia, argues that Vakhtang was inclined towards Diophysitism while Mikel adhered to Monophysitism.Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation, pp. 23–25. Indiana University Press, ==War with Iran== thumb|170px|Ruins of Ujarma, once an Iberian stronghold under Vakhtang By espousing pro-Roman policy, Vakhtang further alienated his nobles, who sought Iranian support against the king's encroachments on their autonomy. In 482, Vakhtang put to death his most influential vassal, Varsken, vitaxa of Gogarene, a convert to Zoroastrianism and a champion of Iran's influence in the Caucasus, who had executed his Christian wife, Shushanik, daughter of the Armenian Mamikonid prince Vardan II and a hero of the earliest surviving piece of Georgian literature. By this act, Vakhtang placed himself in open confrontation with his Iranian suzerain. Vakhtang called on the Armenian princes and the Huns for co-operation. After some hesitation, the Armenians under Vardan's nephew Vahan Mamikonian, joined forces with Vakhtang. The allies were routed and Iberia was ravaged by Iranian punitive expeditions in 483 and 484, forcing Vakhtang into flight to Roman-controlled Lazica (modern western Georgia). After Peroz's death in the war with the Hephthalites in 484, his successor Balash reestablished peace in the Caucasus. Vakhtang was able to resume his reign in Iberia, but did not betray his pro-Roman line. Once the Hundred Years Peace between Iran and Rome collapsed, Kavadh I of the Sassanids summoned Vakhtang as a vassal to join in a new campaign against Rome. Vakhtang refused, provoking an Iranian invasion of his kingdom. Then about 60, he had to spend the last years of his life in war and exile, fruitlessly appealing for the Roman aid. The chronology of this period is confused, but by 518 an Iranian viceroy had been installed at the Iberian town of Tiflis, founded—according to Georgian tradition—by Vakhtang and designated as the country's future capital. According to the LVG, Vakhtang died fighting an Iranian invading army at the hands of his renegade slave who shot him through an armpit defect of his armor. The wounded king was transported to his castle at Ujarma where he died and was interred at the cathedral in Mtskheta. Javakhishvili puts Vakhtang's death at c. 502. If Toumanoff's identification of Procopius’ Gurgenes with Vakhtang is true, the king might have ended his reign in 522 by taking refuge in Lazica, where he possibly died around the same time. Gurgenes’ family members—Peranius, Pacurius, and Phazas—had careers in the Roman military.Procopius reports that the Iberian king Gurgenes defected to the Romans at some point during Justin I's reign, but was defeated by Iranians and forced into flight to the Roman territory (Bell. pern. 1.12.) ==Family== According to the LVG, Vakhtang was survived by three sons. Dachi, Vakhtang's eldest son by his first marriage to the Iranian princess Balendukht (who died at childbirth), succeeded him as king of Iberia and had to return to Iranian allegiance. Two younger sons by Vakhtang's second marriage to the Roman lady Elene—Leon and Mihrdat—were enfeoffed of the southwestern Iberian provinces of Klarjeti and Javakheti in which Leon's progeny—the Guaramids—traditionally followed pro-Roman orientation. Both these lines survived in Iberia into the 8th century, being succeeded by their energetic cousins of the Bagratid family. Toumanoff has inferred that the Samanazus, a name of the Iberian "king" found in John Malala's list of rulers contemporary with Justinian and reported by Theophanes the Confessor and Georgios Kedrenos to have visited Constantinople in 535, might have been a corruption of words meaning "brother of Dachi" and so perhaps refers to Mihrdat.Martindale, John Robert (1992), The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, p. 1109. Cambridge University Press, ==Will of Vakhtang== Before his death, the wounded King Vakhtang left the will to his son Dachi and to the Georgians: He also called on Georgians not to abandon ties with the Byzantine Empire: ==Legacy== Vakhtang entered a pantheon of Georgian historical heroes already in the Middle Ages. A royal oriflamme of the Georgian Bagratids was known as "Gorgasliani", i.e., "of Gorgasali". It is sometimes supposed to be the earliest model of the current Georgian national flag. In popular memory, his image has acquired a legendary and romantic façade. Vakhtang is a subject of several folk poems and legends, extolling the king's perceived greatness, enormous physical strength, courage and devoutness to Christianity. Tsulaia, G. V. (trans., 1986), Джуаншер Джуаншериани. «Жизнь Вахтанга Горгасала» (Juansher Juansheriani. "Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali"). Tbilisi: Metsniereba. Online version, digitalized by Тhietmar. 2002. Vostlit.Info. Retrieved on April 22, 2009 Vakhtang has been credited with the foundation of several towns, castles, and monasteries across Georgia, including the nation's capital Tbilisi, where a street and a square bear his name, and a 1967 monument by the sculptor Elguja Amashukeli tops the Metekhi cliff. A legend has it that when King Vakhtang was in the forest, his falcon chased a pheasant. The bird fell into a hot water spring and the king and his servants saw the steam come out of the water. Surprised by the abundance of hot water, Vakhtang gave orders to build a city on this site and named it "Tbilisi", that is, "the site of warm springs".Constantine B. Lerner, "The 'River of Paradaise' and the Legend about the City of Tbilisi: A Literary Source of the Legend," Folklore 16 (November 2001): 72–77 Vakhtang was officially included in the Georgian Orthodox calendar—and a church built in his honor in the city of Rustavi—early in the 1990s, but he had presumably been considered a saint long before that. The Vakhtang Gorgasal Order, created in 1992, is one of the highest military decorations in Georgia.State Decorations. President of Georgia website. Retrieved on April 22, 2009 ==References== ==Further reading== *ჯუანშერი, "ცხოვრება ვახტანგ გორგასლისა/ქართლის ცხოვრება, ს. ყაუხჩიშვილის გამოც. ტ. I, თბილისი, 1955 *ლ. ჯანაშია, ლაზარ ფარპეცის ცნობები საქართველო შესახებ, თბილისი, 1962 *ლ. ჯანაშია, ქართლი V საუკუნის მეორე ნახევარში/ საქართველოს ისსტორიის ნარკვევები, ტ. II, თბილისი, 1973 *ბ. ლომინაძე, საქართველოს მართლმადიდებელი ეკლესიის ადმინისტრაიული ორგანიზაცია V საუკუნეში, საქართველოს ფეოდალური ხანის ისტორიის საკითხები, VII, გამომცემლობა "ცოტნე" *ვ. გოილაძე, ვახტანგ გორგასალი და მისი ისტორიკოსი, თბილისი, 1991 *ზ.ალექსიძე, ვახტანგ გორგასალსა და მიქაელ მთავაეპისკოპოსს შორის კონფლიქტის გამო/ ძიებანისაქართველოსა და კავკასიის ისტორიიდან, 1976 *ნ. ლომოური, საქართველოსა და ბიზანტიის ურთიერთობა V საუკუნეში,1989, გვ. 52 *ვ. მ. ლორთქიფანიძე, ქართლი V საუკუნის მეორ ნახევარში, თბილისი, 1979 *Les plus anciens homéliaires géorgiens, étude descriptive et historique par Michel van Esbroeck. Publication de l’institut orientaliste de Louvain, 10. Luvain-la-neuve, 1975 Category:Chosroid kings of Iberia Category:Saints of Georgia (country) Category:Burials at Svetitskhoveli Cathedral Category:City founders Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars Category:Rebellions against the Sasanian Empire Category:5th-century births Category:6th-century deaths Category:5th-century monarchs in Europe Category:6th-century monarchs in Europe Category:5th-century monarchs in Asia Category:6th-century monarchs in Asia Category:6th-century Christian saints Category:Vassal rulers of the Sasanian Empire Category:Christians in the Sasanian Empire Category:Sasanian generals Category:Georgians from the Sasanian Empire Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:Year of death uncertain
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The East is a 2013 thriller film directed by Zal Batmanglij and starring Brit Marling, Alexander Skarsgård, and Elliot Page. Writers Batmanglij and Marling spent two months in 2009 practicing freeganism and co-wrote a screenplay inspired by their experiences and drawing on thrillers from the 1970s. The American studio Fox Searchlight Pictures had bought rights to distribute Batmanglij's previous film Sound of My Voice and also collaborated with the director to produce The East. With Ridley Scott as producer and Tony Scott as executive producer, Fox Searchlight contracted Scott Free Productions, headquartered in London, to produce the film. The East was filmed in two months in Shreveport, Louisiana at the end of 2011. The film premiered to strong reviews at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival on , 2013. It was released in theaters on , 2013. ==Plot== Jane (Brit Marling), an operative for private intelligence firm Hiller Brood, is assigned by her boss, Sharon (Patricia Clarkson), to infiltrate The East, an underground activist, anarchist and environmentalist organization that has launched a vandalistic attack against a corporate leader and threatens two more as retribution for ecological crimes. Calling herself Sarah, she joins drifters in hitching train rides. When one drifter, Luca (Shiloh Fernandez), helps her escape from the police, she identifies the symbol of The East hanging from Luca's car mirror. Sarah self- inflicts an arm injury that she tells Luca was caused in the escape so he can get her medical attention. He takes her to a seemingly abandoned house in the woods where members of The East live and one of them, Doc (Toby Kebbell), treats her. Sarah is given two nights to recover before she must leave. At an elaborate dinner involving straitjackets, Sarah is tested and fails, exposing how selfishly she and many others live their lives. Sarah is caught spying one night by Eve (a group member who is deaf) and signs to her she is an undercover agent, threatening Eve with jail if she stays; Eve leaves the next morning. Sarah is recruited to fill the missing member's role on a "jam", an old fashioned term for direct action. Sarah reluctantly participates in The East's next jam and learns that the group's members have all been damaged by corporate activities. For example, Doc was poisoned by a fluoroquinolone antibiotic and his neurosystem is degenerating. The East infiltrates a party for the antibiotic company's senior executives and adds the antibiotic to the champagne. The East announce this via YouTube: one executive's health begins to fail, revealing the drug's side effects. After seeing the jam's effectiveness, compounded by her attraction to charismatic Benji (Alexander Skarsgård), Sarah questions the morality of her job. Another member, Izzy (Elliot Page), is the daughter of a petrochemical CEO. The group uses this connection to gain access to him and forces him to bathe in the waterway he has been using as a toxic dumping ground. This goes wrong when security arrives and shoots the fleeing Izzy. At the squat, Doc's hands tremble too much for him to perform surgery. Working under his guidance, Sarah manages to remove the bullet but Izzy dies. This is the catalyst for Sarah and Benji's romance and they have sex. Sarah implores Benji to leave, but he insists they participate in a fourth and final jam. Sarah initially refuses but gives in. When she awakens after sleeping in the car, she realizes that Benji is driving her to Hiller Brood's headquarters. He reveals that he has always suspected her of being a spy, as did Luca, who brought her in as a test. Benji wants Sarah to obtain a NOC global list of Hiller Brood agents, to "watch" them. Having copied the list onto her cell phone's memory card, Sarah runs into Sharon and confronts her about the firm's activities, revealing her new allegiances. Sharon has Sarah's cellphone confiscated as she leaves. As Hiller Brood had been sharing information with the FBI, The East's hideout is raided and Doc is arrested but sacrifices himself to ensure that the remaining members can escape. Sarah tells Benji she has failed to get the NOC list, which Benji reveals he meant to use to expose the undercover agents, even though that meant they could be killed. Sarah chooses not to go on the run and they part as Benji heads out of the country. In truth, Sarah still has the list because she had swallowed the memory card. The film ends with an epilogue of her contacting her undercover former coworkers and informing them of the corporate crimes Hiller Brood's clients want to protect. She is thus using a peaceful approach to promote The East's goals. ==Cast== * Brit Marling as Sarah Moss/Jane Owen * Alexander Skarsgård as Benji * Elliot Page as Izzy * Toby Kebbell as Doc / Thomas Ayres * Shiloh Fernandez as Luca * Julia Ormond as Paige Williams * Patricia Clarkson as Sharon * Jason Ritter as Tim * Danielle Macdonald as Tess * Billy Slaughter as Trevor "The Fed" * Wilbur Fitzgerald as Robert McCabe * Aldis Hodge as Thumbs * Billy Magnussen as Porty McCabe * Jamey Sheridan as Richard Cannon ==Production== * Zal Batmanglij – director, screenwriter * Brit Marling – producer, screenwriter * Ridley Scott – producer * Michael Costigan – producer * Jocelyn Hayes-Simpson – producer * Tony Scott – executive producer * Roman Vasyanov – cinematographer * Andrew Weisblum – editor * Bill Pankow – editor * Halli Cauthery – music * Harry Gregson-Williams – themes for score * Alex DiGerlando – production designer * Jenny Gering – costume designer * Nikki Black – art director * Cynthia Slagter – set decorator The East is directed by Zal Batmanglij. He co-wrote the screenplay with Brit Marling, who also stars in the film. Batmanglij and Marling also wrote the screenplay for Sound of My Voice and went to Los Angeles in 2009 to produce a film. Due to the economy, they could not make the film that year. They were then inspired by the concept of Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism, and decided to experience a Buy Nothing summer. They spent two months in 2009 with proponents of freeganism, which is a practice of eating "discarded food in their pursuit of a moneyless existence". Marling said, "We wanted to have some adventure, and we didn't have any money. We learned to hop trains, we learned to sleep on rooftops, we learned to claim the space that feels so private. We joined this anarchist collective." The pair drew from their experiences as well as thriller films like All The President's Men, The Bourne Identity and Michael Clayton to craft The East, which they wrote before they began filming Sound of My Voice for a 2011 release. Batmanglij and Marling wrote to have the anarchist organization target a multinational corporation instead of a government. Marling said, "Multinational corporations are outside of the purview of any nation-state. These are the entities that are shaping and running the world... The modern anarchy movement is about rebelling against the corporate structure." Batmanglij said the film focused on the pharmaceutical industry due to the writers hearing stories about the side effects of drugs, such as a drug to help quit smoking that resulted in some people committing suicide. He said they considered focusing on banks due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008, but they chose the pharmaceutical industry so the mission in the film would have emotional resonance. They titled the film The East to make a variety of references. The director explained, "'The East' is ... the East Coast, which is like something in our American collective consciousness—New England, tony, center of power. The Wicked Witch of the East in the Oz mythology was the bad witch because the book was about how the Midwest was getting screwed over by the east, by Washington. And then of course we have the Middle East or the Far East, which is seen as different or other. The ultimate Other. So, it's funny that this word means two things, and I thought that was an interesting name for a resistance group that is combined of kids from New England who want to make themselves the Other." Sound of My Voice, directed by Batmanglij and starring Marling, screened at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival in January. Producer Michael Costigan, who liked Sound of My Voice, got a copy of the screenplay for The East. Costigan liked the screenplay and approached Batmanglij to say that he and his fellow producers Ridley Scott and Tony Scott at Scott Free Productions were interested in making the film. After the festival, Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired distribution rights for Sound of My Voice and Another Earth (also starring Marling). In the process, the distributor greenlighted production of The East. By September 2011, Marling and Alexander Skarsgård were cast in the starring roles. Felicity Jones was attached to play Izzy, but she dropped out to promote Like Crazy. Jones was replaced by Elliot Page. Production of the film, which had a budget of , took place in Shreveport, Louisiana. Production designer Alex DiGerlando converted an alternative lifestyle club in Shreveport into a house for The East. The club was originally painted black and gold, and it was repainted different shades of green for the film. Filming took place in late 2011; Batmanglij said it lasted . The director compared the film's ambivalent ending to the one in the 2002 film 25th Hour: "I feel like it's almost as if the film’s events never happened at its end... It's sort of like what we're all capable of if we put our minds to it. There's a lot of work that needs to be done in order to make changes, even for her to make changes." ==Release== ===Screenings=== The film premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival on , 2013. The Sundance Institute, as part of their Sundance Film Festival USA program, screened The East at the Michigan Theater in Ann Arbor, Michigan on , 2013. Over 1,300 people were in attendance for the screening, and Zal Batmanglij and Brit Marling showed for a Q&A; session. Leading up to its theatrical release in May 2013, The East was chosen as the closing night film of the South by Southwest (SXSW) Film Conference and Festival, and went on to screen at the Phoenix Film Festival, Seattle International Film Festival, and the San Francisco International Film Festival. The Washington Post reported that Q&A; sessions after the film's screenings were popular. It said, "Filmgoers might not have agreed on their feelings about 'The East,' but they had one thing in common: They needed to talk about it." According to Batmanglij, the Sundance screening retained 98% of the audience for its Q&A; session. The East had its New York City premiere on , 2013. It was released in four theaters in Los Angeles and New York City on May 31, 2013. The film grossed $77,031 over the opening weekend, a theater average of $19,258. Indiewire reported, "That's a strong number in general and also a big step up from Batmanglij and Marling's previous collaboration." TheWrap said the film had a strong start, while Box Office Mojo said it "opened to modest results". In its second weekend, the release was expanded to . It grossed $228,561 over the weekend. Overall, it grossed . ===Critical response=== The Wall Street Journal reported that at the Sundance Film Festival, the film "opened to mostly strong reviews". Varietys Justin Chang reviewed the film, "This clever, involving spy drama builds to a terrific level of intrigue before losing some steam in its second half." He noted that, "the appreciable growth in filmmaking confidence here should translate into a fine return on Fox Searchlight's investment". John DeFore, writing for The Hollywood Reporter, described The East as "a social-conscience espionage film that has actually thought about its 'eco-terrorism' themes beyond figuring out how to mine them for suspense". He said, "Batmanglij balances emotional tension with practical danger nicely, a must in a story whose activist protagonists can make no distinction between the personal and the political." Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave The East 5 stars and highlighted it as a Sundance standout. He said the film felt like a "sophisticated" Earth First! take of The Parallax View and other 1970s films with the theme of paranoia. Logan Hill, reviewing for indieWire, said, "Fast-paced and energetic, 'The East' hits a beat and hurries along to the next 'Jam.' As slickly paced as a big- studio espionage movie, it nearly succeeds as a pure adrenaline-rush thriller. In the end, the problem isn't that there's too much plot, but rather a certain dramatic illogic." Hill commended the cast and said of the direction, "Batmanglij has a particular talent for capturing that unmoored, twentysomething search for meaning, and the tight-knit allure of a group that offers a reason for living. But the film is so plot-driven, those don't have much room to breathe." Following the film's release in May, the film review aggregation website Metacritic surveyed and assessed 26 reviews to be positive, nine to be mixed, and one to be negative. It gave an aggregate score of 68 out of 100, which it said indicated "generally favorable reviews". Another review aggregator, Rotten Tomatoes, surveyed and, categorizing the reviews as positive or negative, assessed 104 as positive and 37 as mixed or negative. It gave the film a score of 74% and summarized the critical consensus, "Tense, thoughtful, and deftly paced, The East is a political thriller that never loses sight of the human element." ===Home media=== The East was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in the United States on September 17, 2013 and in the UK on November 5, 2013. ==See also== * Eco-terrorism in fiction * Hunted, a television series about an operative for a private intelligence company * The Company You Keep, a film about a former Weatherman who lives in hiding from the FBI for over 30 years ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:2013 films Category:British independent films Category:American independent films Category:Eco-terrorism in fiction Category:Films shot in Louisiana Category:Fox Searchlight Pictures films Category:Scott Free Productions films Category:Films directed by Zal Batmanglij Category:Films produced by Ridley Scott Category:British thriller films Category:2013 independent films Category:2013 thriller films Category:American thriller films Category:2010s English-language films Category:2010s American films Category:2010s British films Category:English- language thriller films
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The Tank, Cruiser, Challenger (A30) was a British tank of World War II. It mounted the QF 17-pounder anti-tank gun on a chassis derived from the Cromwell tank to add anti-tank firepower to the cruiser tank units. The design compromises made in fitting the large gun onto the Cromwell chassis resulted in a tank with a powerful weapon and reduced armour. However, the extemporised 17-pounder Sherman Firefly conversion of the US-supplied Sherman proved easier to produce and, with delays in production, only 200 Challengers were built. The Challenger was able to keep up with the fast Cromwell tank and was used with them. ==History== The driving force in the development of the Challenger was William Arthur Robotham. "Roy" Robotham had been a Rolls-Royce executive in the car division who, with no work to do, had led a team to develop a tank powerplant from the Rolls-Royce Merlin aircraft engine. The Rolls-Royce Meteor gave the British a powerful, reliable engine, which was used in the A27M Cruiser Mk VIII Cromwell tank. Robotham's contributions gained him a place in the Ministry of Supply and on the Tank Board, despite his lack of experience in tank design. The General Staff brought forward specification A29 for a 45 ton, 17 pounder-armed cruiser tank based on needs identified in the African desert campaign. British tanks were generally underarmed compared to German vehicles. The design weight of this vehicle was subsequently seen as excessive and the specification was passed over in favour of the alternate specification, A30, which was lighter.http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_cruiser_tank_A29.html ; retrieved 18 June 2016 In 1942, an order for the development of an A30 based tank was placed with Birmingham Railway Carriage & Wagon Company (BRC&W;) expecting it to be based on the Cromwell components also being manufactured by BRC&W.; The turret and gun mounting were in the hands of Stothert & Pitt. Birmingham Carriage had to modify the Cromwell hull to take a bigger turret. The first prototype was ready in August 1942, only seven months after development had commenced, but proved to be very flawed. An improved second prototype was presented in January 1943 but was still considered unacceptable. A committee met to determine whether a requirement for a 17-pounder tank existed. The Challenger had been developed in anticipation of more heavily armoured Axis tanks, following the trend in Nazi German tank design. At roughly the same time the Tiger 1 entered service with the German army, placing an immediate need for a 17-pounder armed tank in response. When the second prototype was tested at Lulworth, it was found that although it would be effective at long range against the current best-gunned tank in German service (the Panzer IV "Special" with the long gun), at shorter ranges it would be at a disadvantage due to its slow firing rate and thin armour. The design received additional emphasis when, in May 1943, it was found that the Cromwell could not carry its intended armament. Vickers had been developing a 50-calibre-long high-velocity tank gun. It was realised late in the design process that the Cromwell's turret ring was too small for this gun. The Challenger would be the only British cruiser tank to mount a weapon that could tackle heavier German armour until the arrival of the A34 Comet. So in February 1943 an order was made of two hundred vehicles; the Army General Staff took five months to approve the Challenger design for production (in February 1943, the only significant alteration was to the ammunition stowage), and Robotham was also critical of the decision to continue manufacturing the Cromwell with a 6-pounder gun (the 17-pounder gun was "infinitely better"). British tank production was constrained by limited resources and insufficient numbers could be made. This was compensated by American production. In the lead up to D-Day, Sherman tanks were fitted with the 17 pounder, creating the interim 17 pounder Sherman Firefly. Converting Sherman tanks was simpler than producing Challengers, so it was decided in November 1943 to terminate the A30 production run after the two hundred vehicles had been built, allowing BRC&W; to concentrate on the Cromwell. At the same time the A 40 "Challenger Stage II" project was cancelled, which had envisaged a 36 tonne type with heavier armour. Future design priority was concentrated on the A34 Comet, which eventually replaced the Cromwell, Firefly and Challenger. Challenger production started in March 1944. That year 145 vehicles were delivered with another 52 in 1945. Production was in two batches. A first run of forty vehicles had a 40 mm gun mantlet; with the second batch this was replaced by a 102 mm mantlet. From the hundredth vehicle onwards appliqué 25 mm armour plates were fitted on the turret, that had already been applied to existing vehicles by field units. The tank was rendered obsolete when the Vickers HV 75 mm gun was developed to become the (actually 3 inch = 76.2 mm calibre) to arm the Comet tank. The used the same projectiles as the 17 pounder with a reduced propellant charge. The 17 pounder gun was used on the earliest marks of the Comet's successor, the Centurion tank. ==Design== thumb|Cruiser tank Challenger (A30) The turret mounted the Ordnance QF 17-pounder gun required in the Tank Board specification and the hull machine gun was removed to provide stowage space for the long 17-pounder cartridges. The War Office expected that this larger ammunition, together with its stowage forward, would require two loaders, which raised the turret crew to four, the commander, gunner, loader 1 and loader 2 (later tanks like the Centurion used a three-man turret) To fit the larger weapon and additional crewman in the turret, a much larger turret than that of the Cromwell was specified, developed separately, which had a significant effect on the design and was not resolved until later development of Avenger. To carry the weight of the 17-pounder and ammunition, an extra wheel station and suspension arm was needed, lengthening the hull. This change in length, without a corresponding change in width across the tracks, reduced mobility compared to the Cromwell, although speed remained high at 25 mph. To limit the weight, the amount of armour was reduced but this could only be achieved on the turret, on the front (the mantlet was 102 mm of IT 90) and on the sides compared to and on the Cromwell. Applique armour, 25 mm thick, was later added to turret and hull front.Boyd The turret did not use a conventional turret ring: to increase the aperture diameter by four inches, it rested on a ball mount on the hull floor. Therefore the base of the turret was unprotected, and it would cantilever if struck by enemy rounds. A jacking feature, with four internal semi-automatic jacks, was fitted to clear jams. The additional length allowed larger hatches to be fitted in the hull while still clearing the turret, providing easier access than Cromwell. ==Controversy== Upon Robotham's appointment as Chief Engineer to the Department of Tank Design, the lack of progress on an (A29) 17-pounder armed tank could not adequately be explained. Robotham's memoirs indicate a lack of awareness that any such requirement existed within the department and military users were still unsure whether the tank was required at the point when the rushed A30 design had been completed and prototype vehicles run. The Challenger was then rushed into production alongside existing production runs of Cromwell, limiting the number of tanks that could be produced. The dubious reliability of earlier British tank designs, along with limited manufacturing capacity, led to a joint mission to the US to explore US tank options and share design experiences learned from action. Consequently, British and other Commonwealth forces introduced a much larger contingent of US-made vehicles, each using dual purpose 75 mm guns with reduced anti-armour capability. Cromwells carrying the 6-pounder had been delayed in design and the move to cancel Challenger while switching Cromwell to the dual purpose 75 mm gun (with a corresponding drop in anti-armour performance) left British and other Commonwealth forces without a main-force tank weapon capable of taking on the equivalent generation of Axis tanks. The lack of firepower was keenly felt by tank crews fighting heavier armed—and sometimes more heavily armoured—Axis tanks. The Firefly was used as a stop-gap, which was only resolved, much later, with the A34 Comet. While Comet improved significantly upon both Cromwell and Challenger designs, its design and production followed that of the Cromwell and was delayed much longer than an equivalent production (and evolution) of Challenger. ==Performance== The 17-pounder gun mounted on the Challenger offered sufficient performance against the majority of German AFVs, including the Tiger I and Panther tank and the tank had a higher top speed and cross country mobility than the Panzer IV or StuG III. The Challenger could only hold 48 rounds of the large 17-pounder ammunition because the General Staff required four men in the turret, though later tanks like the Centurion used a three-man turret. The armour of the Challenger offered very little protection against contemporary German anti-tank guns and was lower than that of the Cromwell, which often operated with Challengers. In combat, the Challenger fulfilled much the same role as the Sherman Firefly, providing overwatch for the other tanks in the troop, as its 17-pounder could penetrate almost all German AFVs frontally, unlike the 75 mm. It was deployed in a similar manner at a troop level, this was typically one 17-pounder armed tank (such as Challenger or Firefly) to three 75 mm armed tanks (Cromwells or Shermans); at times, the deployment of 17-pounder armed tanks was increased to two per troop. The Challenger was based on the reliable Cromwell tank, which used the new Rolls-Royce Meteor engine, which was far more reliable and powerful than the ageing Liberty engine used in earlier British Cruiser designs like the Crusader tank. Its reliability was slightly below that of the Cromwell, as a problem was experienced with track throwing, caused by mud building up in the wheels but this was resolved in the field.Track Throwing, 15.11.44; Rm/GB.5/SW.15.11.44 Supply and maintenance were vastly simplified through the use of common parts with the Cromwell. In comparison with the Firefly, the tank lacked the sloping forward armour but presented a lower profile and avoided the Firefly's constraint on gun depression. The Challenger provided 10° of gun depression while Firefly was limited to 5°, which was a significant disadvantage in combat. It was preferred within Cromwell units as it shared similar mobility and manoeuvrability, whereas the Firefly was slower. Despite a lower design weight than the earlier A29 specification (32½ not 34 tons), the Challenger was heavy and required dockyard equipment to ship, making it impractical to use in amphibious assaults such as the D-day landings. ==Service== No provision was made for deep wading, before the design went into production; as a result, the A30 could not be landed in the initial phase of the Allied invasion of Normandy. Challenger crews had to wait until July 1944, when Mulberry harbours were operational and ports had been captured. The Challenger and Firefly, equipped with 17-pounder, were added to tank squadrons to deal with opposing heavy tanks and many Challengers were issued to reconnaissance units using Cromwells. It was initially used by the Guards Armoured Division and the 11th Armoured Division, with about sixteen vehicles in each unit: one Challenger and three Cromwells in each troop. The latter division phased the type out from February 1945 onwards, while it was being introduced to the Cromwell units of the 7th Armoured Division. The tank was unpopular at first, with crews complaining about the lack of armour, the high silhouette and the tracks being thrown.Note from Service Engineer, 15.11.44; AA.2/JB.11.11.44 The track problem was caused by the smaller idler wheels compared to the Cromwell; these were in August replaced by idlers with a standard diameter. Troops used to the low profile of the Crusader and Cromwell found the height a serious problem, although it was still shorter than the comparable Sherman Firefly. Confidence in the vehicle grew and it became preferred over the Firefly, being lower, faster and more manoeuvrable but the early bad reputation persisted with others.The Rolls-Royce Meteor - Cromwell and other applications; Historical Series No. 35 published by the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust Allied forces were issued with the Challenger, the 1st Polish Armoured Division receiving several in mid-1945 and the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade used it during the siege of Dunkirk in late 1944.Hayward The Other Challenger quoting Six Monthly RAC Progress Reports After the war, the Czechoslovak government purchased 22 Challengers from the brigade inventory, which served in the Czechoslovak army (first with the 11th, later 23rd, Tank Brigade and then with the 13th Independent Tank Battalion) until they were put in reserve in 1951 and scrapped in 1959. ==Variants== The A30 Avenger SP2 or SP 17pdr, A30 (Avenger) was a development of the Challenger to be used as a self-propelled gun. It removed the second loader's position and featured a much lower profile turret and lower superstructure on the hull. An additional stowage bin was provided on the glacis plate for a large camo net and return rollers were added to the tracks. The Avenger featured a permanent opening in the turret roof covered with an armoured cover supported a few inches above. This provided the commander and loader with full 360 degree visibility. By the time the pilot was complete, the British had lend- lease M10s for anti-tank work coming into service and the production of Avenger was de-prioritised in favour of Comet production As many as 500 vehicles appear to have been planned and 230 vehicles were ordered from BRC&W;, but this dropped to 80 with the end of the war. It is not known how many were actually built; the SP2 nomenclature indicates its place in production with the Archer (SP1) and Alecto (SP3). The Avenger suffered in trials as the engine had to remain running to use the turret traverse motor, because the noise and exhaust could give the vehicle away. Winter trials in a prolonged stationary position also failed in comparison with Archer, when the Avenger's steering failed. Both vehicles had problems with camouflage. The vehicle was dropped from trials in 1950, along with removal of the 17pdr SP Achilles (re-gunned US M10 GMC- equipped with 17pdr). While the Avenger was only used for trials and was ultimately unsuccessful in comparison with the purpose built vehicles, it provides an example of what could have been possible for the Challenger had it not been forced to accommodate a second loader in a larger (four-man) turret in its design. It may have been corrected had effort not been moved to the Comet. ==Survivors== Two vehicles survive, one at the Overloon War Museum in the Netherlands, acquired from the Muzeeaquarium Delfzijl in 1976; the other was awaiting restoration at the Isle of Wight Military Museum in the United Kingdom until its closure. Once restored, it will be displayed at the Bovington Tank Museum. == Notes == == References == * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * OnWar * whatifmodellers.com Category:Cruiser tanks of the United Kingdom Category:World War II tanks of the United Kingdom Category:World War II tank destroyers Category:Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944
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List of archaeological sites in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland: __NOTOC__ ==A== *Aghafad, Rath, grid ref: H4603 5800 *Aghagogan, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H6391 7360 and standing stone, grid ref: H6398 7351 *Aghalane, Standing stone, stone circle, alignments and cist, grid ref: H4946 9260 *Aghalane, Court tomb: Cloghogle, grid ref: H5473 7854 *Aghaloo Church, in Rousky townland, grid ref: H6634 5494 *Aghalunny, Bridge: Fairy Bridge, grid ref: H1695 7985 *Aghascrebagh, Prehistoric burial monument: ‘Pagan Graveyard’, grid ref: H6162 8381 *Aghascrebagh, Ogham stone, grid ref: H6178 8390 *Aghascrebagh, Standing stone, grid ref: H6166 8397 *Aghintain, Fortified house, grid ref: H4985 5151 *Aghnagreggan, Court tomb, grid ref: H4985 5151 *Aghnahoo and Leitrim, Souterrain, grid ref: H2263 8032 *Ally, Court tomb, grid ref: H2570 7242 *Altanagh, Burial mound, grid ref: H6266 6936 *Altcloghfin, Portal tomb, grid ref: H5643 6244 *Altdrumman, Portal tomb: Cloghogle, grid ref: H5778 7679 *Altdrumman, Wedge tomb and court tomb, grid ref: H5588 7626 *Altmore (alias Barracktown), Megalith, grid ref: H6710 6936 and court tomb, grid ref: H6686 6961 *Annagh, Rectangular earthwork, H5083 6651 *Annagh More, Crannog, grid ref: H6988 5465 *Ardboe High Cross, Ecclesiastical site: environs of Ardboe Cross and abbey, Farsnagh and Sessia townland, grid ref: H9660 7562 *Aughnacarney, Rath, grid ref:H5540 5164 ==B== *Balix Lower, Cashel, grid ref: H4921 9757 *Balix Lower, Court tomb: ‘The White Rocks’ (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H4836 9635 *Ballyclog Old Church, Church, Glebe townland, grid ref: H8660 7369 *Ballygawley Castle, grid ref: H6324 5749 *Ballygowan, Counterscarp raths (2), grid refs: H4297 7235 and H4344 7191 *Ballykeery, Killeen, grid ref: H4492 9540 *Ballynabwee, Counterscarp rath, grid ref: C4090 0500 *Ballynamallaght, Prehistoric landscape, standing stone, cairns and field walls, grid ref: Area of H510 988 *Ballynatubbrit, Ring barrow, grid ref: H4469 8331 *Ballyness, Standing stone, grid ref: H4592 5312 *Ballyrenan, Portal tomb: Cloghogle, grid ref: H3732 8317 *Ballywholan, Court tomb: ‘Carnagat’ (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H5786 8166 *Beaghmore, Cairns (2), grid refs: H6872 8470 and H6856 8472 *Beaghmore, Stone circles, alignments and cairns, grid ref: Area of H684 842 *Beaghmore, Round cairn with standing stones: Bradley's Cairn, grid ref: H6830 8401 *Beaghmore, Cairn and alignment, grid ref: H6863 8431 *Beleevna Beg, Concentric stone circles, grid ref: H6192 8296 *Beltany, Court tomb, grid ref: H4168 8262 *Beltrim, Stone circle and standing stones, grid ref: H4814 8464 *Beragh, Standing stone complex, grid ref: H3919 8122 *Berrysfort, Standing stone (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H2719 8382 *Bloomhill, Rath, grid ref: H5915 5659 *Bodoney, Rath, grid ref: H3181 6517 *Branny, Hilltop enclosure, grid ref: H6826 5556 *Broughderg, Court tomb: Carnanagarranbane, grid ref: H6465 8623 *Broughderg, Stone circle and alignment, grid ref: H6593 8714 *Broughderg, Stone circles, alignments and cairn, grid ref: H6496 8613 *Broughderg, Two stone circles and a standing stone, grid ref: H6535 8482 *Broughderg, Megalithic tomb, grid ref: H6440 8636 *Broughderg, Cist burial and associated features, grid ref: H6772 8697 *Bullock Park, Portal tomb, grid ref: H2778 7892 ==C== *Cabragh, Large enclosure: Cabragh Fort, grid ref: H2695 5670 *Cadian, Sweat house, grid ref: H7679 5566 *Caldragh Children's Burial Ground, Foremass Lower townland, grid ref: H5837 6607 *Caledon Cross, in Demesne townland, grid ref: H7545 4372 *Caledon, Beam engine, grid ref: H7581 4521 *Camowen, Rath, grid ref: H4924 6844 *Camus, Church, grid ref: H3473 9160 *Cappagh Church, in Dunmullan townland, grid ref: H4493 8021 *Carnanransy, Court tomb: Cloghmore, grid ref: H6246 8550 *Carncorran Glebe, Portal tomb: Giant's Grave, grid ref: H2889 8243 *Carnteel, Church, grid ref: H6944 5460 *Carr, Platform rath, grid ref: H5469 5399 *Carrickayne, Prehistoric landscape, stone circle, alignments and cairns, grid ref: Area of H526 988 *Carrickayne, Prehistoric landscape, cairns and field walls, grid ref: Area of H516 985 *Carrickmore, Graveyard: Relignaman or Relicknaman, grid ref: H6064 7224 *Carrickmore, Graveyard: Relignalaniv, grid ref: H6137 7273 *Carrigans, Court tomb, grid ref: H4218 8076 *Carryglass, Multiple cist cairn: Carnamoghil, grid ref: H3839 5575 *Carryglass, Standing stone: Garranbane, grid ref: H3932 5590 *Carryglass, Wedge tomb and cist, grid ref: H3883 5614 *Cashel, Standing stone: ‘Cloghacarah’, grid ref: H5786 8166 *Cashel, Portal tomb, grid ref: H5794 8106 *Castle Curlews, in Kirlish townland, grid ref: H3196 7579 *Castledamph, Rath, grid ref: H5206 9174 *Castledamph, Stone circles and stone alignment, grid ref: H5216 9236 *Castlederg Castle, Bawn, Castlesessagh townland, grid ref: H2605 8442 *Castlemervyn Demesne, Stone circle, grid ref: H3363 5740 *Castletown, Ring barrow, grid ref: H7054 5631 *Castletown, Eel weir and associated features, grid ref: H7076 8561 *Cavanreagh, Barrow, grid ref: H6108 6699 *Cavanreagh, Standing stones, grid ref: H6090 6701 *Churchtown, Wedge tomb: ‘Todd’s Den’ (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H2688 8565 *Clady Haliday, Court tomb: Carnmore, grid ref: H3423 8874 *Clare, Court tomb: White Stones, grid ref: H5913 7393 *Clogher Demesne, Ecclesiastical site and high crosses: Clochar Mac nDiameni, grid ref: H5376 5156 *Clogher Demesne, Clogher Hillfort (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H5387 5133 *Clogher Demesne, Large hilltop enclosure, grid ref: H5478 5050 *Clogherny, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H4882 9453 *Clogherny, Stone circles, grid ref: H4925 9480 *Clogherny, Crannog, grid ref: H7641 5660 *Clogherny Glebe, Raths (3), grid refs: H5741 9165, H5780 9195 and H5852 9221 *Cloghfin, Portal tomb, grid ref: H5186 7218 *Cloghfin, Rath, grid ref: H6042 6637 *Cloghfin, Standing stones (3), H6024 6736 *Cloghfin, Standing stone (fallen), grid ref: H5990 6725 *Cloghog, Rectangular enclosure – artillery fort?, grid ref: H8711 6683 *Clonfeacle Cross, in Tullydowey townland, grid ref: H8387 5212 *Coalisland Canal, Coalisland Canal basin (part of) and canal reaches (3) *Coalisland, Colliery chimney, in Annagher townland, grid ref: H8468 6713 *Coalisland, Coalisland Works Chimneys (4), Brackaville and Annagher townlands, grid ref: H4829 6657 *Copney, Stone circles (8), stone circle complex, grid ref: H599 780 *Copney, Stone circles (2) and alignments, grid ref: H5939 7826 *Corboe, Rath, grid ref: H5158 5768 *Corick, Rath and tree-ring, grid ref: H5453 5297 *Corick Abbey, Friary, Corickmore townland, grid ref: H4519 8817 *Corramore, Platform rath, grid ref: H5917 9238 *Corramore, Rath, grid ref: H5878 9229 *Crannogue, Fortified mound, grid ref: H6839 6762 *Cranny, Rath, grid ref: H4739 7246 *Creevelough, Rath, grid ref: H7466 5330 *Cregganconroe, Stone circle, alignment and cairn, grid ref: H6504 7523 *Cregganconroe, Stone circles (2), cairns (2) and alignment, grid ref: H6479 7521 *Creggandevesky, Portal tomb, H6391 7524 *Creggandevesky, Stone structure, grid ref: H6285 7389 *Crew, Platform rath, grid ref: H6056 5731 *Crew Lower, Standing stones, grid ref: H3151 8480 *Crocknafarbrague, Cairn: Carnacalleen, grid ref: H3838 5605 *Crocknafarbrague, Standing stone – possible megalithic tomb, grid ref: H3796 5522 *Crosh, Portal tomb: Cloghogle, grid ref: H4176 8791 *Crouck, Megalithic tomb, grid ref: H6220 8445 *Crouck, Fulacht fiadh (cooking place), grid ref: H6239 8433 *Cullamore, Court tomb: Giant's Grave, grid ref: H5809 4839 *Culvacullion, Stone circles and alignment: ‘standing stones’, grid ref: H4949 8892 *Culvacullion, Stone circle, grid ref: H4928 8933 ==D== *Davagh Lower, wedge tomb: "Big Man's Grave", grid ref: H7013 9708 *Davagh Lower, Ring cairn, stone circle and alignments, grid ref: H7047 8674 *Deer Park (McCormick), Platform rath, grid ref: H4259 7270 *Deer Park (McCormick), Boulder with hollows: Cloghanachorite, grid ref: H4299 7285 *Deer Park (McCormick), Court tomb, grid ref: H4305 7264 *Dergbrough, ráth, grid ref: H4692 8994 *Dernabane, large enclosure, grid ref: H6632, 5384 *Derryallen, standing stones (3), grid ref: H3088 5313 *Derrydrummond, court tomb: "Giant's Graves", grid ref: H5737 4850 *Derrywoone Castle, Baronscourt townland, grid ref: H3669 8357 *Donaghenry, standing stone, grid ref: H8353 7206 *Doocrock, court tomb, grid ref: H2764 6219 *Doorat, stone circles (2), grid ref: H4926 9689 *Doorat, stone circles (2), standing stone and alignment, grid ref: H4952 9652 *Doorless, ráth, grid ref: H8380 7650 *Dromore, Church, grid ref: H3491 6276 *Drumgormal, bivallate ráth, grid ref: H8735 6984 *Drumragh, Church, grid ref: H4568 6980 *Drumsonnus, henge, grid ref: H2805 5380 *Dunbunrawer, ráth, grid ref: H4626 8605 *Dundivin Glebe, ráths (2), grid ref: H4467 5766 *Dungannon Castle, site of, in Drumcoo townland, grid ref: H7990 6262 *Dungororan, ráth (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H7387 6931 *Dunmisk, enclosure: "Dunmisk Fort", grid ref: H6279 7074 *Dunmore, mound: moat (Lough Fea), grid ref: H7603 8659 *Dunnalong, fortified town: Dunnalong Fort, grid ref: Area of C378 105 *Dunnamore wedge tomb (:de:Wedge Tomb von Dunnamore): "Dermot and Grania's Bed", Dunnamore townland, grid ref: H6860 8090 *Dun Ruadh (Doonroe), multiple cist cairn and henge, Crouck townland, grid ref: H6232 8453 *Durless White, ráth, grid ref: H6040 5145 ==E== *Edenageeragh, Rath: Lismalore Fort, grid ref: H6966 5249 *Errigal, Rath, grid ref: H5823 5645 *Evish, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H3923 9678 ==F== *Farsnagh and Sessia, Ruined structure, grid ref: H9673 7573 *Favor Royal Demesne, Bivallate raths (2), grid refs: H6060 5290 and H6128 5215 *Feegarran, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H7726 8225 *Feegarran, Trackway, grid ref: H7664 8265 *Findermore, Cross-carved standing stone: Abbey Stone, grid ref: H5176 5124 *Fintona, Church ruins, in Castletown townland, grid ref: H4447 6143 *Freughlough, Standing stone, grid ref: H2620 8530 *Freughmore, Large hilltop enclosure, grid ref: H4655 6750 ==G== *Garvagh, Cashel, grid ref: H2031 8460 *Garvagh, Court tomb: County Carn, grid ref: H2016 8694 *Garvaghullion, Bronze Age wooden trackway, grid ref: H3680 7667 *Glasdrummond, Court tomb, grid ref: H7083 5509 *Glasmullagh, Wedge tomb: Dermot and Grania's Bed, grid ref: H3873 8050 *Glasmullagh, Four stone circles and a stone alignment, grid ref: H3868 8041 *Glenchuil, Passage tomb (sometimes known as Glenchuil Fort), grid ref: H6030 5828 *Glencull, Cross-head, grid ref: H6830 5321 *Glengeen, Multiple cist cairn, grid ref: H3712 5687 *Glengeen, Stone circle, grid ref: H3804 5608 *Glenkeen, platform rath, grid ref: H7049 4961 *Glenknock, Portal tomb: ‘Cloghogle’ (area around the state care monument), grid ref: H4117 8794 *Glenlark, Rath, grid ref: H5718 8743 *Glenmacoffer, Standing stones (2), grid ref: H5299 8629 *Glennan, rath, grid ref: H3977 6614 *Glennoo, Church, graveyard and bullaun: Killycawna, grid ref: H4960 4288 *Glenroan, Portal tomb and wedge tomb: Dermot and Grania's Bed, grid ref: H5485 9145 *Golan, Stone circle and stone alignment, grid ref: H4399 8193 *Golan, Henge, grid ref: H6616 5677 *Gortalowry, Rath, grid ref: H8086 7738 *Gortatray, Trivallate enclosure, grid ref: H8595 7051 *Gortmerron, Fragment of Romanesque arch, grid ref: H7738 5356 *Gortnagarn, Court tomb, grid ref: H6686 7122 *Granagh, Court tomb, grid ref: H6087 7639 *Grange, Standing stone (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H8317 7477 *Grange, Standing stones (2) (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H8306 7514 ==H== *Holywell Church, Church, graveyard and carved stone, in Lackagh* townland, grid ref: H3132 7425 ==I== *Island McHugh, Crannog and fortification, Baronscourt townland, grid ref: H3646 8378 ==K== *Keady, Platform rath, grid ref: H5905 5641 *Keerin, Portal tomb, grid ref: H6418 8656 *Keerin, Court tomb, grid ref: H6376 8607 *Kilcroagh, Standing stone: the White Stone, grid ref: H2554 8487 *Kilknock, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H3725 5420 *Kilknock, Large hilltop enclosure, ‘Crockroe’, grid ref: H3697 5498 *Killadroy, Rath, grid ref: H5219 6194 *Killeter, Court tomb, grid ref: H1939 7872 *Killeter, Double stone alignment, grid ref: H1939 7872 *Killoan, Decorated cross-base: the Headstone, grid ref: H2967 7530 *Killucan, Wedge tomb: Carnanbane (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H6833 7925 *Killucan, Long cairn (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H6848 8012 *Killyliss, Bivallate rath, grid ref: H4104 6084 *Killyliss, Rath: Killyliss fort (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H7569 6056 *Killymoon Demesne, Court tomb, grid ref: H8232 7686 *Killymore, Rath: Attyhole Fort, grid ref: H4333 8658 *Killynaght, Portal tomb, grid ref: C3909 0113 *Kilnagrew, Crannog, grid ref: H8082 5397 *Knockaginny, Rath, grid ref: H7265 4625 *Knocknahorna, Stone circle, grid ref: H4105 9890 ==L== *Laghtmorris, Possible cashel, grid ref: H1860 8435 *Legland, Court tomb, grid ref: H3613 7963 *Leitrim, Portal tomb: Druid's Altar, grid ref: H2250 8000 *Leitrim, Hillfort, grid ref: H2205 8020 *Letterbrat, Portal tomb, grid ref: H4715 9156 *Lettergash, Rath: Lettergash Fort, grid ref: H3028 6203 *Lettery, Stone alignment, megalithic tomb and associated features, grid ref: H2860 6613 *Lisconrea, Two megalithic structures, grid ref: H3930 5670 *Lisconrea, Ring barrow, grid ref: H3946 5674 *Lisdoart, Platform rath, grid ref: H6235 5565 *Lisgobban, Bivallate rath: Lisgobban Fort, grid ref: H8108 5485 *Liskincon, Rath, grid ref: H5629 6763 *Lisky, Court tomb (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H3575 9051 *Lislane, Wedge tombs (2), grid refs: H4747 5363 and H4689 5596 *Lismore, Rath, grid ref: H6196 5447 *Lismore, Favor Royal Bawn, grid ref: H6316 5380 *Lisnagleer, Standing stone: ‘Clogh Corr’, grid ref: H7850 6763 *Lisnaragh Irish, Rath, grid ref: C4569 0025 *Lissan, Rath: Birch Hill, grid ref: H7939 8203 *Lissan, Counterscarp rath, grid ref: H7899 8254 *Loughash, Wedge tomb: Cashelbane, grid ref: C5162 0130 *Loughash, Wedge tomb: Giant's Grave, grid ref: C4834 0080 *Loughmacrory, Court tomb: Carnanbane, grid ref: H5778 7773 *Loughmacrory, Wedge tomb: Dermot and Grania's bed, grid ref: H5862 7765 *Loughmacrory, Court tomb, grid ref: H5854 7701 *Loughry, Rath, grid ref: H8132 7410 *Loughry, Wedge tomb: Giant's Grave, grid ref: H8124 7487 *Loughry, Bronze Age settlement and ring ditch, grid ref: H8139 7498 *Lungs, Earthwork: oval platform and terrace, grid ref: H5050 5106 *Lurganboy, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H4157 8267 ==M== *Magheraglass, Church and enclosure (area surrounding the state care monument), grid ref: H7437 7677 *Magherakeel, Church, grid ref: H1841 7971 *Mallabeny, Hillfort, grid ref: H5079 5411 *Martray, Rath: Martray Fort, grid ref: H6457 5893 *Meenagorp, Megalithic tomb, grid ref: H4520 9160 *Meendamph, Standing stone and stone circle, grid ref: H4579 9755 *Mountcastle, Plantation castle, grid ref: C4175 0515 *Moymore, Rath, grid ref: H7169 7394 *Moymore, Stone circles (9) and alignments, grid ref: H7104 7452 *Moymore, Barrow, grid ref: H7035 7508 *Mullaghmore, Rath: H7830 6493 *Mullaghslin Glebe, Bivallate rath, grid ref: H5628 7261 *Mullanabreen, Cashel, grid ref: H2005 8242 *Mullanabreen, Rath, grid ref: H2021 8183 *Mullanahoe, Souterrain, grid ref: H9335 7483 *Mullanmore, Wedge tomb: Labby Dermot, grid ref: H5913 7617 *Mullans, Rath, grid ref: H5675 5278 *Mullaghwotragh, Windmill, grid ref: H9203 7715 *Mulnafye, Round cairn, grid ref: H5423 7761 *Mulnagore, Hut platform, grid ref: H7668 6894 *Muntober, Rath: the Black Fort, grid ref: H7442 8161 *Murnells, Portal tomb and long cairn: Dermot and Grania's Bed and round cairn, grid ref: H6796 7569 ==N== *Newtownstewart, Castle site (mound and foundation): Pigeon Hill, Croshballinfree townland, grid ref: H4036 8578 ==O== *Oughtboy, Stone alignments, grid ref: H5959 9377 *Oughtdoorish, Rath, grid ref: H5875 9253 ==R== *Radergan, Megalithic tomb: Grania's Grave, grid ref: H5544 6434 *Reaghan, Two stone circles, standing stone and possible cairn, grid ref: H4409 8185 *Reloagh, Crannogs, grid ref: H7613 6589 *Roughan Castle, Castle, in Roughan townland, grid ref: H8231 6830 *Roughan and Tullagh Beg, Crannog, grid ref: H8277 6868 ==S== *Scraghy, Stone circle or cairn kerb: Druid's Circle, grid ref: H2088 7423 *Scraghy, Standing stones (2), grid ref: H2213 7383 *Scraghy, Portal tomb, grid ref: H2216 7387 *Seskinore, Platform rath, grid ref: H4913 6360 *Seskinore, Rath, grid ref: H4876 6335 *Sessagh of Gallan, Killeen, grid ref: H4079 8965 *Sessia, Rath, grid ref: H5657 5296 *Sessiamagaroll, Rath and motte: Sessiamagaroll Fort, grid ref: H8120 5404 *Sess Kilgreen, Passage tomb: standing stones (2), grid ref: H6051 5868 *Sess Kilgreen, Mound, grid ref: H6028 5883 *Sess Kilgreen, Passage tomb: decorated standing stone, grid ref: H6026 5860 *Sess Kilgreen, Passage tomb, grid ref: H6041 5845 *Sess Kilgreen, Megalithic tomb, grid ref: H6035 5854 *Shanmaghry, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H7065 6850 *Shantavny Irish, Passage tomb, grid ref: H6018 5969 *Stantavny Scotch, Wedge tomb, grid ref: H5814 6059 *Sixmilecross, Platform rath, grid ref: H5630 6762 *Slaghtfreeden, Megalithic tomb: Giant's Grave and ‘cairns’, grid ref: H7410 8728 *Stakernagh, Crannog in Lough Aughlish, grid ref: H7435 6238 *Stewart Castle, in Newtownstewart, Castle and bawn, grid ref: H4023 8582 *Stewartstown, Castle and village, Castle Farm townland, grid ref: H8599 7077 *Strabane Canal, Strabane Canal Reach 1, Ballydonaghy and Leckpatrick townlands, grid ref: C3594 0391 – C3606 0262 *Strabane Canal, Strabane Canal Reach 2, Greenlaw, Strabane Bog, Woodend and Desert townlands, grid ref: C3605 0262 – C3489 9957 *Strabane Canal, Strabane Canal Reach 3, Greenbrae and Town Parks townlands, grid ref: C3445 9832 – C3462 9895 *Stranagummer, large hilltop enclosure, grid ref: H3049 5632 *Streefe Glebe, Court tomb: Oweyanivore, grid ref: H5440 7535 ==T== *Tattycor, Rath, grid ref: H3976 6232 *Tattykeel, Standing stone (area surrounding state care monument), grid ref: H7480 7738 *Tattykeel, Megalithic tomb, grid ref: H7455 7752 *Tievenny, Platform rath: Tievenny Fort, grid ref: H3178 8558 *Tievenny, Platform rath, grid ref: H3206 8626 *Tirkernaghan, 17th century house, grid ref: C4454 0032 *Tonnagh More, Rath, grid ref: H4020 5967 *Tremoge, Stone circles (2) and double alignment, grid ref: H6538 7330 *Tremoge, Stone circles (3) and alignment, grid ref: H6574 7368 *Trillick Castle, in Castlemervyn Demesne townland, grid ref: H3354 5758 *Tullycunny, Rath, grid ref: H4330 6731 *Tullydowey, Artillery fort: Mullan Fort, grid ref: H8395 5174 *Tullygiven, Crannog, grid ref: H7761 5263 *Tullyhogue Fort, Inauguration site, Ballymully Glebe townland, grid ref: H8251 7428 *Tycanny, Large hilltop enclosure, grid ref: H5621 5804 ==U== *Urney Glebe, Ecclesiastical site and cross carved slab: Ernaidhe, grid ref: H3034 9491 ==W== *Windyhill, Wedge tomb, grid ref: C4016 0229 ==References== The main reference for all sites listed is: NI Environment Agency, Scheduled Historic Monuments (to 15 October 2012), unless otherwise indicated. Tyrone County Tyrone Archaeological
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The Bata Shoe Museum (BSM) is a museum of footwear and calceology in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The museum's building is situated near the northwest of the University of Toronto's St. George campus, in downtown Toronto. The museum building was designed by Moriyama & Teshima Architects, with Raymond Moriyama as the lead architect. The museum's collection of footwear originated from the personal collections of Sonja Bata, started in the mid-1940s. In 1979, Bata provided an endowment to create the Bata Shoe Museum Foundation, with the aim of having the collection professionally managed, and to establish a shoe museum to house, store, and exhibit the collection. The foundation exhibited the collection to the public for the first time in 1992, although it did not open a permanent facility for its museum until May 1995. , the museum's permanent collection includes over 13,000 shoes, and other footwear related items dating back 4,500 years; providing the museum with the largest collection of footwear in the world. Items in the museum's collection are either held in storage, or placed on display in its permanent exhibition. The museum also hosts and organizes a number of temporary and travelling exhibitions, and outreach programs. ==History== The museum's collection originated from the personal collections of Sonja Bata, which arose from her interest in the products produced by her husband's company, the Bata shoe company. Sonja began collecting shoes shortly after her marriage to Thomas J. Bata in 1946, and their subsequent move to Toronto. The Bata family moved to Toronto in the 1940s in order to facilitate the company's expansion into Toronto and the Americas. In 1965, the company's headquarters was formally relocated from Zlín to Toronto (the company's headquarters was later relocated to Lausanne in 2002). By the late 1970s, the personal collection had grown to 1,500 pairs of shoes, overcrowding the company's storerooms. At the suggestion of a friend and anthropologist, Sonja Bata provided an endowment to establish the Bata Shoe Museum Foundation in 1979; an organization that would fund research into footwear and professionally manage the collection. Although the organization shared the same name as the Bata company, the foundation was established as a non-profit entity, legally separate from the Bata company. The foundation operated as a privately funded organization, as Sonja Bata opposed the creation of an institution reliant on public funds. The foundation (and later museum) is primarily funded from a trust created by the Batas' personal wealth. Since its establishment, the foundation set out to find a building to house the collection, exhibit footwear, and house calceology research centres. Early proposals to build the museum near the Ontario Science Centre, or the Harbourfront neighbourhood of Toronto were suggested, but were both rejected. Bata initially made a bid to build the museum at Harbourfront, although it faced public protest. In a conciliatory gesture, the Metropolitan Toronto council proposed the foundation drop the name Bata from the name of the museum, although Sonja Bata refused and abandoned plans to build the museum at Harbourfront. The collection was first publicly displayed in Toronto in 1992 at the Colonnade retail complex. The foundation contracted Moriyama & Teshima Architects to design a museum to house the collection, which was opened to the public on 6 May 1995. The cost to construct the building was not disclosed by the Bata family or the foundation, although estimates reported to be C$8 million to C$12 million. In January 2006, a pair of jewel-encrusted Indian majori slippers used by Sikandar Jah, along with a gold anklet, and toe ring were stolen from the museum. In 2006, the slippers were valued at approximately C$160,000, whereas the gold anklet was valued at C$45,000, and the toe ring at C$11,000. The stolen items were recovered several weeks later by the museum. ==Building== The museum is located in a at the southwest corner of St. George Street and Bloor Street West, near the northwest corner of the University of Toronto's St. George campus. Prior to the museum occupying the site, a gas station was situated on the property. St. George station is the closest Toronto subway station from the building. thumb|The building's glass entrance protrudes from the limestone facade The three-storey Deconstructivist-styled rectangular building was designed by Moriyama & Teshima Architects, with Raymond Moriyama as the project's lead. Moriyama was inspired to shape the building like the boxes used to store and protect the Batas' footwear collection when he viewed them in 1978. The three-storey building's roof is tilted, designed to appear as a lid sitting slightly askew atop a shoe box. The building utilizes most of the property's area, due to local zoning by-laws restricting the height of the building to . The building exterior is made out of smooth, angle canted limestone quarried from Lyons, France; and glass walls that protrude from the building's limestone facade, that serve as the entrance. The building's exterior also features windows above the ground. The interior of the structure is organized into three sections moving east to west, and spread across five floors. In addition to exhibit halls, the building also includes a gift shop, lecture theatre, and reception hall. The floors in the museum's lower levels are made of dark- coloured woods, shaped in diamond parquets, a trompe-l'œil that draws visitors' eyes to their own feet. The building's main hall features a central stairwell ornate with bronze medallions cast by Dora de Pedery-Hunt; and circles cut into the stair risers to let in light from the windows above. The stairway spans five floors in total, including two below ground. A stained glass panel in shoe-like shapes sits atop the building's central staircase. The building's leather-clad reception desk is also designed to appear as a shoe from the stairway. ==Exhibitions== The museum building contains four exhibition galleries, used to exhibit the permanent, and temporary and travelling exhibitions. The museum presently operates only one permanent exhibition, All About Shoes: Footwear Through the Ages, with the other three galleries used to house temporary exhibitions. The museum's permanent exhibition is situated in the lower two levels in the building's east side, whereas specialized temporary exhibitions are situated in the galleries of the building's second and third levels. The exhibition galleries were designed as "neutral spaces," enabling the museum to host a variety of exhibitions. In order to accommodate the exhibits of delicate and fragile objects, the museum's galleries were all designed with strict environmental controls, with little natural light entering the galleries. In addition to physical exhibitions held inside its building, the museum also operates online exhibitions, including an online component to the museum's All About Shoes permanent exhibition. The Virtual Museum of Canada has also hosted online exhibits created by the Museum. ===Permanent exhibition=== The museum's permanent exhibition, All About Shoes, provides a historical survey of footwear throughout history and includes interactive displays that highlight the social significance of shoes and their development from various cultures. The exhibition also features exhibits that examine the development of shoe- making technologies, with mini dioramas of shoe-making workshops throughout history with supplementary text and video. thumb|left|The lower level of the museum holds the museum's permanent exhibition, All About Shoes The exhibition is made up of three components, Behind the Scenes: A Glimpse into Artifact Storage, Fashion Afoot, and What's Their Line Fashion Afoot is an exhibition component that examines the development of fashion shoes during the 20th century, and the emergence of footwear as a major fashion accessory. What's Their Line? examines purpose-built, specialized footwear including French chestnut-crushing clogs, and sumo wrestler's geta The Behind the Scenes component of the exhibition is where shoes, and other items from the museum's collection are placed on display. The exhibits were devised by Montreal-based design firm Design+Communication Ltd., who designed the exhibits with the shoes placed close to the viewer, with monochromatic images of social life to provide context to the shoe's historical use. Larger architectural images intended to evoke the temporal cultural provenance of the shoes are also displayed behind these exhibits. Lighting in the exhibition is subdued, in an effort to protect the collection from deterioration. Shoes are typically displayed on a low-rising dais, typically built from blonde maple wood. The smallest shoes typically on display in the permanent exhibition are Chinese shoes made for women who had their feet bound. The exhibition also features a plaster cast of the first known human-like footprint, made from 3.7 million years old footprints found in Tanzania. ===Temporary exhibitions=== The museum has organized and hosted a number of temporary, and travelling exhibitions in its other exhibition galleries. The museum hosted its first three temporary exhibitions in May 1995. These included The Gentle Step, which focused on the changing status of women in the 19th century, and was reflected in the development of their footwear; One, Two, Buckle My Shoe, an exhibition that focused on footwear in literature; and Inuit Boots: A Woman's Art, which focused on Inuit mukluk making. The following is a sample of temporary exhibitions held at the museum: * Inuit Boots: A Women's Art (1995–1996) * One, Two, Buckle My Shoe: Illustrations from Contemporary Children's Books about Shoes (1995–1996) * The Gentle Step – The Ladies Realm of Fashion 1800–1900 (1995–1997) * Shoe Dreams: Designs by Andrea Pfister (1996–1997) * Tradition and Innovation: Northern Athapaskan Footwear (1996–1997) * Dance! – Minuet to Disco (1997–1999) * Loose Tongues and Lost Soles: Shoes in Cartoon and Caricature (1997) * Dance! (1997–1999) * Footwear Fantasia: Shoe Sculptures by Garry Greenwood (1997) * The Taming of the Shoe: From Attic to Exhibition (1997–1998) * Spirit of Siberia (1997–1998) * Little Feats: A Celebration of Children's Shoes (1998–1999) * Footsteps on the Sacred Earth: Southwestern Native Footwear (1998–1999) * Japanese Footgear: Walking the Path of Innovation (1999–2000) * Herbert and Beth Levine: An American Pair (1999–1999) * Paduka: Feet and Footwear in the Indian Tradition (1999–2000) * Every Step a Lotus: Shoes in the Lives of Chinese Women from Late Imperial China (2001) * Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Foot (2001) * The Perfect Pair: Wedding Shoe Stories (2002–2004) * Paths Across the Plains: Native Footwear of the Great Plains (2004–2005) * Icons of Elegance: Influential Shoe Designers of the 20th century (2005–2007) * Watched by Heaven, Tied to Earth: Summoning Animal Protection for Chinese Children (2006–2007) * The Charm of Rococo: Femininity and Footwear of the 18th century (2006–2008) * On Pointe: The Rise of the Ballet Shoe (2008-2009) * Beauty, Identity, Pride: Native North American Footwear (2009) * On a Pedestal: From Renaissance Chopines to Baroque Heels (2009–2010) * Socks: Between You and Your Shoes (2010) * Art in Shoes/Shoes in Art (2010) * The Roaring 20's: Hemlines, Heels and High Hopes (2011) * Roger Vivier: Process to Perfection (2012) * Collected in the Field: Shoemaking Traditions from Around the World (2013) * Out of the Box: The Rise of Sneaker Culture (2013) * Fashion Victims: The Pleasures and Perils of 19th Century Dress (2014) * Standing Tall: The Curious History of Men in Heels (2015) * Manolo Blahnik: The Art of Shoes (2018) * WANT: Desire, Design and Depression Era Footwear (2018) * The Gold Standard: Glittering Footwear From Around the Globe (2021) * Art & Innovation: Traditional Arctic Footwear from the Bata Shoe Museum Collection (2021) * All Dolled Up: Fashioning Cultural Expectations (2022) * The Great Divide: Footwear in the Age of Enlightenment (Currently on view) * Future Now: Virtual Sneakers to Cutting-Edge Kicks (Currently on view) * Obsessed: How Shoes Became Objects of Desire (Currently on view) ==Permanent collection== , the museum's permanent collection includes over 13,000 shoes and related items dating back 4,500 years; providing the institution with the world's largest, and comprehensive collection of items entirely devoted to footwear, and shoes. The collection was initially intended to serve as a "working collection" for the Bata family, in which shoe making techniques could be learned. Techniques and designs from shoes collected were used to mimic traditional styles found in local markets. However, the scope was later expanded to be a historical and anthropological collection, when Sonja Bata began to collect shoes from local populations where Bata factories were displacing local footwear, in an attempt to preserve and document shoes that were being replaced. The museum presently acquires items for its collection through auction, donations from other collectors, field work, or private vendors. The museum acts to conserve but not restore shoes, preventing ongoing deterioration, but not removing signs of wear or replace missing parts. The following is a part of the museum's philosophy in which it sees worn footwear as having significant cultural meaning. The museum does not restore its older, or heavily damaged pieces it acquires, instead treating it to preserve their present condition, and to prevent further deterioration. The collection is organized into several cultural and geographic areas including Africa, China, India, Japan, Korea, Latin America, the Middle East, indigenous North American, and the circumpolar region. Footwear from First Nations, and northern Canada forms a major portion of the museum's collection. Approximately four per cent of the museum's collection is on display, with the remaining items kept in storage. Stored items are placed in one of two subterranean vaults. In addition to the vaults, the museum also places several "stored items" in cube cases situated in public areas of the museum, serving as a form of "visible storage". The museum's oldest piece of footwear from Europe are a pair of sandals, worn by a shepherd from the Tyrolian Alps around 5200 BP. The museum's oldest pair of shoes from the Americas is believed to be an Anasazi made from yucca fibres. The museum also holds a collection of shoes worn by notable individuals, including Pierce Brosnan, Roger Federer, Terry Fox, Elton John, Karen Kain, John Lennon, Madonna, Marilyn Monroe, Napoleon, Elvis Presley, Robert Redford, Elizabeth Taylor, Pierre Trudeau, and Queen Victoria. ==Research and programs== The Bata Shoe Museum conducts and sponsors research into understanding the role of footwear in cultural and social life. The Bata Shoe Museum Foundation has funded field trips to collect and research footwear in Asia, Europe, and circumpolar regions and cultures where traditions are changing rapid. The foundation has also produced academic publications. The museum is affiliated with Canadian Museums Association, Canadian Heritage Information Network, North American Reciprocal Museums, Ontario Association of Art Galleries, and the Virtual Museum of Canada, The museum organizes lectures, performances, and social evenings, often with an ethnocultural focus or community partner. Events often illuminate a personal connection or a cultural context in which footwear was created. An annual lecture series, The Founder's Lecture is held each November and is a public event featuring an internationally recognized leading thinker engaged with the convergence of culture and society. The museum also hosts shoemakers from around the world to demonstrate shoe-making techniques to the public, in an attempt to counteract the displacement of local shoe-making forms. ===Outreach=== In 2018, nearly 9,000 students visited the museum for school related excursions. The museum has organized themed family activities. The museum holds an annual "Warm the Sole Sock Drive" fundraiser, which begins on World Kindness Day, to collect socks for donation to a local charity. The museum also operates the Step Ahead program, a program subsidized by the Bank of Montreal, providing at-risk children an opportunity to access the museum's interactive curriculum-based programs free of charge. In 2018, the museum saw 1,800 youths access its facilities through the Step Ahead program. ==Arms== The arms of the Beta Shoe Museum Foundation were formally registered with the Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada on 6 May 1995. The coat of arms uses the official colours of the institution, blue and gold, and features a triangular division placed along the position of the thongs found on most sandals. The boot featured on the arms represents all footwear, whereas the two keys is a common symbol in Canadian heraldry for museums. The crest of the arms is animal skin, defaced with a knife, representing two materials used for shoe-making. The museum's motto, One step at a time (or ), is featured on the museums arms. The motto is attributed to Robertson Davies, who suggested it when asked by Sonja Bata. The phrase has multiple meanings, suggesting the progression of the institution and its collection, the progression of research into footwear, and as a description for walking. ==See also== * Bata Shoes Head Office * List of museums in Toronto ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * * * ==External links== * Category:1979 establishments in Ontario Category:Bata Corporation Category:Museums established in 1979 Category:Museums in Toronto Category:Postmodern architecture in Canada Category:Raymond Moriyama buildings Category:Shoe museums Category:1995 establishments in Ontario Category:Museums established in 1995
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right|thumb|300px|A set of standard Mahjong tiles thumb|300px|A set of Malaysian Mahjong tiles Mahjong tiles () are tiles of Chinese origin that are used to play mahjong as well as mahjong solitaire and other games. Although they are most commonly tiles, they may refer to playing cards with similar contents as well. == Development == The earliest surviving mahjong sets date to the 1870s when the game was largely confined to Zhejiang, Shanghai, and Jiangsu.Stanwick, Michael, 'Mahjong(g) Before Mahjong(g): Part 1'. In: The Playing-Card, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2004, pp. 153–162. They already exhibited various traits found in modern sets. The core of the set is the 108 suited tiles which were inherited from Chinese money-suited playing cards. The Wind honor tiles and the Four Seasons tiles were also found in the earliest sets. The honor tiles known as Arrows (Dragons in English) developed to their current form by 1890 concurrent with a new style of play called Zhōngfā (中發).Stanwick, Michael, 'Mahjong(g) Before Mahjong(g): Part 2'. In: The Playing-Card, Vol. 32, No. 5, 2004, pp. 206–215. Flower tiles, once known as Outer Flowers (), were not universally accepted until the 1920s. In contrast, many early sets contained wild cards with specific powers known as Inner Flowers () which disappeared from most of China but are still found in Vietnam and Thailand.Sloper, Tom. Is my set complete? at sloperama.com. Retrieved 16 May 2016. == Contents == Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Suits Dots 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px Suits Bamboo 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px Suits Characters 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px Honors Honors Winds Winds Winds Winds Dragons Dragons Dragons Honors Honors East South West North Red Green White Honors Honors 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px Bonus Bonus Seasons Seasons Seasons Seasons Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Bonus Bonus Spring Summer Autumn Winter Plum Orchid Chrysan- themum Bamboo Bonus Bonus 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px 50px A set of Mahjong tiles will usually differ from place to place. It usually has at least 136 tiles (four copies of each of the Suit and Honor Tiles), most commonly 144, although sets originating from the United States or Southeast Asia will usually feature more tiles in the form of flowers or Jokers. Some sets also contain blank tiles which owners can use to replace damaged or missing tiles. Mahjong tiles can be organized into several categories: === Suited tiles === Suited tiles (; also ; also ) have a suit and a rank. There are three money- based suits with ranks ranging from one to nine. There are four tiles of each rank and suit combination, thus there are 36 tiles in a suit, and 108 suited tiles in total. To refer to a suited tile, the rank is named, followed by the suit. The ones and nines of each suit () are collectively referred to as the terminal tiles. Suited tiles may be used to form melds. ==== Circles ==== The circle (dot, coin, wheel, stone) suit (; also ) is represented by a series of circles. 50px|1 Circle50px|2 Circle50px|3 Circle50px|4 Circle50px|5 Circle50px|6 Circle50px|7 Circle50px|8 Circle50px|9 Circle 150px|right|thumb|The circles represent copper coins like this. The 1 Circle is generally a large circle of multiple colors, while the rest of the circle tiles consist of smaller circles, each circle being of one color. The 2 Circle consists of a green and a blue circle, the 3 consisting of one green, one red, and one blue circle arranged diagonally (the order the circles appear in, as well as the orientation, differs between sets). The 4 Circle has two blue circles and two green circles, arranged in a rectangle with circles of like color in opposite corners. The 5 Circle is similar to the 4 Circle, with another circle (its color depending on the set) in the middle. The 6 Circle consists of two green circles at the top and four red circles in the bottom (with a space between the green and red circles). The 7 Circle is similar to the 6 Circle, but has 3 green circles arranged diagonally from top-left to bottom-right. The 8 Circle has eight blue circles arranged in a 2x4 rectangle. The 9 Circle has three each of green, red, and blue circles, with each color occupying a row. There is some space between each row, and the middle row is always of the red circles (the blue and green, of course, depends on the orientation of the tile). Because of the large size of the circle in the 1 Circle, it is commonly nicknamed da bing (大餅 pinyin dàbǐng, literally: "big pancake"). From the monetary origin of this suit, the circles represent the copper coins known in English as "cash". (1銅=one copper coin). ==== Bamboo ==== The bamboo (stick, string, bam) suit (; also ), with the exception of the 1 Bamboo, which is commonly represented by a bird (like 25px|1 Bamboo, 25px|1 Bamboo or 25px|1 Bamboo), is represented by outlines of sticks. 50px|1 Bamboo50px|2 Bamboo50px|3 Bamboo50px|4 Bamboo50px|5 Bamboo50px|6 Bamboo50px|7 Bamboo50px|8 Bamboo50px|9 Bamboo or 50px|1 Bamboo50px|2 Bamboo50px|3 Bamboo50px|4 Bamboo50px|5 Bamboo50px|6 Bamboo50px|7 Bamboo50px|8 Bamboo50px|9 Bamboo The 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 Bamboo are represented entirely out of green sticks only or blue and green sticks, while the middle stick in the 5 Bamboo, the top stick of the 7 Bamboo, and the sticks along the center column of the 9 Bamboo are red. Some sets may also have the sticks along the bottom row or center column of the 7 Bamboo in blue. The 8 Bamboo has its sticks forming an M-shape and its mirror image. From the monetary origin of this suit, the sticks are actually rope strings (索) that tie 100 Chinese copper coins together by the square holes in the middle. (1索=100銅) The repeated bumps in the sticks depict the individual coins in the strings, but they were mistaken by Joseph Park Babcock as the knots on the bamboo plants, hence the English name of the suit. The 1 Bamboo, as it commonly depicts a bird, is often referred as the sparrow (麻雀 - má què); in Japan it is most commonly a peacock. In early sets, there was no bird but a single bent string of cash capped with a red knot (25px|1 Bamboo).Michael Stanwick: An Uncommon Má Jiàng Pattern from Fujian? Figure 5 shows variations of the 1 Bamboo, we can see how its appearance changes from a single bent string of cash to a bird. In: The Playing-Card, Vol. 46, No. 2, 2017. ==== Characters ==== thumb|Old tiles used the cursive character "万". The character (myriad, number, crack) suit () is represented by Chinese characters. 50px|1 Character50px|2 Character50px|3 Character50px|4 Character50px|5 Character50px|6 Character50px|7 Character50px|8 Character50px|9 Character The rank of the tile is represented at the top, in blue, with Chinese numerals, while the character below (萬 wàn, meaning myriad) is in red. Older sets used the cursive character 万 when tiles were still hand-carved. Fujianese sets use 品 (pǐn, rank). Most sets use the character 伍 (25px|5 Character) for five instead of 五 (25px|5 Character). From the monetary origin of this suit, the myriads (10,000) are actually 100 strings of coins described in the bamboo suit section above. One myriad equals ten thousand coins or 100 strings of 100 coins. (1萬=100索×100銅) ==== Red tiles ==== Red tiles () are unique to the Japanese set. They appear as a red version of tiles from each suit and are not quadruplicated. They first appeared in the 1970s with the Red 5 Circle which were followed with red 5 tiles for the other suits.赤牌麻雀 at Mahjan talk (Japanese). Retrieved 20 May 2016. Red 3s and 7s later appeared and were followed by red 1s and 9s although they are much less commonly found in sets than red 5s., , , at Mahjong Tiles Wiki (Japanese). Retrieved 20 May 2016. There is also a rare red white dragon (白ポッチ, shiro pocchi) which can act as a wild card if tsumo conditions are met. 50px|Red 1 Circle50px|Red 1 Bamboo50px|Red 1 Character50px|Red 3 Circle50px|Red 3 Bamboo50px|Red 3 Character50px|Red 5 Circle50px|Red 5 Bamboo50px|Red 5 Character50px|Red 7 Circle50px|Red 7 Bamboo50px|Red 7 Character50px|Red 9 Circle50px|Red 9 Bamboo50px|Red 9 Character50px|Red White Dragon thumb|40px|right|Gold 5 manzu from a Japanese Mahjong parlor These tiles are entirely optional. When inserted into play, one copy of its regular non-red counterpart is removed. They increase the score when melded. Japanese sets typically do not include the Four Gentlemen flower tiles to make room for the red tiles as flower tiles are rarely used in Japanese Mahjong anyway. Some mahjong parlours will have their own house tiles which may be red tiles for even ranks, even higher- scoring green tiles or gold tiles (), or colored wind tiles. === Honor tiles === Honor tiles (字牌, pinyin: zìpái, Japanese romaji: jihai, meaning 'word tiles'; or 番子, jyutping: faan1zi2, 'exponentials') have neither rank nor suit but like suited tiles they are also formed into melds. They are divided into two categories: four Wind tiles (風牌/风牌, pinyin: fēngpái, jyutping: fung1paai2, Japanese romaji: fompai or kazehai) and three Dragon tiles (三元牌, pinyin: sānyuánpái, jyutping: saam1jyun4paai2, Japanese romaji: sangempai), each of which is quadruplicated. Thus, there are 16 wind tiles and 12 Dragon tiles for 28 honor tiles. ==== Winds ==== The four types of Wind tiles are: * East (), * South (), * West (), and * North (). Their Chinese characters are usually in blue, like 東, 南, 西 and 北. 50px|East Wind50px|South Wind50px|West Wind50px|North Wind Each type of Wind tiles corresponds to a point along the compass, written in blue traditional Chinese characters (even for sets where the Character tiles are written in simplified Chinese). Bonus points are scored if melds match the seat wind or prevailing wind or both. They are also known as the Four Joyous Tiles (). ==== Dragons ==== The three types of Dragon tiles are: 50px|Red Dragon50px|Green Dragon50px|White Dragon or 50px|Red Dragon50px|Green Dragon50px|White Dragon or 50px|Red Dragon50px|Green Dragon50px|White Dragon thumb|135px|A red white dragon (白ポッチ, shiro pocchi) * Red (; also ) - a tile with a red traditional Chinese character (中) meaning center or middle. Sets for English speakers may also have a black letter C in a corner of the tile, denoting the first letter of the Wade-Giles romanization of 中 (chung). One of the earliest sets did not include these tiles. Some tiles have the traditional Chinese character "龍" (25px|Red Dragon) or a red dragon icon. * Green (; also ; also ) - a tile with a green traditional Chinese character (發), even for sets where the Character tiles are written in simplified Chinese. Often the variant character U+24F35 𤼵 (癶 over 弓矢 instead of 弓殳) is used. It is a contraction of 發財/发财 (pinyin: fā cái) which loosely means "to strike it rich"). Some sets, notably American, use a green dragon in place of the character or may also have a black letter F in a corner of the tile, denoting the first letter from its transliteration. This tile was absent in the earliest sets.Lo, Andrew, 'China's Passion for Pai: Playing Cards, Dominoes, and Mahjong'. In: Asian Games: The Art of Contest, Colin Mackenzie and Irving Finkel, eds. Asia Society. 2004. pp. 217–231. Some tiles have the traditional Chinese character "鳳" (25px|Green Dragon) or a green dragon icon. * White (; also ) - a tile which can be without any markings like 25px|White Dragon, although most modern sets employ tiles with a blue border (like 25px|White Dragon or 25px|White Dragon) to distinguish them from replacement tiles. Anglophone sets may also have a black letter B in the center of the tile, denoting the first letter of the Wade-Giles romanization of 白 (bai). Japanese tiles of this kind have no mark on them, and are occasionally dubbed tofu (bean curd) in some Japanese mahjong clubs. As noted above, there is a Japanese red tile version (25px|Red White Dragon). The Chinese name for the Dragon tiles means "three fundamental tiles" (三元牌). They are also known as the arrow tiles (箭牌). The English name ("Dragons") was an invention by Babcock. They are like wind tiles except melding them will always score bonus points regardless of the prevailing or seat wind. These tiles were invented after the wind tiles beginning with the whites which were developed from replacement tiles, followed by the reds circa 1870, and finally the greens which entered the set by 1890. Chinese characters occur in the design of the Characters, the Winds and the Dragons. Regular script (楷書) is usually used in the areas of Hong Kong, Taiwan, Canton, China and Southeast Asia, while Semi-cursive script (行書) is usually used in Japan. === Flower tiles === Flower tiles () are not used in melds. When drawn, they are set aside and the player gets to draw again but from the dead wall. These tiles usually depict stylized representations of flowers in many colors (hence the name). Nevertheless, other non-floral themes also exist, which vary from set to set. In American Mahjong, they are treated as honor tiles but from the 1930s to 1960 they were considered jokers.Sloper, Tom. Identifying a Mah-Jongg Variant at sloperama.com. Retrieved 16 May 2016.Sloper, Tom. Weekly Mah-jongg Column #509 at sloperama.com. Retrieved 17 May 2016. Some Japanese players treat them as higher scoring honors that cannot be used to form 'eyes' (pairs). Generally, however, they are not used in Japanese mahjong. ==== Quartets ==== The average set, if it contains flower tiles, will have two quartets of flower tiles, differentiating the color and/or style of the labels. Each quartet contains four unique tiles, which are numbered from 1 to 4 or otherwise distinctly labelled (common Chinese sets will have one quartet with blue Arabic numerals and the other group having red Chinese numerals). Each number matches a seat (1=East, 2=South, 3=West, 4=North). Winners can double their score if the number on their flowers matches their seat number. There are also bonuses from collecting an entire quartet and in some variations, immediately winning from collecting all the flowers. As they reward points for pure luck, many games do not include them or are considered optional. The four tiles in the Four Seasons () quartet are: 50px|Spring50px|Summer50px|Autumn50px|Winter or 50px|Spring50px|Summer50px|Autumn50px|Winter or 50px|Spring50px|Summer50px|Autumn50px|Winter # Spring # Summer # Autumn # Winter The four tiles in the Four Gentlemen () quartet are: 50px|Plum50px|Orchid50px|Chrysanthemum50px|Bamboo or 50px|Plum50px|Orchid50px|Chrysanthemum50px|Bamboo or 50px|Plum50px|Orchid50px|Chrysanthemum50px|Bamboo # plum # orchid # chrysanthemum # bamboo thumb|Four Arts on the top, Four Noble Professions on the bottom Thai, Vietnamese, and Malaysian mahjong sets contain two more quartets of flower tiles in addition to the Four Seasons and Four Gentlemen.Mahjong Museum (Japanese)Cheah, Vincet; Sloper, Tom. Malaysian 3-Player Mah-Jongg at sloperama. Retrieved 17 May 2016.Gregg Swain: Hand Carved Tri-color Mahjong Tiles: Some Flower Tile Interpretations Part 1，Hand Carved Tri-color Mahjong Tiles: Some Flower Tile Interpretations Part 2，at Mahjong Treasures. Retrieved 5 May 2020. These are the usual subjects: *Four Arts (): 1. Guqin (琴), 2. Go (棋), 3. Calligraphy (書), 4. Painting (畫) : 50px|Guqin50px|Go50px|Calligraphy50px|Painting *Four Noble Professions (): 1. Fisher (漁), 2. Woodcutter (樵), 3. Farmer (耕), 4. Scholar (讀) : 50px|Fisher50px|Woodcutter50px|Farmer50px|Scholar While some Vietnamese sets use the Four Arts and the Four Noble Professions, most of them use emperors () and empresses (). They are not decorated with pictures but just the number and character (e.g. Third Emperor 三皇, Fourth Empress 四后). 50px|1st Emperor50px|2nd Emperor50px|3rd Emperor50px|4th Emperor50px|1st Empress50px|2nd Empress50px|3rd Empress50px|4th Empress The earliest known Chinese sets contained twelve flowers but no Four Gentlemen tiles and the Four Seasons were unadorned. Sets with large numbers of flowers were once popular in Northern China to play the game of "Flower Mahjong" (花麻雀). They typically had 20 or more flowers with some described as having up to 44. ==== Animal tiles ==== Animal tiles () are unnumbered flowers that automatically match the player's seat. These tiles are found in pairs with their subjects usually based on popular Chinese fables. Immediate payment occurs if both tiles in a pair or all the animals are collected. Singaporean sets contain two pairs of animal tiles while Thai and four-player Malaysian sets have four pairs. Some examples of tile pairs include: thumb|Various animal tiles 50px|Cat50px|Mouse50px|Cockerel50px|Centipede * Cat () & Mouse () * Rooster () & Centipede () * Caishen (the god of wealth in Chinese folk religion and Taoism) & Sycee (an ancient, custom-made gold or silver ingot) * Jiang Ziya (an 11th-century BC military strategist who, according to legend, fished without bait, believing the fish would come on their own) & Fish * Liu Haichan (a legendary Taoist immortal) & Jin Chan (a mythical three-legged toad that attracts wealth) * Dragon & Flaming pearl (a legendary treasure said to grant wishes) Three-player Malaysian sets have two pairs of animals accompanied with a quartet of identical animal tiles decorated with a face, usually that of a clown. These are known as heads (人头), faces (人臉), clowns (小丑) or snowmen (雪人). Sometimes, these four heads will be replaced with two pairs of male heads (male clowns, male faces) and female heads (female clowns, female faces). 50px|Clown or 50px|Male clown50px|Female clown === Joker tiles === thumb|Various joker tiles Joker tiles (百搭牌, pinyin bǎidāpái) can be used to replace any suited or honor tile in putting together a hand subject to local restrictions. Four jokers are sometimes used in certain variants of Southeast Asian and Chinese mahjong, including Shanghainese mahjong. American mahjong uses eight jokers. ==== General-purpose ==== All-purpose jokers may have these inscriptions: 百搭 (bǎidā, 'hundred uses'), 聽用 (tīngyòng, 'many uses'), 飛 (fēi, 'flying'), or simply "Joker" in American sets. 50px|hundred uses or 50px|many uses or 50px|flying or 50px|Joker ==== Suit-restricted ==== Vietnamese and Thai mahjong are related to extinct Chinese variants which used specialized jokers such as "King Mahjong" (王麻雀). Vietnamese mahjong sets commonly contain eight unique jokers: *Blue/green jokers (khung xanh): **Circle joker (筒, thùng) 50px|Circle joker **Bamboo joker (索, soọc) 50px|Bamboo joker **Character joker (萬, màn) 50px|Character joker **Universal joker (縂, tổng) : In King Mahjong it is a Suit and Honor joker, in Vietnamese mahjong it can also be used like the flower joker. Hong Kongers may use the 皇 character but this is not found in Vietnam because a flower quartet also uses it (see above). 50px|Universal joker or 50px|Universal joker *Red jokers (khung đỏ): **Suit joker (合, hợp) 50px|Suit joker **Dragon joker (元, nguyên) 50px|Dragon joker **Wind joker (喜, hỷ) 50px|Wind joker **Flower joker (花, hoa) : Like an animal tile but scores two doubles; it replaced the King Mahjong joker that functioned as a second Suit and Honor joker (陞王). 50px|Flower joker ***Honor joker (番 or 字 or 元喜, nhị khẩu) : A newer Vietnamese tile, it is an alternative to the dragon or wind joker. In Hong Kong, it is an alternative to the flower joker. 50px|Honor joker The first four jokers have a long lineage. They are found in the earliest sets and were inspired by the suit-restricted jokers in older Chinese card games. After 1975, modern Vietnamese sets triplicated or quadruplicated all eight jokers but each copy will have a different frame (rectangle, circle, lozenge, and hexagon) which allows them to be melded with each other. This means a total of 32 jokers, 36 if the alternate honor jokers are also included. ==== Rank-restricted ==== thumb|Assorted joker tiles from Hong Kong In Hong Kong, Vietnamese style sets may also contain rank-restricted jokers, either as alternatives to the flower joker, or in addition to the usual eight: *Terminal joker (么, jyutping: jiu1, 'ace') : Replaces one or nine of any suit 50px|Terminal joker *147 joker (仕, si6) : Replaces one, four, or seven of any suit 50px|147 joker *258 joker (將, zoeng3) : Replaces two, five, or eight of any suit 50px|258 joker *369 joker (兵, bing1 or 卒, zeot1) : Replaces three, six, or nine of any suit 50px|369 joker or 50px| The Chinese characters from the latter three comes from Xiangqi pieces. These sets may have suit, dragon, wind, and rank- restricted jokers adorned with multiple characters representing the tiles they can replace, instead of a single Chinese character. == Comparison == Mahjong Variations Variation Hong Kong Japanese Japanese 3 Player Korean 3 Player American Singapore Malaysian 4 Player Malaysian 3 Player Vietnam Sichuan Dots 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles Bamboo 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 2 typesOnly 1 bamboo and 9 bamboo are used. × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles Characters 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 2 typesOnly 1 character and 9 character are used. × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles 9 types × 4 tiles Winds 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 3 typesOnly East, South and West are used. × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles 4 types × 4 tiles Dragons 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles 3 types × 4 tiles Four Gentlemen 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile Four Seasons 4 types × 1 tile Do not use usually. 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile Four Arts 4 types × 1 tile Four Professions 4 types × 1 tile Four Emperors 4 types × 1 tile Four Empresses 4 types × 1 tile Normal Animal tiles 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile 4 types × 1 tile Faces tiles 2 types × 2 tilesAlso 1 type × 4 tiles can be used. 2 types × 2 tiles 2 types × 2 tiles General Joker tiles 1 type × 8 tiles 1 type × 4 tilesDo not use sometimes. 1 type × 4 tiles 1 type × 4 tiles Restricted Joker tiles 8 types × 1 tile ===footnotes=== === Regional design === Designs of mahjong tiles are different between regions. Here are some examples. == Construction == thumb|right|Plastic tiles in the middle; tiles using bone and bamboo on the left and right sidesTraditionally, Mahjong tiles were made of bone, often backed with bamboo. Bone tiles are still available but most modern sets are constructed from various plastics such as bakelite, celluloid, nylon and PET (often, recycled PET). There are a small number of sets that have been made with ivory or jade, but these are exceedingly rare: most sets sold as ivory are in fact made from bone. Regardless of the material used to construct the tiles, the symbols on them are almost always engraved or pressed into the material. Some expert players can determine the face value of their tiles without actually looking at them by feeling these engravings with their fingers. There are generally two size categories available, the larger mainland-China size and the smaller Taiwanese/Japanese/American size. However, within the former category (Mainland Chinese), 4 sizes have been roughly standardized: *Size 8: *Size 7.5: *Size 7: *Size 6: The length to thickness ratio in all of these must be above 1:1.5, so that the tiles can steadily stand upright, since Chinese players use no racks to support their tiles in hand during play. The sizes within the second category (Taiwanese/Japanese/American tiles) have lengths that vary roughly between . However, the Japanese tiles set themselves apart within this class by virtue of their thickness, which allows them to stand upright—despite their diminutive overall size. This enables Japanese mahjong players also to dispense with the use of racks (these are pervasive in the American game, in combination with slimmer tiles). == Unicode == Mahjong tiles were added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2008 with the release of version 5.1. The Unicode block for mahjong tiles is U+1F000-U+1F02B: The Red Dragon tile also exists as in a non-emoji form as 🀄︎. ==See also== * Mahjong mat ==References== ==External links== * The Mahjong Tile Set Category:Mahjong Category:Game equipment
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Estimates of the deaf population in Tunisia range from 40,000 to 60,000 people. These estimates indicate that deaf people make up between 0.3% to 0.5% of the population. The percent of deaf Tunisians can be much higher in isolated communities, ranging from 2% to 8%. The increase in prevalence is attributed to higher rates of intermarriage, geographic isolation, and social traditions. Tunisian Sign Language, abbreviated as TSL or LST, is the most commonly used sign language in Tunisia. As of 2008, TSL's user population is 21,000 signers. == Language emergence == Tunisian Sign Language (TSL) is made up of French Sign Language, Italian Sign Language, and Arab Unified Sign Language. The French colonization of Tunisia (1881 - 1956) influenced the oral languages of the hearing community and the sign language of the deaf community, with TSL heavily borrowing from French Sign Language (LSF). The prolonged contact between the French and Tunisian communities makes it hard for researchers to determine which signs are distinctively TSL or borrowed from LSF. Although there is limited research and documentation on TSL, researchers conclude that TSL is a distinct language due to its unique lexicon of sign that symbolize Tunisian traditions, history, and customs: "despite numerous borrowings, LST includes "Tunisian" signs on which there is no way to be mistaken as to their origin because they are quite cultural signs referring to the traditions, to the history of Tunisia and the customs of deaf Tunisians." TSL has been officially recognized as a language since 2006. == Significant organizations == One major organization that supports deaf people is Association Voix du Sourd de Tunisie (translated: Voice of the Deaf Association of Tunisia), or AVST. AVST is the oldest organization for the deaf in Tunisia and promotes access to healthcare, education, and employment. Working with Dr. Amira Yaacoubi, AVST founded a hospital where medical appointments are provided in Tunisian Sign Language. The hospital is located in the most populous slum community, Djebel Lahmar, in the outskirts of Tunisia's capitol. Manel Bergaoui, a teacher affiliated with AVST, is the first and only person to teach English to deaf/hard of hearing children through Tunisian Sign Language in the entire MENA (Middle East/North Africa) region. Frustrated with the lack of educational material for deaf/hard of hearing chidlren, Bergaoui wrote Let's Hand Speak English (2017), the first English textbook for deaf/hard of hearing children in Tunisia and the MENA region. In 2018, Bergaoui developed an educational app "Let'sapp" for deaf Tunisians/MENA region population. Currently, Bergaoui's organization provides face-to-face and online English lessons, helping more than 10 deaf people improve their English each school year. AVST raises awareness about the deaf community - in 2016, it produced a film in TSL, and in 2017, AVST organized the first World Deaf Day in Tunisia. In association with L'Académie Sportive et Éducative des Sourds de Tunis (translated: The Sports and Educational Academy of the Deaf of Tunis, abbreviated ASEST) and other deaf organizations, AVST holds yearly conventions where the issues and experiences of the deaf commuity are discussed. In 2022, AVST held an event with ASEST to discuss technological solutions for people with hearing disabilities, with TSL signers and interpreters present at the event. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the International Foundation for Electoral Systems produced a video in Tunisian Sign Language on the risks of COVID-19 and preventative measures to keep the deaf population safe from infection. This video was shared by Tunisia's Ministry of Social Affairs on Facebook, where it has been viewed 30,000 times and shared 500 times. Other deaf organizations followed suit in sharing the video, and it was broadcast on multiple national television channels. == Early hearing detection and intervention == Hearing impairment negatively affects the ability for children to develop their communication skills. The earlier hearing impairment is detected in a child, the better care they receive, leading to better language and speech development. There is no national early detection and intervention program regarding hearing impairment in Tunisia; however, there are research studies and one-time programs that have aimed at studying the prevalence of different levels of hearing loss in Tunisian newborns and children. At Hospital Charles Nicolle of Tunis, the neonatology department collected data from the hearing screenings of 3,260 newborns. From this study it was determined that 0.9% of the newborns had mild bilateral hearing loss, 1.5% had unilateral profound hearing loss in the right ear, and one newborn that anacusis. Another study at Mohamed Tlatli Hospital screened for hearing impairment in 397 infants ranging from 4 days to 5 months old. All infants received the Otoacoustic Emission Test. It was determined that 9.37% of the infants had some hearing impairment. Out of these infants with some hearing impairment, 27 were given the Auditory Brainstem Response Test, in which 80% tested positively. In Ras Djebal-Bizerte (Northern Tunisia), 304 children ranging from 4 to 6 years old received hearing screenings for the first time in their lives. The screening included a preliminary ear checkup, subjective and objective audiometric tests, otoacoustic emission test, acoustic impedance meter tests, and a speech-language assessment. 12.17% of the children had hearing impairment (33 had conductive hearing loss, two had sensorineural hearing loss, and two had mixed hearing loss). 14 children exhibited articulation disorder, 10 exhibited language delays, and five children exhibited speech delays. The children were referred to ENT specialists for proper management and care. == Language deprivation == Because of the lack of hearing impairment detection programs, deaf Tunisians' language and written communication skills are very poor. 98% of deaf Tunisians are illiterate. In Arabic regions where diglossic situations are common, like Tunisia, higher rates of illiteracy occur than non-Arabic regions. == Primary and secondary education == Under Article 47, the new Tunisian constitution states that children are guaranteed the right to education by their parents and the state. Furthermore, Tunisia ratified the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on August 6, 1982, and is therefore legally bound to this treaty which states that education for children aged 6 – 16 is mandatory. Despite these laws in place, deaf Tunisian do not get equal access to education. There are two educational tracks in Tunisia. The first track is mainstream schooling - the track that most children will take part in, which is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The second track of schooling is reserved for disabled children, with deaf Tunisian children falling under this category. This track is overseen by the Ministry of Social Affairs; however, the ministry has relegated this responsibility to the independent organization Association Tunisienne d'Aide aux Sourds (ATAS, translated: Tunisian Association for Aid to the Deaf). There is no governmental oversight and accountability for the education of deaf Tunisians. In 2013, a report was published on the educational system for deaf Tunisians. The author, Dr. Marta Stroscio, compiled her findings after visiting 5 out of 70 ATAS educational centers. Stroscio stated that there was a range in the curriculum between the 5 schools. Some centers adopt a completely oralist teaching method, meaning the language of instruction is spoken and students are encouraged to improve their speaking skills if possible. Other centers use some form of sign language or Total Communication. The educational centers were described in more detail in another report published in 2022. Primary education for deaf Tunisians consists of 6 years of specialized primary school. Disabled children from 6 to 12 years of age will attend these primary schools. Contrary to the name "specialized school", there is nothing specialized about these educational centers. Studies have reported that deaf children learn beside autistic and mentally-ill children, and the student's unique educational needs are not being met. Member of AVST Wassim ben Dhiab asserts that the lack of sign language and special need educators exacerbated the poor education that deaf Tunisians receive. In these education centers, it was noted that the classroom material was not tailored to deaf children, as they were using the same textbooks as children in the mainstream schools. Unlike primary school, there is no two-track educational system for secondary school. In secondary school, deaf Tunisians join students in mainstream schools. The subjects in secondary school are taught in Modern Standard Arabic, Tunisian Dialect Arabic, and French, none of which languages deaf Tunisians are proficient in, since their primary education was so poor. There are a lack of sign language interpreters in this level of schooling as well. Mona Belhouane, a partly-deaf Tunisian who is a member of Deaf Unity, states, "most [deaf children] didn't manage to reach high school level, due to the lack of adequate measures, the absence of sign language translators and the presence of communication barriers." It is encouraged that deaf students make their way from specialized centers to main stream schools; however, deaf educational centers like El Imtiez have seen children come back from mainsteam schools because they found the curriculum too hard or were dealing with the psychological effects of bullying. Only 1% - 10% of disabled children successfully integrate into main stream schools, and even fewer receive a high school diploma. This is compared to 33.9% of the general population that receive at least a high school diploma in Tunisia. Advisor to the Minister of Education Mongi Godhbane said, "Only students with visual impairments are able to integrate into normal schools, because they know how to behave normally." == Higher education == Because the primary and secondary education that deaf Tunisians receive is poor, many will pursue vocational training as their tertiary education, rather than a traditional college degree. These training programs include trades such as sewing, hairdressing, and design. In the 2010 CRPD report on the implementation of disabled rights, the government listed exactly one institution that had vocational training programs specifically for deaf people. The Vocational Training Centre for the Deaf in Ksar Hellal had 43 students enrolled at the time of the report. It is known that the certificates that deaf people receive from these vocational training programs are not taken serious by employers. == Employment == The unemployment rates among deaf Tunisians are very high. The government provides incentives for businesses to hire more disabled people, one such incentive being businesses could pay disabled employees from their taxes if the business maintains that at least 1% of their employees are disabled. This incentive only applies to small to medium-sized businesses, so it is not as effective at increasing the portion of disabled people in the work force. Even with the incentive, businesses are reluctant to hire disabled people, specifically deaf people, because of their poor education. Of the small amount of people with disabilities hired, most of them have visual impairments. This is because it is the easiest for people with visual impairments to integrate into the workplace. An official from the Ministry of Social Affairs has acknowledged that disabled people get paid less for the same work their colleagues complete. The government has opened accounts to provide financial aid to unemployed people with disabilities, with the revenue generated from taxing certain products and postal packages. == Healthcare == Deaf people face unique barriers to accessing and receiving healthcare. One such obstacle stems from language deprivation. People who are illiterate will not be able to receive the proper health care they need. For example, they might not understand what procedures they are agreeing to, when their next appointment is scheduled, and how to properly take prescribed medication. Since 98% of Tunisia's deaf population is illiterate, they will undoubtedly face the some of the problems listed above. It has also been determined that delays in the access to a sign language will limit health literacy. Using the estimates of the deaf Tunisian population and TSL signers, the percent of deaf Tunisians that use TSL ranges from 35% to 53%. Consequently, a large portion of deaf Tunisian will experience limited health literacy. Another obstacle that deaf Tunisians face is they will not be able to directly communicate with their health care providers. Since Tunisian Sign Language is a deaf community sign (mostly only used by deaf people), it is unlikely that physicians among other health care workers are fluent in TSL. Although the proportion of Tunisian healthcare workers who are deaf could not be found, it is reasonable to assume that the proportion is incredibly small, considering most deaf Tunisians do not even receive a high school diploma. A lack of sign language interpreters also exacerbates the language barrier. To help combat this issue, the Association Voix du Sourd de Tunisie (translated: Voice of the Deaf Association of Tunisia) worked with Dr. Amira Yaacoubi to establish a hospital where medical appointments are provided in Tunisian Sign Language. The hospital is located in the most populous slum community, Djebel Lahmar, in the outskirts of Tunisia's capitol. In recognition of these barriers to health care, the International Foundation for Electoral Systems produced a video in Tunisian Sign Language on the risks of COVID-19 and preventative measures to keep the deaf population safe from infection. This video was shared by Tunisia's Ministry of Social Affairs on Facebook, where it has been viewed 30,000 times and shared 500 times. Other deaf organizations followed suit in sharing the video, and it was broadcast on multiple national television channels. == Language preservation and revitalization == According to the World Federation of the Deaf, the 2008 estimate of the population of Tunisian Sign Language users was 21,200 people; this was classified as a medium-sized speaker population. TSL usage is scattered around Tunisia, but it is most prevalent in Tunis and Sfax, the two most populous cities in Tunisia. According to Ethnologue, TSL is a deaf community sign, and its language status has been classified as 5 (developing) on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. Languages with this status are "in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some, though this is not yet widespread or sustainable." TSL's vitality, or how much the language is used as means of communication, has been described as stable. There are 70 educational centers in Tunisia that deaf Tunisian children can attend, and some centers teach the students TSL, while others do not, so TSL is being passed down to at least a portion of the younger generations. == References == Category:Wikipedia Student Program Tunisia Category:Disability in Tunisia
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Mark Allen Mothersbaugh (; born May 18, 1950) is an American musician. He came to prominence in the late 1970s as co-founder, lead singer and keyboardist of the new wave band Devo, whose "Whip It" was a top 20 single in the US in 1980, peaking at No. 14, and which has since maintained a cult following. Mothersbaugh is one of the main composers of Devo's music. In addition to his work with Devo, Mothersbaugh has made music for television series, films and video games via his production company, Mutato Muzika. He composed the music for the 13-year run of the animated series Rugrats and its three related theatrical films. As a solo musician, Mothersbaugh has released four studio albums: Muzik for Insomniaks, Muzik for the Gallery, Joyeux Mutato and The Most Powerful Healing Muzik in the Entire World. In 2004, he received the Richard Kirk award at the BMI Film and TV Awards for his contributions to film and television music. In 2008, Mothersbaugh received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Kent State University, his alma mater. ==Early years== Mark Allen Mothersbaugh was born on May 18, 1950, in Akron, Ohio. His parents are Mary Margaret ("Mig") and Robert Mothersbaugh, Sr. He grew up with two younger brothers, Bob and Jim, who are both musicians, and two sisters, Amy and Susan, and graduated from Woodridge High School in Peninsula, Ohio. His father appeared in early Devo films and fan events as the character General Boy and his brothers participated in the band, although Jim's tenure was brief, appearing only on several early demos. ==Career== ===Devo=== Mothersbaugh attended Kent State University as an art student, where he met Devo co-founders Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis. In early 1970, Lewis and Casale formed the idea of the "devolution" of the human race after Casale's friends Jeffrey Miller and Allison Krause were killed by Ohio National Guardsmen on university grounds during what came to be known as the Kent State shootings. Intrigued by the concept, Mothersbaugh joined them, building upon it with elements of early post-structuralist ideas and oddball arcana, most notably unearthing the infamous Jocko-Homo Heavenbound pamphlet (the basis for the song "Jocko Homo"). This association culminated in 1973, when the trio started to play music as Devo. Following the commercial failure of their sixth studio album Shout, Warner Bros. dropped Devo. Shortly after, claiming to feel creatively unfulfilled, drummer Alan Myers left the band, causing the remaining band members to abandon the plans for a Shout video LP, as well as a tour. In 1987, Devo reformed with new drummer David Kendrick, formerly of Sparks, to replace Myers. Their first project was a soundtrack for the flop horror film Slaughterhouse Rock, starring Toni Basil and they released the albums Total Devo (1988) and Smooth Noodle Maps (1990), on Enigma. Devo had a falling-out and played two shows in 1991 before breaking up. Around this time, members of Devo appeared in the film The Spirit of '76, except for Bob Mothersbaugh. In 1989, Mark Mothersbaugh established Mutato Muzika, a commercial music production studio, hiring Ryan Moore and Bob Casale; Bob Mothersbaugh was also involved. In 2006, Devo worked with Disney on the Devo 2.0 project: a band of child performers was assembled to re-record Devo songs. The Akron Beacon Journal wrote, "Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children. Their debut album, a two disc CD/DVD combo entitled DEV2.0, was released on March 14, 2006. The lyrics of some of the songs were changed for family-friendly airplay, which has been claimed by the band to be a play on irony of the messages of their classic hits. Mothersbaugh doesn't rule out the idea of the band gathering in the studio, eventually, to record a new Devo album." The album, Something for Everybody was eventually released in June 2010, preceded by a 12" single of "Fresh"/"What We Do". Devo was awarded the first Moog Innovator Award on October 29, 2010, during Moogfest 2010 in Asheville, North Carolina. The award aims to celebrate "pioneering artists whose genre-defying work exemplifies the bold, innovative spirit of Bob Moog". Devo was scheduled to perform at Moogfest, but canceled three days beforehand after Mark's brother Bob Mothersbaugh (lead guitar) injured his hand. He and Gerald Casale collaborated with Austin, Texas, band The Octopus Project to perform "Girl U Want" and "Beautiful World" at the event instead. ===Other work=== In 1989, Mothersbaugh and other members of Devo were involved in the project Visiting Kids, releasing a self-titled EP on the New Rose label in 1990. The group featured his then-wife Nancye Ferguson, as well as David Kendrick, Bob Mothersbaugh, and Bob's daughter Alex Mothersbaugh. Mothersbaugh co-wrote some of the songs, and produced the album with Bob Casale. A promotional video was filmed for the song "Trilobites". Visiting Kids appeared on the soundtrack to the film Rockula, as well as on the Late Show with David Letterman. Since Devo, Mothersbaugh has developed a successful career writing musical scores for film and television. In film, he has worked frequently with filmmaker Wes Anderson, scoring four of his feature films (Bottle Rocket, Rushmore, The Royal Tenenbaums, and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou). He composed for The Lego Movie and Thor Ragnarok. His music has been a staple of the children's television shows Rugrats, Beakman's World, Santo Bugito and Clifford the Big Red Dog. He wrote the new theme song for the original Felix the Cat show when it was sold to Broadway Video, some music for Pee-wee's Playhouse in 1986-1990 and the theme song for the Super Mario World TV series for DIC Entertainment in 1991. The character design for Chuckie Finster on Rugrats was based on him. Along with Bob Casale, he produced Heroes & Villains (2000), a soundtrack album with music inspired by The Powerpuff Girls. Mothersbaugh originally intended to be the show's main composer, but his demo was rejected by creator Craig McCracken, who despite being a Devo fan, had concerns about his cartoon being pushed aside if a big feature film came to Mothersbaugh's production company. Mothersbaugh produces music for video games, including Sony's Crash Bandicoot and Jak and Daxter series (both music scores were created by Josh Mancell), and for EA Games' The Sims 2. This work is often performed with Mutato Muzika, the music production company he formed with several other former members of Devo including his brother, Bob Mothersbaugh. Mothersbaugh composed the original score for Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart. Mothersbaugh composed: * "Having Trouble Sneezing", the distinctive music in the award- winning "Get a Mac" commercials for Apple Inc. * The score for the first season of the television series Big Love, though he was replaced after one season by David Byrne of Talking Heads. * The theme music for the American television show Eureka, broadcast on the Syfy channel. * The score of the Cartoon Network's TV series Regular Show. In 2013, Mothersbaugh appeared on an episode of The Aquabats! Super Show!, an action-comedy series by the creators of Yo Gabba Gabba! starring the Devo-influenced band The Aquabats, playing the eccentric scientist father of one of the main characters, Jimmy the Robot. He also guest-appeared on the Futurama episode, The Mutants Are Revolting. Mothersbaugh and Casale have produced music for other artists, including Toni Basil. ===Visual art and exhibitions=== Mothersbaugh has also been successful as a visual artist. In November 2014, Mothersbaugh said, "I've done over 150 art gallery shows in the last 20 years." On February 6, 2014, the Museum of Contemporary Art Denver (MCA Denver) announced a retrospective exhibition to bring together the first comprehensive presentation of Mothersbaugh's art and music. This nationally touring exhibition was accompanied by a publication, Mark Mothersbaugh: Myopia, published by Princeton Architectural Press. 50 selections of postcard art from Myopia were published as a postcard book titled Mark Mothersbaugh: Collected Facts & Lies in 2015. As a prelude to the Myopia exhibit opening in Cincinnati, Ohio, Mothersbaugh held a concert gathering which included Devo songs and movie scores played in a classical style, an address to the audience with anecdotes, and musical pieces he specifically composed for a six-keyboard hybrid originally used for teaching lessons, that was refurbished by his brother Bob and contained a counter in the center for keeping time. The instrument was played by six people simultaneously. Mothersbaugh hosted a drawing segment on the Nick Jr. Channel television series Yo Gabba Gabba! called Mark's Magic Pictures, teaching children how to draw simple pictures. The pictures often come alive at the end of the segment through animation. ==Personal life== At the age of seven, Mothersbaugh began wearing glasses to correct his severe myopia and astigmatism, before which he was legally blind. Over the years, he took an interest in designing his own distinctive eyewear for use in Devo shows. He favored a set of stainless steel frames for regular use made by a Los Angeles shop called LA Eyeworks and says he purchased as many pairs as he could find because they tended to break or get stolen by fans. In a joint venture with eyewear manufacturer Shane Baum, Mothersbaugh has designed his own branded frames for sale, made of beryllium with a stainless steel chrome finish, in three different styles as of 2015. The Baumvision press release states that the unisex model "Francesca" is named for one of Mothersbaugh's pug dogs which is a simultaneous hermaphrodite that is also called Frank. He has been married twice. His first wife was actress Nancye Ferguson, who can be seen briefly performing with him in the 1999 superhero comedy film Mystery Men. His current wife is Anita Greenspan, who runs the film music managing company Greenspan Kohan Management with Neil Kohan. The couple has two daughters from China, adopted after Greenspan learned of the practice in that country of female children being abandoned because of their gender. Mothersbaugh is a collector and connoisseur of song poemsNERDIST Podcast Episode 130: Penn & Teller; Penn discusses his involvement along with Mark & Tom Ardolino of NRBQ with collecting song poems (starting at 08:17 in the podcast). and unusual or vintage musical devices. He is the owner of Raymond Scott's Electronium (although it is currently not functional).Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Mothersbaugh contracted COVID‑19 in May 2020, and was placed on a ventilator in an intensive care unit at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center for 18 days. In August 2020, Mothersbaugh recounted that he "nearly died" of the disease, and was in a delusional state while infected; he came to believe that he had been hospitalized after being hit by a brick in Little Tokyo, and repeatedly urged his family members to search for his attackers. He described having lasting neuropathic pain as a result of the illness. Mothersbaugh was once a member of the Church of the SubGenius. ==Honors and awards== Mothersbaugh was honored with the Richard Kirk award at the 2004 BMI Film and TV Awards. The award is given annually to a composer of film and television music. On May 10, 2008, Mothersbaugh was awarded an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Kent State University. On May 28, 2016, Mothersbaugh was awarded the key to the city of Akron during a ceremony at the Akron-Summit County Public Library. ==Filmography== * Human Highway (1982) * NBC (1990) (station ID's) * Felix the Cat (1990) (TV, digitally remastered footage version of the original series) (theme) * Super Mario World (1991) (TV) (theme) * Liquid Television (1991) (TV) * Davis Rules (1991) (TV) * Sewer Shark (1992) (VG) * Great Scott! (1992) (TV) * Frosty Returns (1992) (TV) * Mann & Machine (1992) (TV) * Beakman's World (1992) (TV) (theme) * Brain Donors (1992) (opening and end credits) * Bakersfield P.D. (1993) (TV) * South Beach (1993) (TV) * Street Match (1993) (TV) * Down on the Waterfront (1993) * Hotel Malibu (1994) TV Series * Edith Ann: A Few Pieces of the Puzzle (1994) (TV) * Santo Bugito (1995) (TV) (as Mark "Mothersbug") * Too Something (1995) (TV) * If Not for You (1995) (TV) * Strange Luck (1995) (TV) * Sliders (1995) (TV) * The Courtyard (1995) (TV) * The Last Supper (1995) (musical score) * Flesh Suitcase (1995) * The Big Squeeze (1996) * Class Reunion (1996) (TV) * Quicksilver Highway (1997) (TV) * Fired Up (1997) (TV) * Men (1997) * Unwed Father (1997) (TV) * Working (1997) (TV) (theme) * Last Rites (1998) (TV) * The Mr. Potato Head Show (1998) (TV) * The Simple Life (TV) * Stories from My Childhood (1998) (TV) * Interstate '82 (1999) (VG) * Rocket Power (1999) (TV) (theme music) * The Wacky Adventures of Ronald McDonald: The Visitors from Outer Space (1999) (V) * Sammy (2000) (TV) * Tucker (2000) (TV) * The Other Me (2000) (TV) * All Growed Up (2001) (TV) * Rugrats: Still Babies After All These Years (2001) (TV) * Second String (2002) (TV) * Cheats (2002) * MDs (2002) (TV) * Hidden Hills (2002) (TV) * The Groovenians! (2002) (TV) * A Guy Thing (2003) * The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004) * The Big House (2004) (TV) * Popeye's Voyage: The Quest for Pappy (2004) (V) * The Sims 2 (and Expansion Packs) (2004–2008) (VG) * The Complete Truth About De-Evolution (2004) (V) * Music for Edward Gorey (2005) * Get a Mac (2006–2009) * Feed Me (2006) * Eureka (2006) (TV) (Theme) * Boom Blox (2008) (VG) * Cars Toons (2008–2014) * Boom Blox Bash Party (2009) (VG) * Skate 3 (2010) (VG) * Catfish (2010) * Hawaiian Vacation (2011) * Shameless (2011) (TV) * Thor: Ragnarok (2017) * Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation (2018) * The Mitchells vs. the Machines (2021) * Hotel Transylvania: Transformania (2022) * How We Roll (2022) ===Television=== Years Title Notes 1986–1990 Pee-wee's Playhouse 1991–2006 Rugrats with Denis M. Hannigan, Rusty Andrews and Bob Mothersbaugh First score for an animated series 1992–1995 Adventures in Wonderland with Denis M. Hannigan, Rusty Andrews and Josh Mancell 1995–1996 Dumb and Dumber 1998-1999 The Mr. Potato Head Show with Ernie Mannix 1999–2004 Rocket Power 2000–2003 Clifford the Big Red Dog with Josh Mancell 2000–2001 Grosse Pointe 2003–2008 All Grown Up! with Bob Mothersbaugh 2004–2005 LAX 2006 Big Love 2010–2011 Blue Mountain State Glory Daze 2010–2017 Regular Show with John Enroth and Albert Fox 2011–2013 Enlightened 2012–2016 House of Lies 2013–2014 The Carrie Diaries 2015–2018 The Last Man on Earth Grandfathered 2016 Bordertown 2016–2017 People of Earth 2016 Ice Age: The Great Egg-Scapade Ice Age TV special 2017 Abstract: The Art of Design 2018–present Summer Camp Island with John Enroth and Albert Fox; also theme music with Seo Kim 2018–present Disenchantment 2018 Dirty John 2019–2020 What We Do in the Shadows 2020 Tiger King: Murder, Mayhem and Madness with John Enroth, Albert Fox, and Robert Mothersbaugh 2020–2022 Close Enough with John Enroth and Albert Fox 2022 Our Flag Means Death 2023 Hello Tomorrow! ===Film=== ====1980s==== Year Title Director(s) Studio(s) Notes 1987 Revenge of the Nerds II: Nerds in Paradise Joe Roth 20th Century Fox Interscope Communications Amercent Films American Entertainment Partners L.P. 1988 Slaughterhouse Rock Dimitri Logothetis Taurus Entertainment Company Arista Films First American Film Capital ====1990s==== Year Title Director(s) Studio(s) Notes 1992 Frosty Returns Evert Brown Bill Melendez CBS Productions Broadway Video Bill Melendez Productions Animated television special 1994 It's Pat Adam Bernstein Touchstone Pictures The New Age Michael Tolkin Warner Bros. Regency Enterprises Alcor Films Ixtlan 1995 Four Rooms Allison Anders Alexander Rockwell Robert Rodriguez Quentin Tarantino A Band Apart Miramax Films Music producer The Last Supper Stacy Title Columbia Pictures 1996 Happy Gilmore Dennis Dugan Universal Pictures Brillstein-Grey Entertainment Robert Simonds Productions Bottle Rocket Wes Anderson Columbia Pictures Gracie Films 1997 Best Men Tamra Davis Orion Pictures Breaking Up Robert Greenwald Warner Bros. Regency Enterprises 1998 Principal Takes a Holiday Robert King Walt Disney Television ABC Storyline Entertainment Television film Bongwater Richard Sears First Look Studios Alliance Independent Films with Josh Mancell Dead Man on Campus Alan Cohn Paramount Pictures MTV Productions Pacific Western Rushmore Wes Anderson Touchstone Pictures American Empirical Pictures Halloweentown Duwayne Dunham Disney Channel Singer-White Entertainment Television film The Rugrats Movie Norton Virgien Igor Kovalyov Paramount Pictures Nickelodeon Movies Klasky Csupo First score for an animated film 1999 200 Cigarettes Risa Bramon Garcia Paramount Pictures MTV Productions Lakeshore Entertainment with Bob Mothersbaugh Can of Worms Paul Schneider Disney Channel Gross-Weston Productions Television film It's the Rage James D. Stern Silver Nitrate Pictures Screenland Pictures Drop Dead Gorgeous Michael Patrick Jann New Line Cinema ====2000s==== Year Title Director(s) Studio(s) Notes 2000 The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle Des McAnuff Universal Pictures TriBeCa Productions Jay Ward Productions Capella International KC Medien Rugrats in Paris: The Movie Stig Bergqvist Paul Demeyer Paramount Pictures Nickelodeon Movies Klasky Csupo 2001 Glass, Necktie Paul Bojack E.I. Independent Cinema Lost Battalion Films Camouflage James Keach Sunland Studios Camouflage Productions Inc. Interlight Direct-to-video film Sugar & Spice Francine McDougall New Line Cinema Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge Mary Lambert Disney Channel Television film The Royal Tenenbaums Wes Anderson Touchstone Pictures American Empirical Pictures 2002 Sorority Boys Wallace Wolodarsky Touchstone Pictures Welcome to Collinwood Anthony and Joe Russo Warner Bros. Gaylord Films H5B5 Media AG Pandora Cinema Section Eight 2003 A Guy Thing Chris Koch Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer David Ladd Films Thirteen Catherine Hardwicke Fox Searchlight Pictures The Even Stevens Movie Sean McNamara Disney Channel Television film Rugrats Go Wild Norton Virgien John Eng Paramount Pictures Nickelodeon Movies Klasky Csupo Good Boy! John Robert Hoffman Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 2004 Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen Sara Sugarman Walt Disney Pictures Envy Barry Levinson DreamWorks Pictures Columbia Pictures Castle Rock Entertainment Baltimore/Spring Creek Pictures The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou Wes Anderson Touchstone Pictures American Empirical Pictures 2005 Lords of Dogtown Catherine Hardwicke Columbia Pictures TriStar Pictures Art Linson Productions Indelible Pictures Senator International Herbie: Fully Loaded Angela Robinson Walt Disney Pictures Robert Simonds Productions The Big White Mark Mylod Ascendant Pictures Capitol Films VIP Medienfonds 2 Ascendant The Ringer Barry W. Blaustein Fox Searchlight Pictures Conundrum Entertainment 2006 How to Eat Fried Worms Bob Dolman New Line Cinema Walden Media with Bob Mothersbaugh The Dog Problem Scott Caan Thousand Words 2007 Mama's Boy Tim Hamilton Warner Bros. 2008 Quid Pro Quo Carlos Brooks Magnolia Pictures HDNet Films Sanford/Pillsbury Productions 2929 Productions Nick & Norah's Infinite Playlist Peter Sollett Columbia Pictures Mandate Pictures Depth of Field 2009 Fanboys Kyle Newman The Weinstein Company Trigger Street Productions Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs Phil Lord Chris Miller Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation Falling Up David M. Rosenthal Anchor Bay Entertainment Circle of Eight Stephen Cragg Paramount Home Entertainment Direct-to-video film ====2010s==== Year Title Director(s) Studio(s) Notes 2010 Ramona and Beezus Elizabeth Allen 20th Century Fox Fox 2000 Pictures Di Novi Pictures Impact Productions Walden Media Dune Entertainment Eyeline Entertainment 2011 Saving Private Perez Beto Gómez Lionsgate Videocine Pantelion Films Pantelion Films Salamandra Films Lemon Films Terregal Films Via Media Mexican film Born to Be Wild David Lickley Warner Bros. Pictures IMAX Pictures Walker World Pictures IMAX documentary Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked Mike Mitchell 20th Century Fox Fox 2000 Pictures Regency Enterprises Bagdasarian Company Dune Entertainment 2012 21 Jump Street Phil Lord Chris Miller Columbia Pictures Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Relativity Media Original Film Cannell Studios Safe Boaz Yakin Lionsgate IM Global Lawrence Bender Productions Trigger Street Productions Automatik 87Eleven Productions What to Expect When You're Expecting Kirk Jones Lionsgate Alcon Entertainment Phoenix Pictures What to Expect Productions Georgia Public Hotel Transylvania Genndy Tartakovsky Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation 2013 Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2 Cody Cameron Kris Pearn Last Vegas Jon Turteltaub CBS Films Good Universe 2014 The Lego Movie Phil Lord Chris Miller Warner Bros. Pictures Warner Animation Group Village Roadshow Pictures RatPac-Dune Entertainment Lego System A/S Vertigo Entertainment Lin Pictures 22 Jump Street Columbia Pictures Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer LStar Capital MRC Original Film Cannell Studios Storyville 75 Year Plan Productions Phil Lord Chris Miller Island of Lemurs: Madagascar David Douglas Warner Bros. Pictures IMAX Corporation IMAX film 2015 Pitch Perfect 2 Elizabeth Banks Universal Pictures Gold Circle Films Brownstone Productions Vacation Jonathan Goldstein John Francis Daley Warner Bros. Pictures New Line Cinema RatPac-Dune Entertainment BenderSpink Big Kid Pictures Regular Show: The Movie J. G. Quintel Cartoon Network Studios Television movie Hotel Transylvania 2 Genndy Tartakovsky Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation LStar Capital Forever Tatia Pilieva Monterey Media Elysium Bandini Studios Foreverland Productions Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip Walt Becker 20th Century Fox Fox 2000 Pictures Regency Enterprises Bagdasarian Productions TSG Entertainment Scrat's Cosmic Scrat-tasrophe Mike Thurmeier 20th Century Fox 20th Century Fox Animation Blue Sky Studios Ice Age Short film 2016 Pee-wee's Big Holiday John Lee Netflix Pee-wee Pictures Apatow Productions Netflix original movie. 2017 Beatriz at Dinner Miguel Arteta Roadside Attractions FilmNation Entertainment Elevation Pictures Killer Films Bron Studios Brad's Status Mike White Amazon Studios Annapurna Pictures Sidney Kimmel Entertainment Plan B Entertainment Puppy! Genndy Tartakovsky Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation Hotel Transylvania short film Me gusta, pero me asusta Beto Gómez Diamond Films Grupo Telefilms Wetzer Films Mexican film The Lego Ninjago Movie Charlie Bean Paul Fisher Bob Logan Warner Bros. Pictures Warner Animation Group RatPac-Dune Entertainment Lego System A/S Lin Pictures Lord Miller Productions Vertigo Entertainment Thor: Ragnarok Taika Waititi Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures Marvel Studios 2018 Pandas David Douglas Drew Fellman Warner Bros. Pictures IMAX Pictures IMAX documentary Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation Genndy Tartakovsky Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation Holmes & Watson Etan Cohen Columbia Pictures Mosaic Media Group Gary Sanchez Productions Mimran Schur Pictures 2019 The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part Mike Mitchell Warner Bros. Pictures Warner Animation Group Lego System A/S Rideback Lord Miller Productions Vertigo Entertainment ====2020s==== Year Title Director(s) Studio(s) Notes 2020 The Willoughbys Kris Pearn Rob Lodermeier Netflix Netflix Animation Bron Studios Creative Wealth Media 2020 The Croods: A New Age Joel Crawford Universal Pictures DreamWorks Animation Replaced Alan Silvestri 2021 Monster Pets Jennifer Kluska Derek Drymon Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation Hotel Transylvania short film 2021 The Mitchells vs. the Machines Mike Rianda Jeff Rowe Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation Lord Miller Productions One Cool Films Netflix 2021 America: The Motion Picture Matt Thompson Netflix Netflix Animation Lord Miller Productions Floyd County Productions Free Association 2022 Hotel Transylvania: Transformania Jennifer Kluska Derek Drymon Amazon Studios Columbia Pictures Sony Pictures Animation 2023 Cocaine Bear Elizabeth Banks Brownstone Productions Lord Miller Productions Universal Pictures Replaced Natalie Holt 2023 The Magician's Elephant Wendy Rogers Netflix Netflix Animation Pistor Productions ===Video games=== Year Title 1996 Crash Bandicoot 1997 Crash Bandicoot 2: Cortex Strikes Back 1998 Crash Bandicoot: Warped 1999 Crash Team Racing 1999 Interstate '82 (with Josh Mancell) 2001 Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy 2003 Jak II 2004 Jak 3 2004 The Sims 2 2007 MySims 2007 The Simpsons Game 2008 Boom Blox 2008 MySims Kingdom 2009 MySims Racing 2009 MySims Agents 2010 Skate 3 2021 Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart ==Bibliography== * My Struggle (as Booji Boy) * What I Know Volume I * Beautiful Mutants ==Discography== ===With Devo=== ===Solo=== Studio albums * Muzik for Insomniaks (Cassette, 1985) ** Later released on CD as Muzik for Insomniaks, Vol. 1 and Muzik for Insomniaks, Vol. 2 in 1988 by Rykodisc * Muzik for the Gallery (LP, 1987) * Joyeux Mutato (CD, 1999, Rhino Handmade limited edition; reissued 2000 by Rhino to regular retail) * The Most Powerful Healing Muzik in the Entire World (6-CD Set, 2005) * Mutant Flora (6 × Vinyl, 7" Box Set, 2017) ==References== ==External links== * *Official art and exhibitions website * * * * * * * Category:1950 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American musicians Category:20th-century American singers Category:21st- century American composers Category:21st-century American singers Category:American male songwriters Category:American male pop singers Category:American male singers Category:American multi-instrumentalists Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Swiss descent Category:American punk rock singers Category:American film score composers Category:Animated film score composers Category:American television composers Category:American new wave musicians Category:American SubGenii Category:American synth-pop musicians Category:American rock songwriters Category:American tenors Category:Devo members Category:Kent State University alumni Category:American male film score composers Category:Male new wave singers Category:Male television composers Category:Musicians from Akron, Ohio Category:Record producers from Ohio Category:Singer-songwriters from Ohio Category:Sony Pictures Animation people Category:Synth-pop singers Category:Video game composers Category:Video game musicians Category:21st- century American artists Category:Hollywood Records artists Category:Rykodisc artists Category:Enigma Records artists Category:American post-punk musicians
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A human disguise (also human guise and sometimes human form)Or other synonymous descriptions, such as "disguised as human being(s)", or "taking human shape". This article concerns the underlying concept rather than any particular phrase. is a concept in fantasy, folklore, mythology, religion, literature, iconography, and science fiction whereby non-human beings such as gods, angels, monsters, extraterrestrials, or robots are disguised to seem human. Stories have depicted the deception as a means used to blend in with people, and science fiction has used the dichotomy to raise questions about what it means to be human.The Android and the Human, Philip K. Dick, 1972 ==In religion, mythology, and folklore== In pagan religions, deities very often took on the form of a human disguise for various tasks.Joseph Campbell (1991). The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology. Arkana, Viking Penguin. .H. J. Rose (1956). "Divine Disguisings", pp.63-72, in The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Jan.1956). (print), (web).Warren Smith (1988). "The Disguises of the Gods in the Iliad", pp.161-178 in Numen, Vol.35, Fasc.2 (Dec.1988). (print), (web). The gods "of whom the minstrels sang" in Homer's Iliad watched the "human spectacle" as partisans, and came down to Earth invisible or in human disguise to interfere, sometimes to protect their favorites from harm (compare deus ex machina). Their human disguises sometimes extended to their getting hurt in conflicts.Louis Ropes Loomis Introduction to Homer's The Iliad The Iliad Issue 77 of Classics illustrated Translated by Samuel Butler Publisher Wildside Press LLC, 2007 . Length 428 pages Zeus's human disguises have been compared to Plato's use of communicating through alternate characters as a means to express that the "essential philosophical nature is divine rather than human" and "cannot be represented without some element of human "disguise".Ruby Blondell (2002). The Play of Character in Plato's Dialogues. Cambridge University Press. pp.230 & 325\. , . In the borderlands between religion, myth, and literature, Dunn in his study of the concept of incarnation notes that Greek gods appeared disguised as humans in Ovid's legend of Baucis and Philemon. In the Torah, angels only appeared to men in a human disguise, and never without one. In the Old Testament apocryphal Book of Tobit, the Archangel Raphael takes on human disguise and the name of Azarias.Raphael Encyclopædia Britannica (Child and Colles note that '... he appears as a mere man, an archangel incognito as it were". ) The Book of Genesis tells of three angels visiting Abraham in human disguise (Gen.18), and two visiting Lot in Sodom (Gen.19). In this context Isaacs notes the nature of the interaction between angelic and human figures: Philosophy professor Peter Kreeft has asserted that when an angel wears its human disguise, human beings cannot penetrate the disguise due to the superior abilities angels possess; Kreeft cites as proof Hebrews 13:2: "... some people have entertained angels without knowing it."Peter Kreeft (1995). Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them?. Ignatius Press. pp.52-53, 83. . Child and Colles summarize: "The angels in the Old Testament were known to be messengers of God, sent to do his will, usually invisible and mysterious, but sometimes coming without wings in the guise of men." St. Augustine and Christian scholars of that age agreed that the Devil could manipulate a person's senses to create illusions in the mind, constructing from particles of air fake human bodies that seemed quite real to those who saw them.Peter Day, Vampires: Myths and Metaphors of Enduring Evil, p.85. John Milton's poem Paradise Regained has Satan disguised as an old man.John Milton, John Leonard (ed.) (1998). The Complete Poems. Penguin Classics. pp.13, 912. . The Christian heresy of docetism held that Jesus was not a human but was, instead, a divine spirit in the guise of a human. Monsters like vampires and werewolves could purportedly take human form at certain times, and lore gave advice as to how to detect or drive away these seemingly human creatures.Raymond T. McNally, Radu Florescu (1994). In Search of Dracula: the History of Dracula and Vampires. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Chapter 10: Vampirism: Old World Folklore, pp. 117-132. . Compare detecting a werewolf in human form: Christopher Golden, Stephen Bissette, Thomas E. Sniegoski (2000). The Monster Book. Simon and Schuster. p.247. . Even Red Riding Hood's Wolf (though presumably not a werewolf) could disguise himself as her grandmother. Stories are also told of mermaids walking in human form, such as Hans Christian Andersen's Little Mermaid, which is based on many such legends. Changelings are often described in Western European folklore as a type of legendary creature, left in place of a human infant, for a variety of reasons. They are usually not able to mimic the human perfectly, thus there are various ways to reveal them. Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Native American beliefs have traditions whereby gods and spirits descend to earth in human form to help or hinder humanity.William Howitt (1863). The History of the Supernatural in All Ages and Nations. Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. p.286. In native American myths "the sun, moon, and morning star seem free to take human form and roam the earth, seeking love and other adventures."Richard Erdoes, Alfonso Ortíz (1984). American Indian Myths And Legends. Random House. p.xii. , . In Japanese mythology, kitsune, or legendary foxes, often take on a human disguise; most frequently taking the form of an elderly man, an attractive woman, or a child. Kitsune can also replicate the exact appearance of a specific person. In medieval Japan, the belief that any beautiful women met alone at dusk was a kitsune was prevalent. In some legends, kitsune cannot fully transform, but maintain a tail or other foxlike characteristic such as long red hair. Some kitsune in disguise prey on humans through sexual contact, much like the succubus. Other Japanese animals that (according to myth) can take human disguise include the bakeneko (ghost-cat), Bake-danuki (Japanese raccoon dog), mujina (Japanese badger), and jorōgumo (spider). Japanese- speakers call the category of such shapeshifting creatures obake or bakemono. The wandering stranger (ijin, 異人) in Japanese folklore may turn out as a secret prince or as a priest... "And he can also be an avowedly supernatural being, outside the human race. The Wardens of certain pools, for example, who are believed to be snakes, and to be ready to lend lacquer cups and bowls to those who wish to borrow them for a party, are referred to as ijin. So are the uncanny yamabito or 'mountain people', said to be seven or eight feet tall, to be covered with hair or leaves, and to live deep in the mountains beyond human habitation. .... The Stranger is... possessed of powerful magic, but he is disguised as a filthy beggar. Be careful therefore how you treat strangers...."Carmen Blacker (1990). "The Folklore of the Stranger: A Consideration of a Disguised Wandering Saint", pp.162-168, in Folklore, Vol.101, No.2 (1990). (print), (web). Generically, a stranger "may as easily be a dangerous incarnation of the Devil as a messenger from God". Selkie, seals which can shed their skin and turn into humans,Meliss Bunce (2003). "The Selkie Wife", p.56, in Happily Ever After: Folktales that Illuminate Marriage and Commitment. August House. , . appear in Faroese, Icelandic, Irish, and Scottish mythology, as well as in myths of the Chinook people, and are the premise of the film The Secret of Roan Inish. == Art iconography == Roland Mushat Frye discusses a common iconographic tradition of Satanic disguise as a "falsus frater, as an old Franciscan friar, or as a hermit, often with a rosary, as Botticelli represented him in his Sistine Chapel frescoes". == In literary criticism == In a study of multi-cultural literary traditions Quint traces examples of the recurring literary archetype of a disguised supernatural visitor: for example in Virgil's Aeneid and in Torquato Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata. ==In fiction== ===Supernatural creatures=== Fiction may feature disguise for dramatic or comedic considerations. For instance, besides the aerial-daemonic Asmodeus and the undead-human Dracula, non-human primates have also been represented as vampires.Anita Silvey, The Essential Guide to Children's Books and Their Creators, p.284. ===Aliens=== Gary Westfahl wrote that Stanisław Lem and other writers use a standard argument: that "science fiction writers, as human beings, are inherently incapable of imagining truly alien beings, meaning that all aliens in science fiction are nothing but disguised humans."March 2009 Various works of science fiction have described aliens disguised in human form. The theme of alien infiltration in human form appeared commonly during the Cold War. Jack Finney's 1955 novel The Body Snatchers, and the films made from it, involve aliens not only looking generally human, but replacing specific human beings, an intensely frightening prospect because one's own neighbors, friends, and family must now be suspected. It has been suggested that this conveyed the paranoia of the McCarthy era.Whitehead, John W. (2001). "Invasion of the Body Snatchers: A Tale for Our Times". Gadfly Online, 2001-11-26. The various incarnations of Star Trek had numerous aliens capable of impersonating humans, for example the Salt Vampire of "The Man Trap", Trelane the Squire of Gothos, the Organians in "Errand of Mercy", the re-created historical combatants in "The Savage Curtain", among others from the original series; the Changelings (Odo's people) in Deep Space Nine; and the Suliban in Enterprise. David Buxton's Avengers to Miami Vice discusses the use of human disguise in The Invaders,David Buxton From the Avengers to Miami Vice: form and ideology in television series Cultural politics Manchester University Press ND, 1990 , , 170 pages 46-56 suggesting that though it might at first glance appear to be an extraterrestrial representation of the communist threat the show also picks up on deeper doubts regarding the American value-system. The theme of infiltration continued in popularity into the closing stages of the Cold War in the 1980s. In the science fiction series V, the reptilian aliens wear human suits to pass as humans, trying to make humans feel more comfortable around them. They Live deviated from the cold-war fear of communists by having its alien infiltrators be the capitalist elite, exploiting mindnumbed consumersThe New Cult Canon: They Live , Scott Tobias, March 26, 2008, Onion AV Club while The Thing featured a more visceral biological horror, with an alien that would infect and duplicate hosts. In the 1982 British sci-fi film Xtro, an alien spaceship abducts a father and an alien returns disguised as him. The alien rapes a woman and she gives birth to a fully grown man in what author Barbara Creed describes as being a primal "phantasy" where man is born fully grown and completely independent of its mother.Barbara Creed The monstrous-feminine: film, feminism, psychoanalysis page 44 In the CW television series Supernatural practically all the supernatural creatures the protagonistic Winchester brothers encounter can assume human form, although there are a few exceptions to this, such as the Shtriga and the Wendigo. Most noticeable with the "human disguises" in the show are that of angels and demons. The true forms of angels are brilliant, amazing and overwhelming, as well as being as high as New York skyscrapers, forcing angels to possess humans whenever they manifest on Earth. The true forms of demons are destructive and deadly, forcing demons to forcibly possess humans. Other creatures, such as shapeshifters and the Leviathans, need samples of humans to take on their form. Recently DC: The New Frontier returned to the cold war theme, using the character of the Martian Manhunter, "a shape-changing alien who adopts human disguise because he knows his alien form would scare people", to look back at cold-war paranoia and fear of outsiders.Tim Clodfelter Video Takes A Look Back At Origins Of Popular Superheroes (Metro Edition) Salem Journal (Winston- Salem, North Carolina) February 28, 2008 page 5 In Roald Dahl's novel The Witches the titular creatures, the Witches, are effectively evil demons which assume human form. In their human form, they do not really fit comfortably within their human disguises, and even when they disguise themselves as human, they have several giveaway clues which can only be identified by truly observant individuals. Such individuals have formed an organization called Witchophiles who are dedicated to hunting down and killing the evil demons. In their human forms, witches have unnatural eyes, which flash ice and fire, and also they have long felinstic claws which they disguise with gloves. Their most notable feature is their bald heads, which they disguise with first-class wigs. In Pandemic's 1950s-themed Destroy All Humans! video game, the Furon character Crypto, a gray-skinned alien, uses a holographic human disguise to infiltrate suburban United States. "In human form he cannot use weapons but is still able to use his mental powers to hurl objects and hypnotize people into becoming obedient slaves."Charles Herold "Aliens in the Suburbs, Surrounded by Stupidity" July 16, 2005 New York Times Some authors portray the mannerisms of aliens using human disguises as awkward, indicating that the aliens may not feel comfortable in their false skins, for instance Vincent D'Onofrio's portrayal of an alien "Bug" wearing a human suit in Men In Black. Aliens in human disguise do not always have sinister motives: in Meet Dave, a group of aliens arrive in a spaceship shaped like a human being, and pilot it, to interact with the humans without getting noticed. In Star Man the alien appears in human form, explaining it was so "you not be a little bit jumpy." In the Men in Black movie and comic book, alien immigrants disguised as humans inhabit the Earth;Brad Munson Inside MIIB: Men in black II the alien prince of the Arquillian Empire lives as a human being with a pet cat. Galaxy Quest and 3rd Rock from the Sun also use the meme. 3rd Rock from the Sun features a group of aliens given human bodies to observe aspects of human society. An episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer incorporates a praying mantis in human disguise, posing as a substitute high-school teacher who seduces her students before eating them. The mantis in disguise serves as a metaphor to suggest to younger viewers that rushing unprepared into sexual activity can result in being "devoured". In the film Mimic, insects native to Earth are genetically modified to stop a cockroach-borne disease, but as a side-effect later evolve in size and shape to mimic and prey upon human beings. In Marvel Comics the Skrull, a race of aliens, commonly disguise themselves as humans to move about unnoticed on Earth. A particularly notable and riveting form of human disguise appears in Larry Niven's Ringworld, specifically in the minor religion practiced by the Kdaptists, a religious order of Kzin who believe that the pinnacle of creation is not Kzin but man, and adopt a mask of human skin during prayer to attempt to trick God into thinking they are His children. ===Robots=== Isaac Asimov considered humanoid robots (androids) in the novel Robots and Empire and the short stories "Evidence" and "The Tercentenary Incident", in which robots are crafted to fool people into mistaking them as human. Some of Asimov's robots respond to human distrust and antipathy by passing as human and influencing human development for its own good. In Asimov's novella The Bicentennial Man, the robot Andrew gradually replaces his mechanical body with organic components, but only on the 200th anniversary of the start of his organic conversion, when he allows his positronic brain to "decay" and thus abandons his immortality, does he become accepted as "human". In the movies A.I. Artificial Intelligence, and the Alien series, robots are made to look and act human. In The Terminator, Arnold Schwarzenegger played a cyborg that wore a human disguise. In the 2010 Metroid game, the antagonist is a cyborg named Madeline Bergman who has been raised by the governing Galactic Federation and has effectively been kept in imprisonment on a derelict space vessel, thus making her gradually loathe humans. Madeline eventually plans to raid the Federation headquarters and destroy human civilization, but fortunately Samus Aran is called onto the scene by the Federation before this can occur. The various Star Trek shows also had persuasive androids, for instance in the original series episodes "What Are Little Girls Made Of?", "Shore Leave", "I, Mudd", and "Requiem for Methuselah". In Star Trek: the Next Generation, the android Data's desire to become more human became an ongoing source of commentary on the human condition. (Data's positronic brain is a nod to Asimov's stories.) An earlier pilot-film by Star Trek's creator Gene Roddenberry, The Questor Tapes, had featured an android left on 20th-century Earth as the last of a series of advanced alien technology, with the same subtext. In Philip K. Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and its film adaption Blade Runner, the replicants are biological robots indistinguishable from humans except by specialised testing of their empathic reactions. As those androids are manufactured exclusively for off-world colonies on Mars and are illegal on Earth they attempt to disguise as human to evade their killing by special police operatives. Similarly in the remade series Battlestar Galactica, robots known as the Cylons have evolved the ability to make bodies that appear quite human. When killed, they transfer their consciousness from one body to an identical model elsewhere. This seeming immortality, the uncertainty of who is really human and who is Cylon, and the love between characters who are revealed to be human or Cylon, are used for discussion of what it means to be human.See for instance the character arcs of Saul Tigh and Number Eight (Battlestar Galactica), as well as Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)#References to modern society. Pretenders in Transformers are Autobots and Decepticons who encase their robotic bodies in organic-like outer shells. While most Decepticons use shells patterned after monsters, most Autobots use shells that appear human. ===Cartoons=== Human disguises sometimes occur in animation for cartoon characters. In a short story by Haitham Chehabi, Trix, a cartoon rabbit, wears a human disguise.Haitham Chehabi Trix Are For Kids? January 6, 2008 LA Times Cartoons sometimes portray aliens drawn in human disguise.Steve Barr 1-2-3 draw cartoon aliens and space stuff: a step-by-step guide Note too the cartoon dragons passing as humans in Gnuff. ==Examples outside fiction== Commentators may use the concept of human disguise as a metaphor for a lack of humanity. For example, a Kenyan judge described the former Kenyan Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta as a "monster in human disguise". Doug Parker, chairman of US Airways, was described as a "Klingon in a human disguise", after he "vaporized much of what was left of USAirways in Pittsburgh." The human disguise does not always carry negative connotations - in the US, a well regarded murder victim has been described as "an angel running round with a human suit on", while Manoel de S. Antonio, (Bishop of Malacca between 1701 and 1723) was referred to as an "angel in human disguise" for his conversion of 10,000 people to Christianity. Some conspiracy theorists such as David Icke believe that aliens have assumed human form and control the world by masquerading as human leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II, George Bush and Tony Blair. ==Creatures== This table lists fictional creatures which pretend to pass as human. Creature Origin Description Changeling European A troll-, faerie- or elf-child, switched at birth for various reasons The Devil various Believed to take on human forms in order to tempt people Doppelgänger German A ghostly double of a living person Ghoul Arabic A malevolent jinn who likes human flesh. It can make all but its feet look human in order to lure the unwary. Kitsune Japanese A fox which can take the form of a beautiful maiden, and which grows an extra tail every hundred years. A kitsune was said to be the mother of the legendary onmyoji Abe no Seimei. Noppera-bō Japanese Sometimes also called a mujina, At first appearing completely human, when approached it can wipe its face completely off, as though cleaning a chalkboard, leaving behind a featureless orb similar to an egg. Lafcadio Hearn introduced this entity to the West in his 1903 book Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. Selkie Scottish A seal which can shed its skin to become a beautiful maiden Vampire Pan-European An undead consumer of blood which, in some traditions, passes for human in order to attain blood Tanuki Japanese A Japanese raccoon dog which can take the form of a human, though without always achieving a perfect transformation ==See also== * Anthropomorphism * Anthropotheism * Humanoid * Incarnation * Liminal being * Plot device * Reptilians * Shapeshifting * Stock character * Therianthropy ==References== Category:Deception Category:Shapeshifting
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Serbia competed at the 2018 Mediterranean Games in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain over 10 days from 22 June to 1 July 2018. ==Medalists== Medal Name Sport Event Date Jelena Milivojčević Karate −50 kg Damir Mikec Shooting 10 m air pistol Velimir Stjepanović Swimming 200 m freestyle Andrej Barna Ivan Lenđer Uroš Nikolić Velimir Stjepanović Swimming 4 × 100 m freestyle relay Milica Starović Canoeing K-1 500 m Andrea Arsović Shooting 10 m air rifle Milutin Stefanović Shooting 10 m air rifle Velimir Stjepanović Swimming 200 m butterfly Ivana Španović Athletics Long jump Žarko Ćulum Judo +100 kg Ana Bajić Taekwondo +67 kg Serbia men's national water polo team Water polo Men's tournament Zorana Arunović Shooting 10 m air pistol Anja Crevar Swimming 400 m individual medley Marko Dragosavljević Canoeing K-1 200 m Čaba Silađi Swimming 100 m breaststroke Andrej Barna Aleksa Bobar Uroš Nikolić Velimir Stjepanović Swimming 4 × 200 m freestyle relay Čaba Silađi Swimming 50 m breaststroke Aleksa Bobar Ivan Lenđer Čaba Silađi Velimir Stjepanović Swimming 4 × 100 m medley relay Davor Štefanek Wrestling Greco-Roman 77 kg Milica Nikolić Judo 48 kg Nemanja Majdov Judo 90 kg Marko Marjanović Rowing Single sculls Vladimir Torubarov Ervin Holpert Canoeing K-2 500 m Slobodan Bitević Karate +84 kg Vladimir Stankić Wrestling Greco-Roman 87 kg Mikheil Kajaia Wrestling Greco-Roman 97 kg Stevan Mićić Wrestling Freestyle 65 kg Vanja Stanković Taekwondo 49 kg Miloš Gladović Taekwondo 58 kg Trifun Dašić Boxing Middleweight Dušan Janjić Boxing Flyweight ==Archery == ;Men Athlete Event Ranking round Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Athlete Event Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Aleksandar Beatović Individual 304 29 W 6-2 L 2-6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Nikola Stefanović Individual 315 22 L 3-7 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance == Athletics == ;Men ;Track & road events Athlete Event Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Elzan Bibić 1500 m Did not finish Did not finish Did not finish Did not finish Elzan Bibić 5000 m colspan=2 14:32.05 13 ;Women ;Track & road events Athlete Event Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Zorana Barjaktarović 100 m 12.06 5 Did not advance Did not advance Zorana Barjaktarović 200 m 24.04 5 Did not advance Did not advance Amela Terzić 800 m 2:08.38 SB 5 Did not advance Did not advance Amela Terzić 1500 m colspan=2 4:19.13 7 ;Field events Athlete Event Final Distance Position Ivana Španović Long jump 7.04 == Badminton == ;Men Athlete Event Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Andrija Doder Men's singles L (11-21, 9-21) Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Luka Milić Men's singles L (13-21, 19–21) Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Andrija Doder Luka Milić Men's doubles W (19-21, 21–19, 21–15) L (13-21, 10–21) Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Basketball 3x3 == Athlete Event Group matches Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Marko Milaković Stefan Simić Luka Stefanović Nikola Šućov Men's Tournament Andorra W 22-10 Macedonia W 21-10 1 Q Greece L 13-19 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Ines Ćorda Anja Spasojević Bojana Stevanović Julijana Vojinović Women's Tournament Turkey W 22-13 Italy L 11-21 France L 14-21 2 Q Spain L 4-22 Portugal L 20-21 4 == Beach volleyball == Athlete Event Preliminary round Preliminary round Preliminary round Standing 1/8 Finals Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Standing Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Stefan Basta Lazar Kolarić Men's W 2-0 (21-14, 21–10) W 2-1 (19-21, 21–17, 22–20) 1 Q W 2-0 (21-14, 21–11) L 0-2 (19-21, 21–23) Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Katarina Raičević Nataša Savović Women's L 1-2 (21-17, 16–21, 15–5) L 0-2 (17-21, 14–21) W 2-1 (21-15, 12–21, 15–13) 3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance == Bowls == ;Lyonnaise Athlete Event Elimination Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Nataša Antonjak Women's precision throw 16 =8 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance == Boxing == ;Men Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Athlete Event Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Dušan Janjić Flyweight W 3-1 L 0-5 Did not advance Damjan Grmuša Light welterweight L 1-4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Trifun Dašić Middleweight W 3-0 W 4-1 L 0-5 Did not advance Marko Docić Heavyweight L Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Canoeing == ;Men Athlete Event Heats Heats Semifinals Semifinals Final Final Athlete Event Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Marko Dragosavljević K-1 200 m 34.696 1 Q colspan=2 34.603 Stefan Vekić K-1 500 m 1:39.961 2 Q colspan=2 1:41.256 6 Vladimir Torubarov Ervin Holpert K-2 500 m 1:31.558 1 Q colspan=2 1:30.168 ;Women Athlete Event Heats Heats Semifinals Semifinals Final Final Athlete Event Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Milica Starović K-1 200 m 41.638 2 Q colspan=2 40.912 4 Milica Starović K-1 500 m 1:53.133 2 Q colspan=2 1:53.637 Legend: FA = Qualify to final (medal); FB = Qualify to final B (non-medal) ==Cycling == ;Men Athlete Event Time Rank Dušan Kalaba Road race Did not finish Did not finish Dušan Rajović Road race Did not finish Did not finish Dušan Rajović Time trial 32:09.63 11 Veljko Stojnić Road race 3:44:56 20 Veljko Stojnić Time trial 31:16.69 6 ;Women Athlete Event Time Rank Jelena Erić Road race 2:43:22 12 ==Fencing == ;Women Athlete Event Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Ana Sel Individual épée Cisneros Gavin L 4-5 Tannous L 4-5 Foietta L 3-4 Rembi L 2-5 Mavrikiou W 5-3 Sidiropoulou L 2-5 6 Q Kiskapusi Frank L 7-15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Golf == Athlete Event Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Total Total Total Athlete Event Score Score Score Score Score Par Rank Branimir Ante Gudelj Men's individual 81 74 71 73 299 +11 =25 Mihailo Dimitrijević 80 74 70 70 294 +6 =16 Branimir Ante Gudelj Mihailo Dimitrijević Men's team 161 148 141 143 593 +17 9 ==Gymnastics== ===Artistic gymnastics=== ;Men Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Bojan Dejanović All-around 13.150 12.700 11.200 13.450 11.850 11.650 74.000 24 Q 13.050 10.800 11.850 13.900 11.650 12.600 73.850 18 ;Women Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Tamara Mrđenović All-around 13.000 11.900 11.550 12.250 Q 48.700 11 Q Did not start Did not start Did not start Did not start Did not start Did not start ;Apparatus Athlete Event Final Final Athlete Event Total Rank Tamara Mrđenović Balance beam Did not start Did not start ===Rhythmic gymnastics=== Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Hoop Ball Clubs Ribbon Total Rank Hoop Ball Clubs Ribbon Total Rank Nastasija Gvozdić All-around 12.450 11.900 12.100 10.250 46.700 15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Handball== ===Men's tournament=== ;Roster *Aleksandar Milenković *Dejan Milosavljev *Viktor Matičić *Stevan Sretenović *Darko Stevanović *Milan Vučković *Aleksandar Babić *Nemanja Gojković *Borivoje Đukić *Milan Milić *Predrag Vejin *Nemanja Živković *Mladen Šotić *Vukašin Vorkapić *Vladimir Jevtić *Nemanja Ratković ;Group stage \---- \---- ;Quarterfinals ;5–8th place semifinals ;Seventh place game ===Women's tournament=== ;Roster *Marijana Ilić *Katarina Kosanović *Dijana Radojević *Milica Rančić *Marija Obradović *Katarina Stošić *Gordana Mitrović *Tamara Radojević *Aleksandra Vukajlović *Lidija Cvijić *Anđela Janjušević *Jelena Terzić *Nataša Atanasković *Jovana Bogojević *Jelena Agbaba *Jovana Milojević ;Group stage \---- \---- \---- ;Seventh place game == Judo == ;Men Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Nemanja Majdov −90 kg W 100-0 W 10-0 colspan=2 L 10-110 Žarko Ćulum +100 kg W 100-0 W 10-0 colspan=2 W 100-0 ;Women Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Milica Nikolić −48 kg W 100-0 W 100-0 colspan=2 L 0-100 Andrea Stojadinov −52 kg W 100-0 L 0-100 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Marica Perišić −57 kg L 0-100 Did not advance Did not advance L 0-10 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Jovana Obradović −63 kg W 10-0 W 100-10 L 0-110 colspan=2 L 0-110 5 ==Karate == ;Men Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Marko Antić −60 kg L 0-2 Did not advance L 0-0 Did not advance 7 Dejan Cvrkota −84 kg W 1-0 W 1-0 L 1-2 L 0-0 5 Slobodan Bitević +84 kg L 0-2 Did not advance Did not advance W 2-0 W 0-0 ;Women Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Jelena Milivojčević −50 kg W 1-1 W 0-0 W 0-0 Dina Durmiš −55 kg W 1-0 L 0-5 Did not advance L 0-4 5 Sanja Cvrkota −68 kg L 0-4 Did not advance L 2-3 Did not advance 7 ==Rowing == ;Men Athlete Event Heats Heats Repechage Repechage Final Final Athlete Event Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Marko Marjanović Single sculls 3:13.434 1 FA colspan=2 3:16.628 Aleksandar Beđik Igor Đerić Double sculls 2:58.701 1 FA colspan=2 03:06.649 5 == Sailing == ;Women Athlete Event Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Net points Final rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M* Net points Final rank Ksenija Joksimović Laser Radial 13 12 13 11 13 11 11 10 10 13 13 117 13 Laser Radial ==Shooting == ;Men Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Dimitrije Grgić 10 m air pistol 577 4 Q 156.1 6 Damir Mikec 10 m air pistol 578 3 Q 240.9 MGR Lazar Kovačević 10 m air rifle 617.7 7 205.0 4 Milutin Stefanović 10 m air rifle 622.3 1 247.5 MGR Dušan Nikolić Trap 116 12 Did not advance Did not advance Borko Vasiljević Trap 118 7 Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Zorana Arunović 10 m air pistol 568 3 239.9 Bobana Momčilović Veličković 10 m air pistol 572 2 194.5 4 Andrea Arsović 10 m air rifle 624.4 2 246.9 MGR Milica Babić 10 m air rifle 621.8 8 183.7 5 ==Swimming == ;Men Athlete Event Heat Final Time Rank Time Rank Andrej Barna 50 m freestyle 22.57 5 Q 22.60 7 Andrej Barna 100 m freestyle 49.96 7 Q 49.69 6 Aleksa Bobar 200 m freestyle 1:51.24 12 Did not advance Did not advance Aleksa Bobar 200 m butterfly 2:06.12 14 Did not advance Did not advance Ivan Lenđer 50 m butterfly 24.32 6 24.12 6 Ivan Lenđer 100 m butterfly 53.94 6 Q 54.08 8 Uroš Nikolić 50 m freestyle 23.12 11 Did not advance Did not advance Čaba Silađi 50 m breaststroke 27.58 2 Q 27.31 Čaba Silađi 100 m breaststroke 1:00.67 1 Q 1:00.46 Velimir Stjepanović 100 m freestyle 49.40 4 Q 49.47 4 Velimir Stjepanović 200 m freestyle 1:49.91 3 Q 1:47.13 Velimir Stjepanović 200 m butterfly 1:59.43 2 Q 1:56.93 Andrej Barna Ivan Lenđer Uroš Nikolić Velimir Stjepanović 4 × 100 m freestyle relay colspan=2 3:15.76 Andrej Barna Aleksa Bobar Uroš Nikolić Velimir Stjepanović 4 × 200 m freestyle relay colspan=2 7:18.57 Aleksa Bobar Ivan Lenđer Čaba Silađi Velimir Stjepanović 4 × 100 m medley relay colspan=2 3:38.44 NR ;Women Athlete Event Heat Final Time Rank Time Rank Anja Crevar 400 m freestyle 4:14.24 4 Q 4:12.88 5 Anja Crevar 200 m individual medley 2:15.40 2 Q 2:15.58 5 Anja Crevar 400 m individual medley 4:43.9 3 Q 4:40.62 NR Anja Crevar Anja Crevar ==Table tennis == ;Women Athlete Event Round Robin 1 Round Robin 1 Round Robin 1 Round Robin 1 Round Robin 2 Round Robin 2 Round Robin 2 Round Robin 2 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Izabela Lupulesku Singles W 4–0 L 3–4 W 4–0 2 Q W 4–2 W 4–1 W 4–2 1 Q W 4–2 L 1–4 L 3–4 4 Aneta Maksuti Singles L 2–4 W 4–0 L 1–4 3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Tijana Jokić Izabela Lupulesku Aneta Maksuti Team L 1–3 W 3–0 2 Q colspan=4 L 0–3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance == Taekwondo == ;Men Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Miloš Gladović −58 kg W 27-12 W 25-23 L 8-10 Did not advance Nikola Vučković −68 kg L 4-5 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Damir Fejzić −80 kg W 12-4 L 2-14 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Draško Jovanov +80 kg L 5-6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Vanja Stanković −49 kg W 13-0 L 8-20 Did not advance Aleksandra Radmilović −57 kg W 12-10 L 8-19 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Nađa Savković −67 kg W 5-4 L 0-3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Ana Bajić +67 kg W 4-0 W 1-1 W 5-1 == Triathlon == ;Men Athlete Event Swim Trans 1 Bike Trans 2 Run Total Time Rank Ognjen Stojanović Individual sprint 10:12 0:32 31:10 0:24 16:23 58:39 4 == Water polo == ===Men's tournament=== ;Roster *Milan Aleksić *Miloš Ćuk *Filip Filipović *Nikola Jakšić *Dušan Mandić *Branislav Mitrović *Stefan Mitrović *Duško Pijetlović *Gojko Pijetlović *Sava Ranđelović *Strahinja Rašović *Viktor Rašović *Nemanja Ubović ;Group stage \---- \---- ;Final ==Water skiing == ;Men Athlete Event Round 1 Round 2 Final Points/Time Rank Points/Time Rank Points/Time Rank Srđan Dragić Slalom 5.00/40 14 0.50/52 7 Did not advance Did not advance Marko Jovičić Slalom 0.50/52 12 4.00/40 12 Did not advance Did not advance ==Weightlifting == ;Men Athlete Event Snatch Clean & jerk Result Rank Result Rank Stevan Vladisavljev −62 kg 110 6 135 6 == Wrestling == ;Freestyle wrestling Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Stevan Mićić −65 kg W 10-0 L 4-8 W 8-7 ;Greco-Roman wrestling Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Kristijan Fris −67 kg W 2-1 L 1-7 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Davor Štefanek −77 kg W ? W 5-1 L 0-5 Vladimir Stankić −87 kg L 0-5 Did not advance W 4-1 Mikheil Kajaia −97 kg W 9-1 L 2-5 W 2-2 ==References== * Category:Nations at the 2018 Mediterranean Games 2018 Mediterranean Games
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"Paranoid Android" is a song by English alternative rock band Radiohead, released as the lead single from their third studio album OK Computer (1997) on 26 May 1997. The lyrics were written by singer Thom Yorke following an unpleasant experience in a Los Angeles bar. The song is over six minutes long and contains four sections. The name is taken from Marvin the Paranoid Android from the science fiction series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. "Paranoid Android" charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart, Radiohead's highest-charting position in the UK to date. It received acclaim, with critics comparing it to the songs "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" by the Beatles and "Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen. It has appeared regularly on lists of the best songs of all time, including NMEs and Rolling Stones respective 500 Greatest Songs of All Time lists. Its animated music video, directed by Magnus Carlsson, was placed on heavy rotation on MTV, although the network censored portions containing nudity in the US. At the 1998 Brit Awards, the song was nominated for Best British Single. The track has been covered by artists in a variety of genres. It was included in the 2008 Radiohead: The Best Of. ==Writing and recording== As with many other OK Computer tracks, "Paranoid Android" was recorded in St Catherine's Court, a 15th-century mansion near the village of St Catherine, near Bath, Somerset.Paranoid Android (9 December 2004). Rolling Stone. Accessed 4 October 2008. It was produced by Nigel Godrich. Inspired by the through-composed structure of the Beatles' 1968 song "Happiness Is a Warm Gun", Radiohead fused parts from three different songs. Other inspirations included Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" and the work of the Pixies.Sutherland, Mark (31 May 1997). "Return of the Mac!". Melody Maker. The first version was over 14 minutes long and included a long Hammond organ outro performed by Jonny Greenwood."Thom Yorke loves to skank". Q. 12 August 2002.Doheny, 2002. p. 62. The guitarist Ed O'Brien said: "We'd be pissing ourselves while we played. We'd bring out the glockenspiel and it would be really, really funny." The singer, Thom Yorke, sarcastically referred to this version as "a Pink Floyd cover".Footman, 2007. p. 54 Greenwood said later that the organ solo was "hard to listen to without clutching the sofa for support". Godrich said: "Nothing really happened with the outro. It just spun and spun and it got very Deep Purple and went off." An early extended version was included on the 2019 compilation MiniDiscs [Hacked]. Influenced by the editing of the Beatles' Magical Mystery Tour, Radiohead shortened the song to six and a half minutes,Randall, 2004. pp. 150–151. with the organ solo replaced with a shorter guitar outro.Kitts, 2002. p. 151. The bassist, Colin Greenwood, said the band "felt like irresponsible schoolboys ... Nobody does a six-and-a-half- minute song with all these changes. It's ridiculous."Randall, 2002. pp. 214–215. Godrich edited the parts together with tape. He said: "It’s a very hard thing to explain, but it’s all on 24-track and it runs through ... I was very pleased with myself. I sort of stood there and said, 'You guys have no idea what I’ve just done.' It was pretty clever." The title is taken from Marvin the Paranoid Android from the science fiction series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Yorke said the title was a joke: "It was like, 'Oh, I'm so depressed.' And I just thought, that's great. That's how people would like me to be ... The rest of the song is not personal at all." ==Composition== "Paranoid Android" is described as alternative rock, art rock, progressive rock and neo-progressive rock. It has four distinct sections, each played in standard tuning, and a time signature, although several three-bar segments in the second section are played in timing. Yorke's vocals span from G3 to C5. The opening is played in the key of G minorGriffiths, 2004. p. 92. with a tempo of 82 beats per minute (BPM),Griffiths, 2004. p. 33. and begins with a mid-tempo acoustic guitar backed by shaken percussion before layered with electric guitar and Yorke's vocals.Footman, 2007. p. 51. The melody of the opening vocal lines spans an octave and a third.Tate, 2005. p. 175 The second section is written in the key of A minor and begins about two minutes into the song. Although the second section retains the tempo of the first, it differs rhythmically.Griffiths, 2004. p. 52. Ending the second section is a distorted guitar solo by Jonny Greenwood, which lasts from 2:43 to 3:33. The third section was written by Jonny Greenwood, Randall, Mac (April 1998). Radiohead: The Golden Age of Radiohead . Guitar World. Accessed 5 October 2008. and reduces the tempo to 62 BPM. The harmonies form a looped chord progression resembling a Baroque passacaglia, with the tonality split between C minor and D minor. This section uses multi-tracked, choral vocal arrangement and according to Dai Griffiths, a "chord sequence [that ordinarily] would sound seedy, rather like something by the band Portishead".Griffiths, 2004. p. 53. The fourth and final section, which begins at 5:35, is a brief instrumental reprise of the second movement that serves as a coda. After a second solo, a brief guitar riff is introduced, which Jonny Greenwood says "was something I had floating around for a while and the song needed a certain burn. It happened to be the right key and the right speed and it fit right in."Gulla, Bob (October 1997). "Radiohead – At Long Last, A Future For Rock Guitar". Guitar World. The song ends, as does the second section, with a short chromatically descending guitar motif.Tate, 2005. p. 144 The style of the song was likened to Queen by Rolling Stones Mark Kemp,Kemp, Mark (10 July 1997). OK Computer. Rolling Stone. Accessed 4 October 2008. while other critics, including David Browne of Entertainment Weekly,Browne, David (23 May 2008). OK Computer. Entertainment Weekly. Accessed 4 October 2008. Jon Lusk of the BBCLusk, Jon (25 April 2007). Radiohead, Paranoid Android. BBC. Accessed 4 October 2008. and Simon Williams of NME wrote about its similarity to Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody". === Lyrics === "Paranoid Android" is categorised by three distinct moods written in what Yorke referred to as three different states of mind. The lyrics tie in with a number of themes common in OK Computer, including insanity, violence, slogans, and political objection to capitalism.Footman, 2007. pp. 144–150. Yorke's lyrics were based on an unpleasant experience at a Los Angeles bar during which he was surrounded by strangers who were high on cocaine. Yorke was frightened by a woman who became violent after someone spilled a drink on her. He characterised the woman as "inhuman", and said "There was a look in this woman's eyes that I'd never seen before anywhere. ... Couldn't sleep that night because of it." The woman inspired the line "kicking squealing Gucci little piggy" in the song's second section."Death Is All Around ...". Q. October 1997. Yorke, referring to the line "With your opinions, which are of no consequence at all", said that "Again, that's just a joke. It's actually the other way around – it's actually my opinion that is of no consequence at all."Sakamoto, John (2 June 1997). "Radiohead talk about their new video". Jam!. Accessed 20 October 2008. ==Music video== Yorke said that many people suggested Radiohead make another "moody and black and dark" music video for "Paranoid Android", similar to the video for their single "Street Spirit". However, Radiohead wanted an entertaining and "sick" video instead. Yorke said: "We had really good fun doing this song, so the video should make you laugh." Radiohead commissioned the Swedish animator Magnus Carlsson to make the video. Radiohead were fans of his animated series Robin. Jonny Greenwood described Robin as "affectionate" and "vulnerable", while Yorke said he found Robin "quite the vulnerable character, but he's also violently cynical and quite tough and would always get up again". At first, Carlsson sought to work on a video for "No Surprises" and was uncertain as to how to approach "Paranoid Android". To conceive the video, he locked himself in his office for over 12 hours to stare out of the window, listen to the song on repeat and jot down visual ideas.Randall, 2004. pp. 166–167. According to Yorke, the band did not send Magnus the lyrics as they did not want the video to be too literal. The concept for the video was based entirely on the song's sound.Footman, 2007. p. 160. === Summary === thumb|The video's protagonist, Robin. Like Robin, the "Paranoid Android" video is drawn in a simplistic style that emphasises bold colours and clear, strong lines. It features Robin and his friend Benjamin venturing into the world, running into miserable EU representatives, bullying pub patrons, a prostitute, kissing leathermen, a drug addict, deranged businessmen, mermaids and an angel who plays table tennis with Robin. The band appears in cameo at a bar, where they drink while watching a man with a head coming out of his belly dancing on their table.Tate, 2005. pp. 58–59, p. 68. However, in this cameo only the versions of Yorke and Jonny Greenwood resemble themselves; O'Brien said "If you freeze-frame it on the video, the guy with the five strands of hair slicked back, that's Colin. It looks nothing like him."Randall, 2000. p. 168. Colin Greenwood said "there was no way that we could appear in it to perform in it because that would be so Spinal Tap" and that having animations that did not resemble the band members allowed the video to be "twisted and colourful which is how the song is anyway".Glover, Adrian (August 1997). "Radiohead – Getting More Respect". Circus. === Reception === Yorke was pleased with the video, saying that it "is really about the violence around [Robin], which is exactly like the song. Not the same specific violence as in the lyrics, but everything going on around him is deeply troubling and violent, but he's just drinking himself into oblivion. He's there, but he's not there. That's why it works. And that's why it does my head in every time I see it." While the single did not receive significant radio play in the US, MTV placed its video on high rotation. The version most often shown was edited to remove the mermaids' bare breasts. Greenwood said, "We would've understood if they had a problem with some guy chopping his arms and legs off, but I mean, a woman's breasts! And mermaids as well! It's fucked up." MTV Europe played the video uncut for two weeks because the channel's official censor was ill and unable to work. After that time the channel ran the cut version of the video. A later US version of the video has the mermaids wearing bathing suits. Evan Sawdey of PopMatters described the video as "bizarre yet fitting", and Melody Maker said it represented a stunning "psycho-cartoon"."Radiohead revealed: The inside story of the year's most important album". Melody Maker. March 2000. Adrian Glover of Circus called the animation incredible and the video "really cool". The MTV vice president of music Lewis Largent told Spin: "You can watch 'Paranoid Android' a hundred times and not figure it all out."Blashill, Pat (January 1998). "Radiohead – Band of the Year". Spin. ==Artwork== thumb|The back of the CD2 release of "Paranoid Android" illustrates the release's use of images from the OK Computer artwork, the change in tint from the CD1 release, and the "cathedral of white" message. Stanley Donwood worked with Yorke to design the artwork for most of the "Paranoid Android" releases,Footman, 2007. p. 126 although both the images and design were ultimately credited to "dumb computers". The cover illustration accompanying the single depicts a hand- drawn dome that contains the phrase "God loves his children, yeah!", the last line of the song, written above on the uppermost plane. Images from the OK Computer artwork reappear, including a pig and two human figures shaking hands. Writer Tim Footman suggested that these images are borrowed from Pink Floyd, respectively corresponding to the Pink Floyd pigs and Wish You Were Here cover.Footman (2007). p. 52 The two versions of the single have different messages on the reverse. Both the CD1 and Japanese releases state: Written on the back of the CD2 single is: ==Release== While Colin Greenwood said the song was "hardly the radio-friendly, breakthrough, buzz bin unit shifter [radio stations] have been expecting", Capitol supported Radiohead's choice for "Paranoid Android" as the lead single from OK Computer.Sutherland, Mark (24 May 1997). "Rounding the Bends". Melody Maker. Radiohead chose it to prepare listeners for the musical direction of the album. "Paranoid Android" was premiered on the BBC Radio 1 programme The Evening Session in April 1997, nearly a month before its release as a single.Randall, 2000. p. 201. It was released on 26 May 1997.Broc, David (June 2001). "Remembering the Future – Interview with Jonny Greenwood". Mondosonoro. Despite an initial lack of radio play, "Paranoid Android" charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart, giving Radiohead their highest singles chart position.Randall, 2000. pp. 242–43. As the song's popularity grew, Radio 1 played it up to 12 times a day."Renaissance Man". Select. December 1997. Yorke described its appearance on Radio 1 as one of his proudest moments of the OK Computer era.Kent, Nick (June 2001). "Happy Now?". Mojo. It also spent two weeks on Australia's ARIA Singles Chart, where it reached number 29.Radiohead – Paranoid Android. australian-charts.com. Accessed 4 October 2008. Each release of "Paranoid Android" included one or more B-sides. "Polyethylene (Parts 1 & 2)", included on the CD1, 7-inch vinyl, and Japanese releases of the single, were a multi- section piece formatted much like "Paranoid Android" itself. The first part of the song consists of Yorke's vocals over acoustic guitar; the second part contains distorted guitar and organ and uses complex time signature changes. "Pearly*", featured on the CD1 and Japanese releases of the single, was described by Yorke as a "dirty song for people who use sex for dirty things".Footman, 2007. pp. 173–174. "A Reminder", which appears on the CD2 release, features fuzzed guitar, thumping drums, and electric piano. According to Yorke, this song was inspired by "this idea of someone writing a song, sending it to someone, and saying: 'If I ever lose it, you just pick up the phone and play this song back to remind me.'"Footman, 2007. p. 168. "Melatonin", also on the CD2 release, is a synthesiser-based song with lyrics similar to that of a lullaby, but with an undercurrent of menace in lines like "Death to all who stand in your way".Footman, 2007. pp. 171–172. The OK Computer track "Let Down" is also included on the Japanese single. The anime Ergo Proxy uses Paranoid Android as the main theme. The song is featured in the credits. When Radiohead were asked about it being featured as the theme, they originally declined, but after being shown a preview of the anime they obliged and allowed it to be used. == Reception == "Paranoid Android" received acclaim. NME chose it as its "Single of the Week", and the journalist Simon Williams described how the song "sprawls out like a plump man on a small sofa, featuring all manner of crypto-flamenco shufflings, medieval wailings, furiously wrenched guitars and ravishingly over-ambitious ideas. Possesses one of the most unorthodox 'axe' solos known to mankind."Williams, Simon (24 May 1997). "Paranoid Android". NME. Simon Williams of NME described the song as "not unlike 'Bohemian Rhapsody' being played backwards by a bunch of Vietnam vets high on Kings Cross-quality crack". Kemp praised the mix of acoustic and electronic instrumentation to produce "complex tempo changes, touches of dissonance, ancient choral music and a King Crimson-like melodic structure". Browne wrote of "celestial call-and-response vocal passages, dynamically varied sections, and Thom Yorke's high-voiced bleat". The A.V. Club called the song unforgettable and an "amazing epic single".Thompson, Stephen (29 March 2002). OK Computer. The A.V. Club. Accessed 4 October 2008. Several reviewers noted the song's ambition. Slant Magazine described the song's lyrics as a "multipart anti-yuppie anthem whose ambition is anything but ugly",Cinquemani, Sal (27 May 2007). Radiohead: OK Computer . Slant Magazine. Accessed 4 October 2008. and Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that "Paranoid Android" could be the most ambitious single since Jimmy Webb's "MacArthur Park".Gill, Andy (29 April 2005). "First Impression: 'OK Computer' by Radiohead, 13 June 1997". The Independent. p. 5. Craig McLean of The Sydney Morning Herald described "Paranoid Android" as "a titanic guitar opera in three movements and 6 [and a half] minutes".McLean, Craig (14 June 2003). Don't worry, be happy. The Sydney Morning Herald. Accessed 4 October 2008. PopMatters' Evan Sawdey called the song OK Computers "sweeping, multi-tiered centerpiece",Sawdey, Evan (2 June 2008). Radiohead: The Best Of [DVD]. PopMatters. Accessed 4 October 2008. Peter and Jonathan Buckley wrote in The Rough Guide to Rock that it was the album's "breathtaking high point".Buckley, 2003. p. 83. Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called "Paranoid Android" "complex, multi-segmented ... tight, melodic, and muscular", and said it displayed Radiohead at their most adventurous.Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. [ OK Computer > Review]. AllMusic. Accessed 4 October 2008. Browne admitted that, partially because of "Paranoid Android", OK Computer was significantly more expansive than The Bends. Rolling Stone placed the song at number 257 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time",The RS 500 Greatest Songs of All Time (201–300). Rolling Stone. Accessed 5 October 2008. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. and Pitchfork included the song at number 4 on their Top 200 Tracks of the 90s. In 2019, American Songwriter ranked the song number three on their list of the 20 greatest Radiohead songs, and in 2020, The Guardian ranked the song number one on their list of the 40 greatest Radiohead songs. ==Track listings== All songs were written by Thom Yorke, Jonny Greenwood, Ed O'Brien, Colin Greenwood, and Philip Selway. UK CD1 (CDODATAS 01) # "Paranoid Android" – 6:27 # "Polyethylene (Parts 1 & 2)" – 4:23 # "Pearly*" – 3:34 UK CD2 (CDNODATA 01) # "Paranoid Android" – 6:27 # "A Reminder" – 3:52 # "Melatonin" – 2:08 UK 7-inch single (NODATA 01) # "Paranoid Android" # "Polyethylene (Parts 1 & 2)" Japanese CD single (TOCP-40038) # "Paranoid Android" – 6:26 # "Polyethylene (Parts 1 & 2)" – 4:22 # "Pearly*" – 3:33 # "Let Down" – 4:59 ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Weekly chart performance for "Paranoid Android" Chart (1997) Peak position Europe (Eurochart Hot 100) 9 Iceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40) 4 Netherlands (Dutch Top 40 Tipparade) 5 ===Year-end charts=== Year-end chart performance for "Paranoid Android" Chart (1997) Position Iceland (Íslenski Listinn Topp 40) 23 UK Singles (OCC) 80 Chart (2001) Position Canada (Nielsen SoundScan) 193 ==Certifications== ==Cover versions== * Jazz pianist Brad Mehldau recorded a nine-minute cover of "Paranoid Android" on his album Largo (2002), featuring percussionists Jim Keltner and Matt Chamberlain, as well as a horn section. Additionally, Mehldau performed a 19-minute version of the song on Live in Tokyo (2004).Footman, 2007. p. 193 * The University of Massachusetts Amherst's Minuteman Marching Band covered the song live in a version featuring xylophones, chimes, snare drums, cymbals, bass drum and timpani. * Numerous Radiohead tribute albums include a version of "Paranoid Android", including Rockabye Baby! Lullaby Renditions of Radiohead and Plastic Mutations: The Electronic Tribute to Radiohead. * The reggae group Easy Star All-Stars covered OK Computer in its entirety for Radiodread (2006).Footman, 2007. p. 196 Producer Michael G noted that "Paranoid Android" was particularly difficult to arrange for reggae, saying "There are songs like 'Paranoid Android', which flips between 4/4 time and 7/8 time about 13 times, and I also had to think about other ways to reinterpret those parts with horns, melodica, organ ... it was a great challenge."Lawrence, Eddy (14 August 2006). "Easy Star All Stars". Time Out. Accessed 24 October 2008. * Sia covered the song for the neo soul tribute Exit Music: Songs with Radio Heads (2006), and this version later appeared on The O.C. episode "The Chrismukk-huh?". * Los Angeles string quartet the Section recorded the song for Strung Out on OK Computer: The String Quartet Tribute to Radiohead (2001);Footman, 2007. p. 194 half of this quartet went on to form the Section Quartet, who performed "Paranoid Android" and the rest of OK Computer during two concerts in October 2006. Solarski, Matthew (11 October 2006). "String Quartet Tackles Radiohead's OK Computer". Pitchfork Media. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Accessed 12 October 2011. * Weezer covered "Paranoid Android" in both a live studio version released as a YouTube video and in concerts during their 2011 summer tour."Radiohead's 'Paranoid Android' - video". NME. 29 May 2011. Accessed 7 August 2011. Pitchforks Tom Breihan called the Weezer cover "a fucking weird experience",Breihan, Tom (27 May 2011.). "Weezer Cover Radiohead's 'Paranoid Android'". Pitchfork. Accessed 7 August 2011. and Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone criticised the song as "mainly boring" for not venturing far enough from Weezer's traditional sound.Eliscu, Jenny (13 June 2011). Rolling Stone. Accessed on 7 August 2011. * A piano cover was featured in an episode of the HBO television series Westworld in 2016. * The Montreal duo Stick&Bow; recorded a 6:14 cover of "Paranoid Android" on their 2019 album Resonance, arranged for the cello and marimba. * On 23 October 2020, Australian indie rock band Ball Park Music performed a cover of the song live for Triple J's Like a Version segment, alongside a performance of their track "Cherub". Music Feeds thought the cover "play[ed] it fairly safe", additionally stating the cover had been "execute[d] with such finesse", whilst Junkee felt it was "performed with energy and enthusiasm, by a bunch of committed and attentive musicians." ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Category:1997 singles Category:1997 songs Category:Radiohead songs Category:Animated music videos Category:Art rock songs Category:Ball Park Music songs Category:British progressive rock songs Category:Parlophone singles Category:Song recordings produced by Nigel Godrich Category:Songs written by Colin Greenwood Category:Songs written by Ed O'Brien Category:Songs written by Jonny Greenwood Category:Songs written by Philip Selway Category:Songs written by Thom Yorke
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The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (c 40) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. On introducing the Bill's second reading in the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, said, "The aim of this Bill is to protect the victims of harassment. It will protect all such victims whatever the source of the harassment—so-called stalking behaviour, racial harassment, or anti-social behaviour by neighbours."HL Deb 24 January 1997 vol 577 cc 917-43 Home Office guidance on the ActHome Office circular 018/2012 says "The legislation was always intended to tackle stalking, but the offences were drafted to tackle any form of persistent conduct which causes another person alarm or distress." Infield and Platford described the Act as "controversial".Infield, Paul; Platford, Graham. The Law of Harassment and Stalking. Butterworths. London, Edinburgh, Dublin. 2000. p. x. ==Provisions== ===Section 1=== This section prohibits a person from pursuing "a course of conduct" which "amounts to harassment of another" and which "he knows or ought to know amounts to harassment of the other". A person is taken to know that conduct is harassment if "a reasonable person in possession of the same information would think the course of conduct amounted to harassment of the other". The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 inserted the offence of stalking in relation to this section and is defined to include things like monitoring a person online, contacting a person, loitering in a public or private place, interfering with property or spying/watching a person. ==== Subsection 1(1A) ==== Subsection 1(1A) was inserted by section 125(2)(a) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It prohibits a person from pursuing a course of conduct "which involves harassment of two or more persons" with the intention of persuading any person (not necessarily one of the persons harassed) to do or refrain from doing something they are lawfully entitled to do or not do. According to Baroness Scotland of Ashall, promoting the Bill in the House of Lords, this provision and the associated provisions of section 3A were intended to strengthen "the protection afforded to the bioscience industry, and those who work in it" including by "making it an offence to protest outside a person's home in a way that causes harassment, alarm or distress to the residents of that home." ===Section 2=== This section creates the offence of harassment, which is to pursue "a course of conduct" in breach of section 1 of the Act. It is a summary offence. A person guilty of this offence is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a to fine not exceeding level 5 on the standard scale, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 2(2) Section 2(3) was repealed by section 107 of, and Schedule 8 to, the Police Reform Act 2002. ===Section 2A=== The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 did not originally define "stalking" or formally proscribe it.(1998) 142 Solicitors Journal 604 Google Books This section creates a specific offence of stalking. It followed a commitment given by the Prime Minister, David Cameron, on 8 March 2012 (International Women's Day) to remedy perceived deficiencies in the Act.Stalking - Commons Library Standard Note SN06261 Published 21 March 2013 (Amended 10 September 2013) Pat Strickland The offence created by this section is a summary offence and a person guilty of it is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 51 weeks, or to a fine not exceeding level 5 on the standard scale, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 2A(4) This section was inserted by section 111(1) of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012. ===Section 2B=== This section, which confers, on justices of the peace, a power to issue a search warrant to allow constables to enter and search premises for evidence of offences under section 2A, was inserted by section 112 of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012. ===Section 3=== This section provides for a claim in civil proceedings (creating a statutory tort) by anyone who is or who may be a victim of conduct falling within section 1. It provides for damages for anxiety caused by the harassment and any financial loss it causes, as well as providing for an injunction to restrain the defendant from conduct amounting to harassment. Where any person against whom an injunction has been granted under this section does "without reasonable excuse" anything prohibited by that injunction, section 3(6) of the Act makes that person guilty of an offence. Offences under section 3(6) are triable either way. A person guilty of an offence under section 3(6) is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 3(9) ===Section 3A=== This section provides similar injunction provisions to those in section 3, but in this case applying to the offence created by section 1(1A). However, in addition to it allowing the person who is the victim or who may be the victim of the conduct in question to seek an injunction, it also gives a similar right to someone whose behaviour the harassment is intended to influence. Section 3A was inserted by section 125(5) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. ===Section 4=== This section creates the offence of "putting people in fear of violence" where a person "causes another to fear, on at least two occasions, that violence will be used against him" provided "he knows or ought to know that his course of conduct will cause the other so to fear on each of those occasions".The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 4(1) There are a number of defences. These include showing that the course of conduct is pursued for the "purpose of preventing or detecting crime" or "reasonable for the protection of himself or another or for the protection of his or another’s property."The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 4(3) In 2001, David Ormerod said that this section "could have been drafted more clearly all round".Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to R v DPP [2001] Crim LR 396 at 398 Offences under section 4 are triable either way. A person guilty of an offence under section 4 is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 4(4) ===Section 4A=== This section creates the offence of stalking involving fear of violence or serious alarm or distress. This requires there to be a person A whose "course of conduct ... amounts to stalking" and a person B who is affected by the course of conduct. The course of conduct must either cause B "to fear, on at least two occasions, that violence will be used against B" or causes B "serious alarm or distress which has a substantial adverse effect on B's usual day-to-day activities". Offences under section 4A are triable either way. A person guilty of an offence under section 4A is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twelve months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 4A(5) This section was inserted by section 111(2) of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012. The stalking element is defined as include acts like monitoring a person online, contacting a person, loitering in a public or private place, interfering with property or spying/watching a person. ===Section 5=== This section gives a court dealing with a person convicted of an offence under sections 2 (harassment) or 4 (putting in fear of violence) of the Act the power to make a restraining order for the purpose of protecting "the victim of the offence" or "any other person mentioned in the order". Offences under section 5 are triable either way. A person guilty of an offence under section 5 is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or to a fine, or to both, or, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 5(6) This section has effect in relation to a person convicted of an offence under section 32 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 as if the reference in subsection (1) of this section to an offence under section 2 or 4 included a reference to an offence under the said section 32.The Crime and Disorder Act 1998, section 32(7) Section 5(3A) was inserted by section 12(2) of the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004. Section 5(4A) was inserted by section 12(3) of the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004. Section 5(7) was inserted by section 12(4) of the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004. ===Section 5A=== This section provides for a court to impose a restraining order on someone who has been acquitted of an offence, if the court considers it necessary "to protect a person from harassment by the defendant". This section was inserted by section 12(5) of the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004. ===Section 7=== This is the interpretation section. "Harassing" is defined (non-exclusively) as including "alarming" or "causing distress". Section 7(3) was substituted by section 125(7)(a) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. It now provides that a "course of conduct" requires either conduct on at least two occasions in relation to one person, or, where the harassment is alleged against two or more occasions, conduct in relation to at least one occasion in relation to each person. Section 7(3A) was inserted by section 44(1) of the Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001. Section 7(5) was inserted by section 125(7)(b) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. ===Section 8=== Section 8 creates a civil action for harassment applying in Scotland only (sections 1-7 apply only in England and Wales). ===Section 8A=== This section was inserted by section 1(2) of the Domestic Abuse (Scotland) Act 2011 (asp 13). ===Section 15=== The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (Commencement) (No. 1) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1418) (C 52) was made under section 15(1). The following orders were made under section 15(2): *The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (Commencement) (No. 2) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1498) (C 58) *The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (Commencement No. 3) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1902) (C 42) == Racially or religiously aggravated harassment == Section 32 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 now provides that where a person commits an offence under section 2 or 4 of the Protection from Harassment Act which is "racially or religiously aggravated" within the meaning of section 28 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (as amended by the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001) he is guilty of an offence triable either way. A person convicted on indictment of an offence falling within section 32(1)(a) of the 1998 Act (the racially or religiously aggravated version of the offence under section 2 of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997) is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to a fine, or to both. A person convicted of indictment of an offence falling within section 32(1)(b) of the 1998 Act (the racially or religiously aggravated version of the offence under section 4 of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997) is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years or to a fine, or to both. ==Definition== In England and Wales, the Act now creates offences of harassment,Section 2(1) stalking,Section 2A(1) putting people in fear of violence,Section 4(1) stalking involving fear of violence or serious alarm or distress,Section 4A(1) breach of injunctionSection 3(6) and breach of restraining order.Section 5(5) Someone who believes they are the victim of harassment falling within section 1 of the Act may (either instead of or in addition to a criminal prosecution) elect to pursue a civil remedy for damages for anxiety or for financial loss arising from harassment: section 3(2). Section 3 creates a statutory tort based on the same acts as the criminal offence. An example of this tort in action appears in Green v DB Group Services (UK) Ltd [2006] EWHC 1898 QB (1 August 2006).http://www.bailii.org/cgi- bin/markup.cgi?doc=/ew/cases/EWHC/QB/2006/1898.html Green v DB Group Services which was a case of severe and prolonged workplace bullying resulting in serious illness of the claimant. If a claimant elects to pursue the section 3 civil law remedy, the standard of proof which needs to be shown is the common law standard of proof on "the balance of probabilities" (more likely than not) rather than the standard for criminal law which is proof beyond reasonable doubt. The editor of "Archbold" notes the Act does not attempt to define "harassment".Archbold Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice 2009. Para 19-277A at p 1986 In Thomas v News Group Newspapers and Another (2001), Lord Philips MR said: "'Harassment' is, however, a word which has a meaning which is generally understood. It describes conduct targeted at an individual which is calculated to produce the consequences described in section 7 and which is oppressive and unreasonable."Thomas v News Group Newspapers and Another [2001] EWCA Civ 1233 Section 7(2) of the Act provides that, for the purpose of the interpretation of sections 1 to 5A, references to harassing a person include alarming the person or causing the person distress.Herring, Jonathan. Criminal Law: Text, Cases, and Materials. OUP. 2004. p 342. Section 5 of the Act gives the court in criminal cases a power to grant restraining orders and section 5A, introduced by the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004, extends this power to cases where the defendant was acquitted, if the court "considers it necessary to do so to protect a person from harassment by the defendant.".section 5A The power to grant restraining orders was characterised as "the most important aspect of the Act" by practitioners interviewed in a Home Office research study (2000) into the effectiveness of the Act.p.56 Home Office Research Study 203 The power to grant restraining orders is separate from and additional to the ability of claimants to seek injunctions in civil actions brought under section 3 of the Act. However, in each case the penalties for breach of a restraining order or an injunction are similar: on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or a fine, or both, or on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or both.sections 3(9) and 5(6)of the Act. The summary offences of harassment "cast the net too wide".Baker, Dennis J; Williams, Glanville. Textbook of Criminal Law. Third Edition. Sweet & Maxwell. . 2012. Para 9-071 at p 285. The offence created by section 2 is "broad and ill-defined".Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to R v Colahan [2001] Crim LR 845 at 846 Its scope is "quite enormous".Simester, A P; Sullivan, G R. Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine. First Edition. Hart. 2000. p 394 It might well violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (in addition to Article 7 mentioned below).Simester and Sullivan. Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine. Second Edition. p 398 ===Course of conduct=== Section 7(3) of the Act provides that a course of conduct must involve conduct on at least two occasions. (Originally these occasions needed to involve the same person, but the Act was amended by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 so that "pursuing a course of conduct" could mean approaching two people just once.) In Wainwright v. Home Office (2003), Lord Hoffmann said "The requirement of a course of conduct shows that Parliament was conscious that it might not be in the public interest to allow the law to be set in motion for one boorish incident."[2003] UKHL 53 at paragraph 46 per Lord Hoffmann The Act contains no definition of "course of conduct" beyond the provisions of sections 7(3) and (4).Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to Lau v DPP [2000] Crim LR 580 at 581 Case law has established that "merely because there are two incidents between the same parties, this will not inevitably give rise to a course of conduct" and "the requirement of a nexus between the incidents appears an eminently sensible way in which to limit the potentially immense reach of the offence of harassment."Finch, Emily. "Commentary" to Pratt v Director of Public Prosecutions, The Times (22 August 2001) Journal of Criminal Law, JCL 66(4) In 2003, David Ormerod said that the "course of conduct" element defies definition. ===Mens rea=== Constructive knowledgeAllen, Michael J. Textbook on Criminal Law. Ninth Edition. Oxford University Press. 2007. . Page 102. (Used as "the basis for liability" for offences under sections 2 and 4). or actual knowledge is an element of the offences under sections 2, 2A, 4 and 4A; that is, the prosecution has to show that the defendant "knows or ought to know" that the course of conduct complained of has the prescribed effects on the person at whom it is directed. The test of "ought to know" is based on what "a reasonable person in possession of the same information" would think about the course of conduct in question.Sections 1(2), 4(2), 4A(2) and 4A(3) Section 4(2) "has an unusual type of mens rea with objective and subjective components."Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to R v Henley [2000] Crim LR 582 at 584 The justification for the imposition of liability based on constructive knowledge is the difficulty which might exist of proving mens rea on the part of "stalkers" who often suffer from mental or personality disorders.Allen, Michael J. Textbook on Criminal Law. 10th Edition. Oxford University Press. 2009. . Page 104. ==Employers' liability== Employers have vicarious liability for harassment by their employees under section 3 of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (see Majrowski v Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Trust[2006] UKHL 34, [2006] ICR 1199). For employees this may provide an easier route to compensation than claims based on discrimination legislation or personal injury claims for stress at work, as the elements of harassment are likely to be easier to prove, the statutory defence is not available to the employer, and it may be easier to establish a claim for compensation. Also as the claim can be made in either the High Court or the County Court costs may be recoverable by the successful party, subject to relevant court rules and limits. The Small claims track in the United Kingdom can be used for such claims as well. Other cases are Lister v Hesley Hall [2002] 1 AC 215, Thomas v News Group Newspapers [2001] EWCA 1233, Green v DB Group [2006] EWHC 1899, Rayment v MOD High Court 18 February 2010, Singh v Bhakar, Nottingham County Court, 24 July 2006, Conn v Sunderland [2007] EWCA 1492, Allen v South Southwark Court of Appeal 12 November 2008, Ferguson v British Gas [2009] EWCA 46, Ferguson v British Gas [2009] EWCA 46, Mullens v Accenture, 13 July 2010, Dowson v Chief Constable of Northumbria Police: 2, 20 October 2010. ==Number of prosecutions== The Bill for this Act said that it was expected to result in about two hundred prosecutions a year.Explanatory Memorandum to the Protection from Harassment Bill. In 1998, there were nearly six thousand prosecutions.Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to R v Colohan [2001] Crim LR 845 at 846 A written question, raised by a Member of Parliament in 2008 and relating to prosecutions under section 2 from the date of the Act to 2006,Hansard:HC Deb 30 June 2008 : Column 687W showed the numbers of persons proceeded against under section 2 remained fairly steady during the period (5,540 in 1999 of whom 2,753 were found guilty, 5,446 in 2006 of whom 3,768 were found guilty). A 2011 written questionHansard:HC Deb 21 November 2011: Column 167W requesting information about prosecutions under section 2 during the period 2006-2009 showed 5,006 persons proceeded against during 2006-7 of whom 3,543 were found guilty, 4,940 proceeded against during 2007-8 of whom 3,650 were found guilty and 4,865 proceeded against during 2008-9 of whom 3,892 were found guilty. ==Northern Ireland== The Protection from Harassment (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1180) (NI 9) was made under paragraph 1 of Schedule 1 to the Northern Ireland Act 1974 (as modified by section 13 of this Act) only for purposes corresponding to those of sections 1 to 7 and 12 of this Act. ==Scotland== In Scotland the Act works differently. Civil remedies include damages, interdict and non-harassment ordersThe Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 8(5) backed by powers of arrest. Any person who is in breach of a non-harassment order made under section 8 is guilty of an offence and liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years, or to a fine, or to both, and, on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months, or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum, or to both.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 9(1), as repealed in part by section 49(2)(a) of the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 A breach of a non-harassment order is not otherwise punishable.The Protection from Harassment Act 1997, section 9 Some Scots lawyers are of the view that there was no need for this Act to extend to Scotland because the law of Scotland already dealt satisfactorily with harassment and contained no relevant lacuna corresponding to any which existed in English law.Lawson-Cruttenden, Timothy; Addison, Neil. Blackstone's Guide to the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Blackstone Press Limited. 1997. Page 2. ==History== The Act resulted from the efforts of Evonne Leonora Von Heussen. A stalking victim herself, she launched the National Association for Victims of Stalking and Harassment (NASH) in 1993, when her then teen-age daughter was stalked by a dangerous character who was known to carry a knife. After Von Heussen found that she could get no help from the police, lawyers, or her local Member of Parliament she began researching anti-stalking laws in other countries. She opened a help line on which she eventually took tens of thousands of calls. She pursued each call with each victim's MP, and attracted a large amount of media attention. After several years of effort she persuaded the Home Office under Prime Minister John Major to take the issue on as a matter of government policy. She wrote the first draft of the Act and worked closely with ministers and senior civil servants in the Home Office and the Lord Chancellor's Department as the final version took shape. She advised ministers from her seat in the Under Gallery, on the floor of the House of Commons, during the Second Reading Debate. After Royal Assent she worked with Home Office and Lord Chancellor's Department in training judges, lawyers, other court personnel, police and voluntary organizations in the use of the Act. She received the MBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours List (1997) for her efforts. She also worked as a consultant on a number of court cases involving stalking and harassment. The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 was preceded by the Stalking Bill.John Marston and Katherine Thompson (1997) 161 Justice of the Peace and Local Government Law 739 (2 August) Google BooksLeonard Jason-Lloyd (1997) 161 Justice of the Peace and Local Government Law 787 (16 August) ==Criticism== At the time of the Act's passing, some legal commentators were critical of it. Andrew Simester, a professor of law at King's College, London, believed it to be "unimpressive" and "hasty", and the result of political agitation; he contended that it "might well violate Article 7 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms".Simester, A P; Sullivan, G R; Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine. First Edition. Hart. 2000. p 394Simester, A P; Sullivan, G R; Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine. First Edition. Hart. 2000. p 395.Simester, A P; Sullivan, G R. Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine. Hart. 2000. Page 395. Similarly, University College London law professor David Ormerod opined that the drafting of the Act had been "deficient", and that there was an "unseemly rush to get the Bill for this Act through all of its stages in Parliament".Ormerod, David. Smith and Hogan's Criminal Law. Twelfth Edition. Oxford University Press. 2008. . Page 653.Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to R v Hills [2001] Crim LR 318 at 319Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to DPP v Dunn [2001] Crim LR 130 at 131Ormerod, D C. "Commentary" to Kelly v DPP [2003] Crim LR 45 at 46 Cambridge University fellow Peter Glazebrook simply referred to it as "deplorably vague".Glazebrook, P R. Blackstone's Statutes on Criminal Law. Tenth Edition. Blackstone Press Limited. 2000. . Pages xiii and xiv. In a publication evaluating the effectiveness of the Act, Jessica Harris wrote that some magistrates felt "criminalising harassment cases might lead to unfounded accusations from complainants who are mistaken about another’s behaviour or are even vindictive. Prosecutors accepted this point and agreed that they had to be on the lookout for what the police sometimes termed paranoid woman syndrome, where the putative victim read more into another's behaviour than was perhaps warranted." However, "they agreed that the difficulties in pursuing harassment cases were no greater than other kinds of case – such as domestic violence – where the parties are often well known to each other."Harris, Jessica. Home Office Research Study 203: An Evaluation of the Use and Effectiveness of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, Home Office. 2000. Page 42. In February 2012, Elfyn Llwyd, chairing an Independent Parliamentary Inquiry into reform of stalking law, said the Act was "not an effective tool against stalking". "[T]oo many perpetrators were falling through the net." The "attitudes of many working in the criminal justice system and society towards stalking remain in the dark ages."Independent Parliamentary Inquiry into Stalking Law Reform, Main Findings and Recommendations, February 2012 at p.2 Commentators such as George Monbiot have voiced the concern that the amended Act effectively "allows the police to ban any campaign they please", and that it has been used to prosecute peaceful protestors.George Monbiot, The Guardian, 5 February 2009, Why protesters are now stalkers Journalist Neil Addison believed that the Act was being misused and suggested it be amended so as to decriminalise harassment (but not breach of a court order prohibiting harassment). He said that if the Act was not amended, there would be "a clear danger that it could come to be seen as an oppressive piece of legislation".Neil Addison, "Dangers of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997", The Times, 21 March 2000. Harassmentlaw.co.uk. ==Praise== In February 2012, Elfyn Llwyd MP, chairing an Independent Parliamentary Inquiry into reform of stalking law, said the Act was a "landmark piece of legislation". The Act "is an effective weapon in the armoury of the victim of nuisance creditors."Stephen Gold, 5 July 2013 163 NLJ 18 It is "a versatile and wide- ranging statute" and "one of the most flexible pieces of legislation of recent years."Bryden, Chris; Salter, Michael. 7 September 2012, 162 NLJ 1106 This Act was initially "doing its job quite happily".Clive Coleman. "How a stalkers' law is now being used to catch 'bullies'". In "Law". Page 2. Insert in "The Times". 7 November 2006. Infield and Platford said that they did not agree with claims that this Act is a breach of human rights. == "Prevention of harassment" notices == Following the passage of the Act, police forces started to issue "prevention of harassment" notices, also known as "Police Information Notices" (PINs), to people against whom claims of harassment had been made. They are believed to have been created by police forces as a way of preventing people accused of harassment from claiming ignorance that their alleged behavior was undesired and thus avoiding successful prosecution under the Act due to lack of mens rea. Their use has been the subject of controversy, with some describing the notices as "unnecessarily menacing and accusatorial". In November 2011, whilst Theresa May was Home Secretary, the Home Office published a consultation on stalking which said: "We recognise that there are concerns around the process by which these notices are issued. Some argue that those issued with a Police Information Notice are not given a fair hearing. Equally we are aware that some consider Police Information Notices to lack teeth and that they give victims a false sense of security." In 2014, the Commons Select Committee of Privileges investigated the issuing in 2012 of a PIN against an MP for statements made in Parliament. Their findings led the police to withdraw the notice. In 2015, the issuing of a PIN against a British journalist raised concerns about civil liberties and press freedom, creating demands for reform of the process. Because a PIN has no statutory basis and therefore no legal effect, there is no right of appeal against it, although a complaint can be made to the issuing police force. ==See also== *Employment discrimination law in the United Kingdom *Harassment in the United Kingdom *Sexual harassment *United Kingdom labour law *United Kingdom employment equality law *Workplace harassment ==References== ;General *Finch, Emily. The Criminalisation of Stalking. Cavendish. London. 2001. *Lawson-Cruttenden, Timothy; Addison, Neil. Blackstone's Guide to the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Blackstone Press Limited. 1997. *Liberali, Benedetta. Il reato di atti persecutori. Profili costituzionali, applicativi e comparati. FrancoAngeli, Milano. 2012. ==Further reading== *Philip Johnston. "Would Dante have been guilty of Harassment?" in Bad Laws. Hachette. 2010. *Parliamentary briefing paper https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06648/SN06648.pdf ==External links== * * Neighbours From Hell in Britain: Harassment from your Neighbour *Weaver v. NATHFE - Race Discrimination Case *A Flight into the Cuckoo's Nest A comprehensive account of the Weaver case * * Edward Countryman, The Guardian, 7 January 2009, Those behind the harassment law did not want it to stifle protest * Home Office Research Study 203 An evaluation of the use and effectiveness of the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 * Harassment : French Theory by EchelleSR - see more on Mediapart.fr] Category:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1997 Category:Harassment law Category:Stalking
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Bobby Marshall (also Simpson and Morgan) is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away, played by Nicolle Dickson. She was introduced in the pilot episode by executive producer Alan Bateman. Nearly four hundred actresses auditioned to play Bobby, with Dickson taking the role. Bobby is described as a trouble-making teen who is rebellious and a loner. Bobby became a popular character because of her confronting attitude. Bobby's story lines have focused on finding her biological parents, her feud with Roo Stewart, adoption and her marriage to foster brother Frank Morgan. Bobby's marriage to Frank was only implemented when script writers were sure viewers approved of it. At certain points in Bobby's duration, Dickson disapproved of her actions, for instance she became frustrated with her because she decided to find her biological parents without thinking about her foster parents' feelings. Dickson decided to leave the serial in 1993, and the character was killed off in a boat accident. In 1995 Dickson made a cameo appearance when Ailsa Stewart has hallucinations of Bobby in her fridge door. Dickson has received a Logie Award for her portrayal of Bobby and she has been referred to as a "Summer Bay icon". ==Casting== Nearly four hundred actresses auditioned for the role of Bobby, compared to the three hundred hopefuls that auditioned for the roles of the other foster children, with actress Nicolle Dickson receiving the role of Bobby. Dickson was eighteen when she was cast and had nearly decided to quit acting in favour of a "normal career". Initially Dickson found the role hard to adjust to because she never got to see her friends any more and has stated she found it odd that the serial's production staff were having her transported around on first-class flights and in limousines. The fame also took Dickson by surprise, whilst interviewed by newspaper Evening Times she stated: "I'm just an ordinary teenage girl but my life changed completely almost over-night. When I started playing the role of Bobby I had no idea of the effect it was going to have." Dickson has also revealed that fans are scared to talk to her because they assume she will act like Bobby, stating: "I sometimes think people are scared to talk to me, because I might bite their head off. But I'd much rather just have a chat." In 1991, it was revealed that Dickson has signed another years contract to stay with Home and Away but said she was "nervous" about doing so. After Dickson's exit the remaining older cast members were offered pay rises because Seven feared they would follow her decision to quit. ==Character development== The serial's writers of 1989 stated that: "Bobby Simpson is Summer Bay's premiere juvenile delinquent - the product of sixteen years of emotional rejection by her parents, and later, grandparents." They also brand her a loner, streetwise and describe her attitude in her early years stating: "If she liked you she'd do anything for you, if she had an anti against you she was a little demon who'd only stop short of crime in her actions towards you." Further describing these traits Dickson adds: "She'll stick by you to the end, but then she can turn around and stick her fingers up at you if she doesn't like you. I think a lot of people can relate to the way Bobby is. [...] I enjoy playing her, I think she's really sweet because she puts on this tough exterior and yet inside she's longing for somebody. Bobby has little control over the others." Dickson also believes that Bobby's popularity stems from the fact she does the things people in real life wish they could do but are not brave enough to. Dickson has also described why Bobby hides behind a tough exterior stating she is so aggressive because she is hurt inside. In the Home and Away Annual for 1989 Kesta Desmond writes that she is a loner, a juvenile delinquent, a rebel and forthright. In the book Home and Away Special she is described as: "Bobby is a loner, she has very few friends, only the tearaways of the town, and claims to need nobody." Describing the similarities between character and actress Dickson adds: "I think I'm more independent and mature. She is afraid to trust anyone, but I love affection." One of Bobby's storylines saw her try and track down her real father, the plot was unpopular with Dickson who stated: "When Bobby turned her back on her foster parents to go off and look for her real father, I just became totally frustrated with her." Another storyline was her relationship with foster brother Frank Morgan (Alex Papps), they get together after Roo Stewart (Justine Clarke) leaves him on their wedding day. Dickson describes the fan reaction stating: "They're all on Bobby's side, and clearly not Roo's!" On-screen Bobby is constantly worried that she is a substitute for Roo, of this Dickson states: "The character of Bobby has always felt intimidated by Roo because she's so beautiful and sexy. She knows Frank has always fancied Roo and can't help suspecting that he's marrying Bobby on the rebound". Papps said that Bobby "still had a lot of attitude" but by then she had "softened a lot." Dickson had to film many scenes around this time which involved Bobby crying with worry, she stated she found the scenes easy to prepare for. When script writers initially planned Bobby and Frank's wedding, but they were unsure how viewers would react to it. Dickson and Papps were sent on a publicity stunt to find out what the public reaction would be to the proposed marriage. They stood in a crowded shopping centre and hugged each other, which got the crowds attention as they cheered, Papps then shouted: "Let's have a scream from those who want Bobby and Frank to marry". The crowd heavily approved and all voiced their approval. Delighted producers gave the marriage the green light and they married. Dickson later stated: "Everyone wanted to sort of see them finally get together because Bobby was keen on him for such a long time." Concluding that their marriage served as relief to everyone because Bobby finally got her happy ending. In 1990, Bobby discovers she is pregnant. Though in the 1991 series return episode, Bobby is told she has miscarried her unborn baby. Dickson said the scenes were "very harrowing". Bobby tries "to keep calm" throughout her ordeal. In a March 1995, a TV Week reporter revealed that Dickson had reprised the role of Bobby. While her character was killed off, Bobby would return in scenes to coincide with a planned mental breakdown for the character of Ailsa Hogan (Judy Nunn). ==Storylines== ===Backstory=== Bobby was born in Summer Bay as the illegitimate daughter of Morag Bellingham (Cornelia Frances) and Donald Fisher (Norman Coburn). Morag kept the pregnancy a secret. She was adopted by Doris and Al Simpson (George Leppard; Terence Donovan), who she moved with to the city when she was two years old. Al was a violent alcoholic was imprisoned seven years for petty crime. Meanwhile, Doris and Bobby returned to Summer Bay to stay with her grandparents. By this point, Bobby had begun rebelling and earned a reputation as a wild child. When she was fifteen, her mother Doris died of cancer, and her grandparents sold their store to Ailsa. Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) soon felt sympathy for her and got her a job at the store and allowed her to live behind his boatshed, she resented Alf being an authority figure to her but slowly warmed to Ailsa. ===1988–1995=== Tom (Roger Oakley) and Pippa Fletcher (Vanessa Downing) arrive with their foster children to take a look at the caravan park, Bobby is hiding in one in of the vans with the help of Neville (Frank Lloyd) and Floss McPhee (Sheila Kennelly), after being accused of breaking into Donald Fisher's house. Neville and Floss try to keep her away from Alf and the Fletchers, as they do not want any more trouble. Bobby sees Sally Fletcher (Kate Ritchie) snooping, Bobby tries to make an escape but knocks over little Sally in the process. Bobby tries to get Sally to keep quiet and runs off. She is later caught by Tom and Frank when Sally identifies the girl who pushed her, and is placed under citizens arrest by Fisher who has been searching for her due to his suspicions about her robbing him. She is then handed over to the police. Bobby decides to harass the Fletcher girls at the beach and blames their family for her earlier arrest. The night the Fletchers move into the caravan park house, one of the vans burst into flames. The blame is immediately pointed at Bobby, but she is adamant she has done anything wrong. Fisher tries to have her arrested again as he wants to see justice, but Tom and Pippa refuse to press charges as they believe Bobby is innocent. Pippa starts to feel sorry for Bobby and offers her a chance to live in one of the caravans free of charge, which Bobby refuses, as she does not want to be seen as anyone's charity case. However, Steven Matheson (Adam Willits), comes to her defence when she is harassed by Lance Smart (Peter Vroom) and Martin Dibble (Craig Thomson) on the beach. Bobby soon befriends Steven and as a result she decides to accept Pippa's offer. But Carly Morris (Sharyn Hodgson), objects to Bobby staying in the caravan park and a fight breaks out between them just as a man from community services stops by to assess the Fletchers living arrangements. Bobby feels guilty that she might be responsible for splitting the family up, so she goes to the city to convince Tarquin Pearce (John O'Brien), the man from the department not to take the kids away from Tom and Pippa. Pearce is so impressed with what Bobby told him, he not only wants the Fletchers to stay together, he also persuades Tom and Pippa to take on Bobby as their sixth foster child. She later moves in with them and quickly settles in and becomes a part of the family. Now reformed and living in a stable home, Bobby and Ailsa decide to set up a new business, The Bayside Diner. She also develops feelings for her foster brother Frank, but he is in love with Roo. Bobby and Roo clash on many occasions, whilst Bobby is secretly jealous. Bobby evens starts dreaming she is marrying Frank and rubbing it in Roo's face. Bobby is delighted when Roo and Frank seem to be having a rough time. Frank and Roo however then agree to get married, which makes Bobby even more angry. On the day of their wedding, Roo starts having second thoughts. Frank is devastated to find out Roo has jilted him. Bobby decides she will be there for Frank in his time of need. After a while, their friendship starts developing into feelings. Frank decides they have to make a move and they start a relationship of their own. Bobby constantly worries however that he is on the rebound; this makes her cry a lot and let her usual strong image fade. Frank decides to show his commitment to Bobby and asks her to marry him. Delighted, Bobby accepts the offer. On the day of their wedding, Bobby's birth mother Morag secretly turns up to the wedding; at this point, Bobby still is not aware of the identity of her biological parents. Their marriage starts to face problems and Bobby refuses to let go of the thought he is on the rebound. So after constant disagreements, Frank decides to leave Summer Bay for New York City to reconcile with Roo. Bobby is distraught to realise she was right all along. She attempts to trace her birth parents, without giving a thought for her foster parents' feelings. After a series of hurdles, Bobby decides she has tried hard enough and gives up. Morag is admitted to hospital and Alf decides to tell Bobby his secret because he feels the timing is appropriate. Bobby is shocked at the secret because it means Morag was in fact her mother. Bobby is very angry when she finds out the truth and continues to pester Morag even after she is released from hospital. After a while, she gives in and reveals all to her. Bobby is more upset to find out Donald is her father because they have previously hated each other. Initially neither can handle the situation, but eventually the two decide to put their past differences aside and develop a close father-daughter relationship. When she discovers she is pregnant, she tells everyone but Donald; she tries to but is scared of what he will think. He is annoyed when he finds out and Bobby thinks he disapproves, but Donald tells her he is proud of her. At one point, Donald resigns from his job because of problems at the school so she enlists Pippa and Grant Mitchell's (Craig McLachlan) help to get his job back. After coming to terms with the prospect of being a mother, Bobby develops stomach pains and is devastated to find out she has suffered a miscarriage. When she gets her head together, she decides to take a leaf out of Pippa's book and looks into the prospect of fostering a child of her own. After a series of hits and misses, she wonders if it is the right thing to do. However, this all changes when she finds a young boy named Sam Nicholls (Ryan Clark). The two get on really well in the end and form a close relationship. Bobby and Sam's delight is soon put to an end when his biological father, Greg Marshall (Ross Newton), turns up in Summer Bay; after finding out their address from someone, he turns up and announces he is here to take Sam back home. Bobby is terrified at the thought of losing Sam, and she refuses to let Greg near him. Eventually, Bobby and Greg become close and start a relationship and they marry, much to the happiness of Sam. When a fair is held, Bobby's friend Adam Cameron (Mat Stevenson) wants to go for a boat ride with her and Luke Cunningham (John Adam). Suddenly, the boat collides with a large piece of driftwood in the water and overturns, causing everyone fall out of the boat and into the water. Bobby is then found but is in a coma, attempts are made to save her but she is found to be brain dead. After a few days, Bobby's friends and family each say their goodbyes to her, before the decision is made by Greg to turn off her life support machine. The whole town is affected by her death. Even her estranged mother Morag finds it hard to come to terms with. Adam is not charged with causing her death, but despite it being accidental, he is still treated like an outcast as he becomes hated by most of the Bay's residents and he is only forgiven after he saves Sam from a fire. He leaves soon after. When Ailsa is going through a rough time in 1995, she starts hallucinating due to the medication she is prescribed. One night, Ailsa hallucinates and Bobby's ghost suddenly appears before her on the fridge door, telling Ailsa that Alf cares about her. ==Reception== Dickson won the Logie for "Most Popular New Talent" at the 1989 Logie Awards for her portrayal of Bobby. At the 1991 Logie Awards, Dickson was nominated in the category of "Most Popular Actress". In his book, Super Aussie Soaps, Andrew Mercado describes Bobby as the serial's "breakout star" both on and off-screen, also branding her as extremely rebellious. Bobby has been received negatively by the editors of Australian weekly magazine The Bulletin stating: "From memory, Bobby whinged and whined a lot before Dickson left the show for anonymity." Televisionau.com also brand Bobby as rebellious but state she's also an outsider compared to the other foster children. Darren Rowe of entertainment website Digital Spy refers to both character and actress as an icon of the serial. Eamonn McCusker writing for The Digital Fix attributes the origins of cheap television to Bobby's infamous beach scene in which she first says "Rack Off!". Dickson has revealed that she received high volumes of fan mail every time Bobby punched another character, an amount she stated: "became time consuming". Murray Clifford writing for the Evening Times brands her as the serial's "tearaway tomboy". A columnist for Inside Soap said that Bobby was a "tearaway" who eventually became the "pillar of the community". Discussing Bobby and Frank, a reporter from Soap World wrote "this torturous, star- crossed path to the altar and back broke H&A; fans' hearts." Inside Soap ran a feature compiling "The 100 greatest soap stories ever told". They featured the story about Bobby discovering her parents true identity as their 52nd choice. ==References== Category:Adoptee characters in television Category:Home and Away characters Category:Television characters introduced in 1988 Category:Female characters in television
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thumb|343x343px|Sustainable forest management balances local socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological needs and constraints. Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. Sustainable forestry can seem contradicting to some individuals as the act of logging trees is not sustainable. However, the goal of sustainable forestry is to allow for a balance to be found between ethical forestry and maintaining biodiversity through the means of maintaining natural patterns of disturbance and regeneration. The forestry industry mitigates climate change by boosting carbon storage in growing trees and soils and improving the sustainable supply of renewable raw materials via sustainable forest management. Successfully achieving sustainable forest management will provide integrated benefits to all, ranging from safeguarding local livelihoods to protecting biodiversity and ecosystems provided by forests, reducing rural poverty and mitigating some of the effects of climate change. Forest conservation is essential to stop climate change. Feeding humanity and conserving and sustainably using ecosystems are complementary and closely interdependent goals. Forests supply water, mitigate climate change and provide habitats for many pollinators, which are essential for sustainable food production. It is estimated that 75 percent of the world's leading food crops, representing 35 percent of global food production, benefit from animal pollination for fruit, vegetable or seed production. The "Forest Principles" adopted at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 captured the general international understanding of sustainable forest management at that time. A number of sets of criteria and indicators have since been developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at the global, regional, country and management unit level. These were all attempts to codify and provide for assessment of the degree to which the broader objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument was the first of its kind, and reflected the strong international commitment to promote implementation of sustainable forest management through a new approach that brings all stakeholders together. The Sustainable Development Goal 15 is also a global initiative aimed at promoting the implementation of sustainable forest management. Sustainable forest management also helps with climate change adaptation by increasing forest ecosystems' resistance to future climatic hazards and lowering the danger of additional land degradation by repairing and stabilizing soils and boosting their water-retention capacity. It contributes to the provision of a wide range of vital ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, such as wildlife habitats, recreational amenity values, and a variety of non-timber forest products. Conservation of biodiversity is the major management aim in around 13% of the world's forests, while preservation of soil and water resources is the primary management goal in more than 30%. == Definition == A definition of SFM was developed by the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (FOREST EUROPE), and has since been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It defines sustainable forest management as: > The stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, > that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, > vitality and their potential to fulfill, now and in the future, relevant > ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and global > levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems. In simpler terms, the concept can be described as the attainment of balance – balance between society's increasing demands for forest products and benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity. This balance is critical to the survival of forests, and to the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For forest managers, sustainably managing a particular forest tract means determining, in a tangible way, how to use it today to ensure similar benefits, health and productivity in the future. Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors – commercial and non-commercial values, environmental considerations, community needs, even global impact – to produce sound forest plans. In most cases, forest managers develop their forest plans in consultation with citizens, businesses, organizations and other interested parties in and around the forest tract being managed. The tools and visualization have been recently evolving for better management practices. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, at the request of Member States, developed and launched the Sustainable Forest Management Toolbox in 2014, an online collection of tools, best practices and examples of their application to support countries implementing sustainable forest management. Because forests and societies are in constant flux, the desired outcome of sustainable forest management is not a fixed one. What constitutes a sustainably managed forest will change over time as values held by the public change. == Ethics behind the forestry industry == We currently have a lot of threats facing the goal of achieving sustainable forestry including the poor use of resources, lack of understanding of different properties, regions and rights, weak regulations and policies and a lack of forestry law enforcement. A major contributor to all of these threats, is the ethics behind the industry. This is not limited to applying ethics to those who work in the industry but also to the companies and government who regulate it. It is important for those training to be an art of this field, learn the ethics behind the practice, ranging from professional ethics, environmental ethics and philosophical ethics. Having a solid understanding of ethics will allow workers to implement proper practices in their own work and will also provide them with the knowledge to take a stand against employers who do not work ethically and will then be forced to do so. A survey published in 2007 indicated that only 74% of forestry programs include ethics in their curriculum. Of this 74%, 32% is professional ethics, 13% is environmental ethics and 56% is other ethics such as philosophical. A part of ethics involves providing workers with proper training to ensure their own safety and to ensure forestry is conducted in the most environmentally and economically efficient manner. However, many companies disregard proper training resulting employees being in extremely dangerous situations, employees being harmed, fatalities occurring and resources being wasted. Not only is there a lack of training but many forestry workers are not provided with appropriate gear and tools as well as are extremely underpaid especially considering the risks they are being put at. It is crucial for workers to be trained properly, have appropriate resources to do the job and have a pay the reflects their duties and high level of responsibility. This will prevent poor working conditions, loss of resources and will allow workers to be more motivated to do the job properly while applying the ethical practices they were taught. With that being said, in order for this to occur it is important that certain policies and laws are implemented to ensure sustainable forestry. Harvesting plans are an excellent example of what form of policies should be implemented globally as they have proven to allow for sustainable forestry. Harvesting plans require forestry companies to disclose their entire plan in regards to what they intend on logging, where they intend on logging and how. Once they provide a complete harvest plan it is evaluated and if approved these companies are permitted to continue with logging activities. When reviewing these plans, factors such as how forest values are protected, the condition of the forest before harvesting, regeneration strategies and patterns of natural disturbance are all considered before approving or denying the plan. With that being said, the regulations do not stop once the plan is approved. As the harvesting process occurs, regulators monitor the companies' compliance with the plan, the amount of timber harvested, the progress of the regeneration plan as well as surrounding ecological factors and how they are impacted such as soil health, water and habitats. == Criteria and indicators == Criteria and indicators are tools which can be used to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management.Guidelines for Developing, Testing and Selecting Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management Ravi Prabhu, Carol J. P. Colfer and Richard G. Dudley. 1999. CIFOR. The Criteria & Indicators Toolbox Series. Criteria define and characterize the essential elements, as well as a set of conditions or processes, by which sustainable forest management may be assessed. Periodically measured indicators reveal the direction of change with respect to each criterion. Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management are widely used and many countries produce national reports that assess their progress toward sustainable forest management. There are nine international and regional criteria and indicators initiatives, which collectively involve more than 150 countries.Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management: A Compendium. Paper compiled by Froylán Castañeda, Christel Palmberg-Lerche and Petteri Vuorinen, May 2001. Forest Management Working Papers, Working Paper 5. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (unpublished). Three of the more advanced initiatives are those of the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Montréal Process), Forest Europe, and the International Tropical Timber Organization. Countries who are members of the same initiative usually agree to produce reports at the same time and using the same indicators. Within countries, at the management unit level, efforts have also been directed at developing local level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. The Center for International Forestry Research, the International Model Forest Network and researchers at the University of British Columbia have developed a number of tools and techniques to help forest-dependent communities develop their own local level criteria and indicators. Criteria and Indicators also form the basis of third-party forest certification programs such as the Canadian Standards Association's Sustainable Forest Management Standards and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative. There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest management. Seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators initiatives. The seven thematic areas are: * Extent of forest resources * Biological diversity * Forest health and vitality * Productive functions of forest resources * Protective functions of forest resources * Socio-economic functions * Legal, policy and institutional framework. This consensus on common thematic areas (or criteria) effectively provides a common, implicit definition of sustainable forest management. The seven thematic areas were acknowledged by the international forest community at the fourth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests and the 16th session of the Committee on Forestry. These thematic areas have since been enshrined in the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests as a reference framework for sustainable forest management to help achieve the purpose of the instrument. On 5 January 2012, the Montréal Process, Forest Europe, the International Tropical Timber Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, acknowledging the seven thematic areas, endorsed a joint statement of collaboration to improve global forest-related data collection and reporting and avoiding the proliferation of monitoring requirements and associated reporting burdens. ==Ecosystem approach== The ecosystem approach has been prominent on the agenda of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) since 1995. The CBD definition of the Ecosystem Approach and a set of principles for its application were developed at an expert meeting in Malawi in 1995, known as the Malawi Principles.Malawi Principles The definition, 12 principles and 5 points of "operational guidance" were adopted by the fifth Conference of Parties (COP5) in 2000. The CBD definition is as follows: > The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, > water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in > an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a > balance of the three objectives of the Convention. An ecosystem approach is > based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on > levels of biological organization, which encompasses the essential > structures, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their > environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are > an integral component of many ecosystems. Sustainable forest management was recognized by parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2004 (Decision VII/11 of COP7) to be a concrete means of applying the Ecosystem Approach to forest ecosystems. The two concepts, sustainable forest management and the ecosystem approach, aim at promoting conservation and management practices which are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable, and which generate and maintain benefits for both present and future generations. In Europe, the MCPFE and the Council for the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS) jointly recognized sustainable forest management to be consistent with the Ecosystem Approach in 2006. ==Independent certification== Growing environmental awareness and consumer demand for more socially responsible businesses helped third-party forest certification emerge in the 1990s as a credible tool for communicating the environmental and social performance of forest operations. There are many potential users of certification, including: forest managers, scientists, policy makers, investors, environmental advocates, business consumers of wood and paper, and individuals. With third-party forest certification, an independent standards setting organization (SSO) develops standards of good forest management, and independent auditors issue certificates to forest operations that comply with those standards. Forest certification verifies that forests are well-managed – as defined by a particular standard – and chain-of-custody certification tracks wood and paper products from the certified forest through processing to the point of sale. This rise of certification led to the emergence of several different systems throughout the world. As a result, there is no single accepted forest management international standard worldwide. ISO members rejected a proposal for a forestry management system as requirements standard, with a consensus that a management system for certification would not be effective. Instead ISO members voted for a chain of custody of wood and wood-based products with ISO 38200 published in 2018. Without an international standard each system takes a somewhat different approach with scheme owners defining private standards for sustainable forest management. In its 2009–2010 Forest Products Annual Market Review United Nations Economic Commission for Europe/Food and Agriculture Organization stated: "Over the years, many of the issues that previously divided the (certification) systems have become much less distinct. The largest certification systems now generally have the same structural programmatic requirements." Third-party forest certification is an important tool for those seeking to ensure that the paper and wood products they purchase and use come from forests that are well-managed and legally harvested. Incorporating third-party certification into forest product procurement practices can be a centerpiece for comprehensive wood and paper policies that include factors such as the protection of sensitive forest values, thoughtful material selection and efficient use of products. Without a single international standard, there are a proliferation of private standards, with more than fifty scheme owners offering certification worldwide, addressing the diversity of forest types and tenures. Globally, the two largest umbrella certification programs are: * Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) * Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) The Forest Stewardship Council's Policy on Conversion states that land areas converted from natural forests to round wood production after November 1994 are ineligible for Forest Stewardship Council certification. The area of forest certified worldwide is growing slowly. PEFC is the world's largest forest certification system, with more than two-thirds of the total global certified area certified to its Sustainability Benchmarks. In 2021, PEFC issued a position statement defending their use of private standards in response to the Destruction: Certified report from Greenpeace. In North America, there are three certification standards endorsed by PEFC – the Sustainable Forestry Initiative, the Canadian Standards Association's Sustainable Forest Management Standard, and the American Tree Farm System. SFI is the world's largest single forest certification standard by area."SFI Inc. Launches New Standard, Leads Forest Certification Forward" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2013-02-19 FSC has five standards in North America – one in the United States and four in Canada. While certification is intended as a tool to enhance forest management practices throughout the world, to date most certified forestry operations are located in Europe and North America. A significant barrier for many forest managers in developing countries is that they lack the capacity to undergo a certification audit and maintain operations to a certification standard.Auer, M. (2012). 'Group forest certification for smallholders in Vietnam: An early test and future prospects'. Human ecology 40(1): 5–14. == Forest governance == 400px|thumb|right| Countries participating in the UNREDD program and/or Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. Although a majority of forests continue to be owned formally by government, the effectiveness of forest governance is increasingly independent of formal ownership.Agrawal, A., Chhatre, A, and Hardin, R. (2008). 'Changing Governance of the World's Forest'. Science 320: 1460–1462 Since neo-liberal ideology in the 1980s and the emanation of the climate change challenges, evidence that the state is failing to effectively manage environmental resources has emerged.Lutz, E, and Caldecott, J. (1996). Decentralization and biodiversity: a world bank symposium. Washington: The World Bank. Under neo-liberal regimes in the developing countries, the role of the state has diminished and the market forces have increasingly taken over the dominant socio-economic role.Hague, M. (1999). 'The Fate of sustainable development under neo-liberal regime in developing countries', International political review 20(2): 197–218. Though the critiques of neo-liberal policies have maintained that market forces are not only inappropriate for sustaining the environment, but are in fact a major cause of environmental destruction.Stokke (1999). 'Sustainable development: A multi-faceted challenge' European journal of development 3(1): 8–31. Hardin's tragedy of the commons (1968) has shown that the people cannot be left to do as they wish with land or environmental resources. Thus, decentralization of management offers an alternative solution to forest governance. The shifting of natural resource management responsibilities from central to state and local governments, where this is occurring, is usually a part of broader decentralization process.Margulis, S. . 'Decentralized environmental management', Annual World Bank Report. According to Rondinelli and Cheema (1983), there are four distinct decentralization options: these are: (i) Privatization – the transfer of authority from the central government to non- governmental sectors otherwise known as market-based service provision, (ii) Delegation – centrally nominated local authority, (iii) Devolution – transfer of power to locally acceptable authority and (iv) Deconcentration – the redistribution of authority from the central government to field delegations of the central government. The major key to effective decentralization is increased broad-based participation in local-public decision making. In 2000, the World Bank report reveals that local government knows the needs and desires of their constituents better than the national government, while at the same time, it is easier to hold local leaders accountable. From the study of West African tropical forest, it is argued that the downwardly accountable and/or representative authorities with meaningful discretional powers are the basic institutional element of decentralization that should lead to efficiency, development and equity.Ribott, (1990). 'Accountable representation and power in Participatory and decentralized environmental management', Unasylva 50(4). This collaborates with the World Bank report in 2000 which says that decentralization should improve resource allocation, efficiency, accountability and equity "by linking the cost and benefit of local services more closely".World Bank 1988 Many reasons point to the advocacy of decentralization of forest management. (i) Integrated rural development projects often fail because they are top-down projects that did not take local people's needs and desires into account.Lutz, E and Caldcott (1999) Decentralisation and biodiversity conservation, A World bank symposium. Washington: The World Bank (ii) National government sometimes have legal authority over vast forest areas that they cannot control,Enters and Anderson (1999) Rethinking the decentralisation and devolution of biodiversity conservation Unasylva 50(4) thus, many protected area projects result in increased biodiversity loss and greater social conflict.Enters and Anderson (1999) Within the sphere of forest management, as state earlier, the most effective option of decentralization is "devolution"-the transfer of power to locally accountable authority.Rondinelli and Cheema (1981)Decentralization and development, sage publication, London However, apprehension about local governments is not unfounded. They are often short of resources, may be staffed by people with low education and are sometimes captured by local elites who promote clientelist relation rather than democratic participation.M, Larson "Natural resource and degradation in Nicaragua: Are local governments up to the job? Enters and Anderson (1999) point that the result of community-based projects intended to reverse the problems of past central approaches to conservation and development have also been discouraging. Broadly speaking, the goal of forest conservation has historically not been met when, in contrast with land use changes; driven by demand for food, fuel and profit.Larson (2002) It is necessary to recognize and advocate for better forest governance more strongly given the importance of forest in meeting basic human needs in the future and maintaining ecosystem and biodiversity as well as addressing climate change mitigation and adaptation goal. Such advocacy must be coupled with financial incentives for government of developing countries and greater governance role for local government, civil society, private sector and NGOs on behalf of the "communities".Rondinelli and Chaeema (1999) Sustainable forestry operations must also adhere to the International Labour Organization's 18 criteria on human and social rights. Gender equality, health and well-being and community consultation are examples of such rights. ===National Forest Funds=== The development of National Forest Funds is one way to address the issue of financing sustainable forest management. National forest funds (NFFs) are dedicated financing mechanisms managed by public institutions designed to support the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources. As of 2014, there are 70 NFFs operating globally. ==Forest genetic resources== Appropriate use and long-term conservation of forest genetic resources (FGR) is a part of sustainable forest management. In particular when it comes to the adaptation of forests and forest management to climate change. Genetic diversity ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Genetic diversity in forests also contributes to tree vitality and to the resilience towards pests and diseases. Furthermore, FGR has a crucial role in maintaining forest biological diversity at both species and ecosystem levels. Selecting carefully the forest reproductive material with emphasis on getting a high genetic diversity rather than aiming at producing a uniform stand of trees, is essential for sustainable use of FGR. Considering the provenance is crucial as well. For example, in relation to climate change, local material may not have the genetic diversity or phenotypic plasticity to guarantee good performance under changed conditions. A different population from further away, which may have experienced selection under conditions more like those forecast for the site to be reforested, might represent a more suitable seed source. == By region == === Developing world === In December 2007, at the Climate Change Conference in Bali, the issue of deforestation in the developing world in particular was raised and discussed. The foundations of a new incentive mechanism for encouraging sustainable forest management measures was therefore laid in hopes of reducing world deforestation rates. This mechanism was formalized and adopted as REDD in November 2010 at the Climate Change Conference in Cancun by UNFCCC COP 16. Developing countries who are signatories of the CBD were encouraged to take measure to implement REDD activities in the hope of becoming more active contributors of global efforts aimed at the mitigation greenhouse gas, as deforestation and forest degradation account for roughly 15% of total global greenhouse gas emissions. The REDD activities are formally tasked with "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries". REDD+ works in 3 phases. The first phase consists of developing viable strategies, while the second phase begins work on technology development and technology transfer to the developing countries taking part in REDD+ activities. The last phase measures and reports the implementation of the action taken. In 2021 the LEAF coalition was created, aiming to provide 1 billion dollars to countries that will protect their tropical and subtropical forests. === European Union === In 2022 the European parliament approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. The bill may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land". The legislation was adopted with some changes by the European Council in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with Human rights abuse. The list of products includes: palm oil, cattle, wood, coffee, cocoa, rubber and soy. Some derivatives of those products are also included: chocolate, furniture, printed paper and several palm oil based derivates. === Great Britain === The Forestry Commission was founded in 1919 to restore forests to Great Britain after World War 1. The commission regulates both private and public forests, as well as manages private forests. Agricultural land was bought and transformed, totalling 35% of the British woodland area having been possessed at one point in time === Canada === The province of Ontario has its own sustainable forest management measures in place. A little less than half of all the publicly owned forests of Ontario are managed forests, required by The Crown Forest Sustainability Act to be managed sustainably. Sustainable management is often done by forest companies who are granted Sustainable Forest Licenses which are valid for 20 years. The main goal of Ontario's sustainable forest management measures is to ensure that the forest are kept healthy and productive, conserving biodiversity, all whilst supporting communities and forest industry jobs. All management strategies and plans are highly regulated, arranged to last for a 10-year period, and follow the strict guidelines of the Forest Management Planning Manual. Alongside public sustainable forest management, the government of Ontario encourages sustainable forest management of Ontario's private forests as well through incentives. So far, 44% of Ontario's crown forests are managed. In order for logging to begin, the forestry companies must present a plan to the government who will then communicate to the public, First Nations and other industries in order to protect forest values. The plan must include strategies on how the forest values will be protected, assessing the state of the forest and whether it is capable of recovering from human activity, and presenting strategies on regeneration. After the harvest begins, the government monitors if the company is complying within the planned restrictions and also monitors the health of the ecosystem (soil depletion and erosion, water contamination, wildlife...). Failure to comply may result in fines, suspensions, removal of harvesting rights, confiscation of harvested timber and possible imprisonment. === Russia === In 2019 after severe wildfires and public pressure the Russian government decided to take a number of measures for more effective forest management, what is considered as a big victory for the Environmental movement === Indonesia === In August 2019, a court in Indonesia stopped the construction of a dam that could heavily hurt forests and villagers in the area In 2020 the rate of deforestation in Indonesia was the slowest since 1990. It was 75% lower than in 2019. This is because the government stopped issuing new licences to cut forests, including for palm oil plantations. The falling price of palm oil facilitated making it. Very wet weather reduced wildfires what also contributed to the achievement. === United States === In the beginning of the year 2020 the "Save the Redwoods League" after a successful crowdfunding campaign bought " Alder Creek" a piece of land 583 acres large, with 483 big Sequoia trees including the 5th largest tree in the world. The organizations plan to make there forest thinning that is a controversial operation === Cameroon === In August 2020, the government of Cameroon suspended the permit for logging in the Ebo forest. === Congo === In August 2021 UNESCO removed the Salonga National Park from its list of threatened sites. Forbidding oil drilling, reducing poaching played crucial role in the achievement. The event is considered as a big win to Democratic Republic of the Congo as the Salonga forest is the biggest protected rainforest in Africa. Kenya In accordance with Article 10 of the Kenyan Constitution, which mandates the incorporation of sustainable development into all laws and decisions regarding public policy, including forest conservation and management. Kenya responds to continued deforestation, forest degradation, and forest encroachment, which results in conversion of land uses to settlement and agriculture, by taking action.https://info.undp.org/docs/pdc/Documents/KEN/EMC%20Forest%20Management%20and%20Tree%20Growing%20Policy.pdf ==See also== *Biodiversity *Conservation biology *Ecosystem management *Ecosystem-based management *Environmental protection *Forest conservation in the United States *Green furniture *Habitat conservation *Healthy Forests Initiative *Natural environment *Natural landscape *Nature *Overexploitation *Renewable resource *Sustainability *Sustainable development *Sustainable land management *:Category:Forest conservation == Sources == ==References== ==External links== * Category:Habitat management equipment and methods Category:Forest certification Category:Forest governance Category:Forest conservation *
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thumb|right|The flag of the KAU as devised by Jomo Kenyatta in 1951 The Kenya African Union (KAU) was a political organization in colonial Kenya, formed in October 1944 prior to the appointment of the first African to sit in the Legislative Council. In 1960 it became the current Kenya African National Union (KANU). ==Formation== KAU was formed on October 1, 1944, with the veteran political leader Harry Thuku as its President. Francis Joseph Khamisi became its Secretary while Albert Owino became its Treasurer. It had a Representative Committee of seven which included John K. Kebaso (South Nyanza), James Samuel Gichuru (Central), Jimmy Jeremiah (Coast), Simeon Mulandi (Ukambani), Harry L. Nangurai (Maasai) and S.B. Jakeyo (Central Nyanza). Nine days later, on October 10, 1944, Governor Sir Philip Mitchell appointed Eliud Mathu to become the first African to sit in the Kenya Legislative Council. This appointment marked an important turning point in the political development of the Africans. The following month in November 1944, at the insistence of the Governor, the name ‘Study’ was added to the name becoming the Kenya African Study Union. The Governor stated that the name ‘Study’ was meant to make it a “colony-wide African body to provide an organization where the views of the educated African elite could be given a forum.”Okoth, Assa, A History of Africa: African Nationalism and the de- colonization process, East Africa Education Publishers, Nairobi, p. 74 The organization was meant to ‘study’ the problems or grievances of the Africans and accordingly advise Eliud Mathu at the Legislative Council. To change the name, Mathu called for a meeting in Harry Thuku’s shop in Nairobi, and in attendance was Gichuru, Joseph D. Otiende, Jonathan Njoroge, Henry Mwaniki, Francis Khamisi, Kamau Njoroge, Albert Awino, Ambrose Ofafa, Mucohi Gikonyo and Simeon Mulandi.Ibid. p74 They voted for the name change but not without much debate. When they announced the new name, the Africans quickly resented the change feeling that it represented British patronization and was meant to dilute the objectives of the organization. ==KAU’s Objectives== At inception, the party’s objectives included advancing African interests, constitutional reforms, and fighting for better living and working conditions for Africans. KAU also helped coordinate nationalist activities and to unite Kenyan Africans towards a common cause. Initially, KAU enjoyed cordial relations with the Colonial administration but then the relationship quickly turned sour, particularly with the exit of Harry Thuku who was considered a moderate. The colonial administration also created a hostile environment which made the attainment of KAU’s objectives difficult. Soon, ideological differences in its ranks, particularly among the moderates and the radicals, threatened to tear apart the fabric that held it together. The lack of political awareness among the Africans coupled with widespread ethnic distrust among the Africans also slowed down the new party. They also lacked adequate funds for operations and for a long time did not have a fixed address. ==Gichuru takes over== In January 1945, Thuku resigned, and at the first Delegates Conference held on February 3, 1945, his place was taken over by James Gichuru, a Makerere- trained teacher who had resigned from his teaching position at Alliance High School. Thuku was considered a bit of a moderate taking this position after returning from his decade-long detention for political agitation. James Gichuru quickly reorganized the party and expanded the Delegates. He launched a newspaper “Sauti ya Mwafrika” (Voice of the African) which was edited by Francis Khamisi. The paper articulated the grievances of the Africans. In the next Delegates Conference in February 1946, the name ‘Study’ was dropped and the party reverted to its old name KAU. At this point, KAU was considered by many to be a reincarnation of the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) which had been banned in 1939.Frost, Richard (1978), Race Against Time: Human Relations and Politics in Colonial Kenya before Independence, Rex Collings, London. p. 211 In fact, one of the Committee members Simeon Mulandi, had been the leader of the Ukamba Member’s Union which had been banned alongside the KCA.Abuor, C. Ojwando (1970), White Highlands No more: A Modern Political History of Kenya Vol. 1, Pan African Researchers, Nairobi, p. 360 Under Gichuru, the party took a more nationalistic path. During the Second Delegates Conference, Joseph D. Otiende from North Nyanza (now Western Kenya), was elected Vice President of the party, giving the party a more national outlook. Like Gichuru, Otiende had studied at Makerere and had also taught at Alliance High School. They had joined Makerere in the same year (1933) and had also been students at Alliance High School before that.Makerere College Register (1922-53), The University College of East Africa (1955). P. 24 and P. 104 The KAU demanded an end to the ‘Kipande system’, the identification system much loathed by the Africans. Eliud Mathu successfully had it repealed in what was one of the major triumphs by the Africans. Other demands by the KAU included the abolition of taxes designed only for Africans, the return of alienated land, equal pay for equal work, and increased African representation at the Legislative Council. ==KAU's achievements== In January 1946, Governor Mitchell appointed Fanwell Walter Odede to sit at the Legislative Council to replace Rev. Leonard J. Beecher in an acting capacity. Odede remained at the Legislative Council until 1947 when Beecher decided to resign from the Legislative Council altogether. But rather than appoint Odede substantively, Governor Mitchell, decided to appoint Benaiah Apolo Ohanga to replace Beecher and revoked the appointment of Odede. And so officially, Ohanga became the second African to be appointed to the Legislative Council. Sang, Godfrey K, (2023), A History of the Parliament of Kenya, (Unpublished Manuscript) ==Jomo Kenyatta takes over== In September 1946, Jomo Kenyatta returned to Kenya and in June 1947, James Gichuru stepped down as President of KAU in favour of Jomo Kenyatta. After spending many years in England representing the grievances of the Africans, Kenyatta had captured the imagination of many Kenyans and had become a towering national figure. He was considered the natural leader in the quest for Independence and consequently steered the KAU towards a more nationalistic agenda with the attainment of independence in mind. In May 1948, Governor Mitchell appointed John Kipsugut araap Chemallan, a pioneer radio broadcaster to the Legislative Council to represent the Northern and Rift Valley Provinces and the Maasai. Eliud Mathu was now designated as the representative for Central Province. Ohanga now represented Nyanza while James Jeremiah represented the Coast. They were formally nominated as unofficial members of the Legislative Council to represent ‘the interests of the African Community’.Government Notice No. 475 of May 21, 1948, Under Jomo Kenyatta, the KAU moved a notch higher demanding the abolition of taxation, free and compulsory education for Africans, expanded representation at the Legislative Council, better pay and better working conditions, return of alienated lands issuance of title deeds to Africans, respect of African culture, compensation of African ex-soldiers, an end of racial discrimination and release of political prisoners. The party began recruiting members nationwide. ==Demand for Independence== On June 10, 1951, the KAU demanded an end to colonial rule and Independence within three years. In November 1951, KAU sent a deputation to the United Nations Conference in Paris where they presented a petition entitled “Land Hunger in Kenya” which called for an urgent solution to the Land question in Kenya with regard to the Africans.Abuor, (1970) The same year, radical members of the KAU in the Nairobi Branch formed a ‘Central Committee’ known as “Muhimu” (Kiswahili for ‘Important’) which began to plan more militant methods to achieve Independence. They began oathing members in a secret organization known as the Mau Mau. The “Muhimu” led by Eliud Mutonyi (Chairman), Isaac Gathanju (Secretary), Bildad Kaggia, Paul Ngei, and Fred Kubai as members, coordinated the Mau Mau activities and administration of oaths. The oathing began in Nairobi slums and soon morphed into active oathing in Kiambu, Fort Hall (presently Murang’a County), and Nyeri. ==KAU is banned== Soon after his arrival to take up his governorship, Sir Evelyn Baring made a brief tour of Central Kenya to familiarize himself with the situation. He met headmen, chiefs, priests, settlers and other influential members of society, and soon concluded that there was an impending state of anarchy that would almost certainly become unmanageable in due course. He returned to Nairobi and on October 10, 1952, cabled the Secretary of State for the Colonies Oliver Lyttelton seeking permission to declare a state of Emergency in the colony.Sir Evelyn Baring to Secretary of State for the Colonies, inward telegram, 10 October 1952, CO 822/443 (National Archives, Kew) Four days later, on October 14, 1952, Lyttelton in response stated, “I approve your proposal to declare a state of Emergency under Emergency Powers Order in Council, 1939, and to take action against Kenyatta and his henchmen. I shall give you my full support in thus maintaining law and order.”Secretary of State for the Colonies, outward telegram, 14 October 1952, CO 822/443 (National Archives, Kew) Five days later, Governor Baring declared a state of Emergency in Kenya. The following day on October 20, 1952, KAU leaders Jomo Kenyatta and several other leaders were arrested under the Operation Jock Scott. This followed the declaration of the Emergency by the new governor SirEvelyn Baring. In November 1952, a deputation of KAU leaders which included Walter Odede, Wycliffe W.W. Awori and Joseph Murumbi, tried to meet with Lyttelton who had come to oversee the operations against the Mau Mau. They wanted to discuss the unfolding situation with him. Through Governor Baring, they sought and were granted audience with Lyttelton at Government House. But when they arrived, Lyttelton refused to even greet them greatly embarrassing Governor Baring who had arranged the meeting.Abuor, op cit p. 102 Speaking to them separately, Baring asked them to disassociate themselves with Kenyatta and the arrested leaders of KAU. They tried but were unable to convince the Governor that the KAU did not have any Mau Mau adherents in its ranks, and tried to exonerate Kenyatta from any links with the Mau Mau. During the meeting, The KAU deputation presented a petition to the Governor seeking a number of reforms including the abolition by law of racial discrimination, the extension of education facilities to Africans, elections for African members and increased African representation in the Legislative Council. They also demanded a common roll for all three races with equal seats for Africans and non-Africans. They also demanded commissioned ranks for Africans in the Armed Forces and senior civil service posts; assistance in agricultural development; equal pay for equal qualifications and work and freedom of speech and assembly.Abuor, op cit. p. 102 The Emergency dealt a severe blow to the KAU and most of its leaders, particularly those from Central Kenya, were either arrested or had to flee to avoid arrest. Odede took over the leadership of KAU on an acting capacity but he too was arrested on March 8, 1953, again on suspicions of sympathizing with the Mau Mau.Sang Godfrey K., Orinda, Vincent A., Paul Mboya: A Portrait of a Great Leader, Gapman Publications, p. 231 KAU was eventually banned on June 8, 1953, eight months into the Emergency.Abuor, op cit. p. 193 The ban coincided with the arrival of British troops to boost the effort against the Mau Mau. Prior to Odede's arrest, the Luo Union under the Ker Oginga Odinga, issued a statement supporting KAUAbuor, op cit., p181-3 and this raised fears that the influence of the Mau Mau would spread to Nyanza. After Odede's arrest, the other influential Nyanza leader Wycliffe Works Wasya Awori was constantly harassed even as he demanded the African MLCs be allowed to hold meetings as they wanted. ==KAU and the Mau Mau== In his submissions to the Secretary of State for the Colonies seeking to declare a state of Emergency, Governor Baring argued that the KAU leaders, particularly Jomo Kenyatta, were at the back of Mau Mau and behind the violence. The Colonial administration was convinced beyond a doubt that the KAU was behind the Mau Mau movement. On numerous occasions, Jomo Kenyatta had in fact denounced the Mau Mau at a public meeting in February 1951 and also at a public rally at the Kirigiti Stadium in Kiambu on August 24, 1952. The meeting, which was attended by all the Kikuyu notables, had been called to specifically denounce the Mau Mau. One of those who addressed the meeting was Senior Chief Waruhiu Kungu. It was the death of Senior Chief Waruhiu Kungu on October 7, 1952, that convinced Governor Baring that something had to be done. Chief Waruhiu was gunned down at Gachie, some seven miles outside Nairobi while on his way home. His vehicle was blocked by another and a gunman emerged shooting him dead. The act was blamed on the Mau Mau and the declaration of Emergency followed shortly.Henderson, Ian (1958). 'Man-hunt in Kenya’ New York: Doubleday. p. 11 The British government sent in troops to bolster the war effort against the Mau Mau. General Sir George Erskine was appointed the Commander-in-Chief of the East African Command meant to deal with the Mau Mau decisively. Upon arrival, General Sir George Erskine addressed the Press saying: “…there is no doubt that there are members of the Kenya African Union who have no connections with the violent movement. But the action has been taken because the government has satisfied itself that there is ample evidence to show that the Kenya African Union has been used as a cover by the Mau Mu terrorist organization and that both before and after the Emergency was declared, there has been a connection between many members of the Kenya African Union and the Mau Mau terrorists.”Abuor, op cit, p. 194 “As an illustration of the connection of many KAU members with the violent Mau Mau movement, two of the most wanted terrorists in Kenya, Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge are both KAU members, Kimathi having been Secretary of the Rumuruti-Thompson’s Falls Branch and Mathenge a member of the Nyeri Branch. Mau Mau evolved out of the Kikuyu Central Association which was proscribed in 1939. Both societies relied on similar oath-taking ceremonies to initiate new members; both were subversive. Shortly after its inauguration in 1944, the KAU was penetrated by the influence of former Kikuyu Central Association and by 1947 became dominated by ex-KCA leaders and members”Ibid. During one of his radio addresses, acting Chief Native Commissioner Sir Edward H. Windley stated: “The Kenya African Union is finished. It was like a bad house destroyed because it was infected with disease, and we cannot use the same bricks to build again. It is for all you sensible and reasonable Africans who believe in good government to get together and work for it in the interests of your people, and to think now how best we can achieve it in the future.”Ibid. p. 195 ==The formation of KANU== On March 27, 1960, the African members of the Legislative Council who had coalesced around a loose political federation known as the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM), met at Kirigiti stadium in Kiambu to discuss the formation of a nationwide political party. Delegates from various political movements across the country were in attendance. Months earlier, in August 1959, eight of the 14 African elected members announced the formation of a moderate Kenya National Party (KNP). Headed by MLC for Nyanza North Masinde Muliro, the new party adopted multi-racialism and even integrated Europeans in its ranks among them S.V. Cooke the European MLC from Mombasa. They also attracted several Asians and Arabs. To counter this move, Tom Mboya and five other African MLCs announced the formation of an all- African Kenya Independence Movement (KIM), declaring that 'African freedom will be achieved only through African nationalism.'“Kenya”, Colliers Year Book 1959 During the March 1960 meeting at Kirigiti in Kiambu, a committee was formed to establish a prominent ‘Uhuru’ political party.“KANU 30 Great Years (1960-1990)” handbook; Kenya African National Union, 1990, Nairobi, p. 7 That committee, chaired by James Gichuru and Dr. Njoroge Mungai as Secretary, also had Oginga Odinga, Dr. Gikonyo Kiano and Tom Mboya among its members.ibid. They were tasked to draft the constitution for a new political party. They settled on the name KANU.ibid On May 14, 1960, a second meeting at Kirigiti took place and the delegates ratified the formation of a new political party named the Kenya African National Union.ibid They presented their registration documents to the Registrar of Societies David John Coward. They received the registration documents on June 11, 1960 with James Gichuru as President, Oginga Odinga as Vice President and Tom Mboya as Secretary General. They retained the old KAU flag complete with its colours and adopted the cockerel as its symbol. Indeed the old KAU had roared back to life. ==Conclusion== In many ways, the banning of the KAU in June 1953, did not quite extinguish its influence as a political party. Throughout the Emergency, African political activities were completely under check, but the Colonial administration was careful not to push the Africans too far. They instituted reforms meant to deal with the situation that had fomented the outbreak of the Mau Mau rebellion in the first place. Some of the recommendations of the KAU were implemented including the expansion of African representation in both the Legislative Council and the Executive Council. In 1954, KAU member Benaiah Ohanga was appointed to the Executive Council becoming the first African minister. More Africans were appointed to the Legislative Council. In March 1957, the Africans were able to choose their own representations through an election for 8 new seats created for the Africans. Further pressure from the Africans saw the seats expanded to 14 and a by-election was held in 1958 to increase the membership. Among its main achievements, the KAU helped united various communities in Kenya under the banner of national unity. The Luo and the Kikuyu seemed particularly close politically and they would eventually merge the different political ideologies into a more cogent national party named the Kenya African National Union (KANU). The new party, formed in 1960 under KAU’s erstwhile leader James Gichuru, eventually led to the attainment of self-rule in June 1963 after sweeping the polls against its more moderate rival the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU). Independence was achieved under the KANU government on December 12, 1964. ==References== Category:Independence movements Category:Kenya African National Union Category:National liberation movements in Africa Category:Political parties established in 1944
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thumb|The Liberty ship Rebecca Lukens was converted into a floating machine shop, repair, and maintenance depot and rechristened as the Maj Gen Herbert A Dargue Operation Ivory Soap was a classified United States military project to provide forward theatre support for aircraft repair and maintenance during World War II in the Pacific Theatre of Operations. Six Liberty ships were converted into floating shops to repair aircraft. They were designated Aircraft Repair Units (Floating). The Liberty ships were retrofitted to repair B-29 bombers. Eighteen smaller long auxiliary vessels were designated as Aircraft Maintenance Units. The smaller vessels were intended to repair fighter aircraft like the P-51 Mustang, Lockheed P-38, Sikorsky R-4 helicopters, and amphibious vehicles. The island-hopping strategy employed in campaigns like Operation Cartwheel necessitated more flexibility to support aircraft operations at rapidly shifting, far-flung island airfields. Once an island was taken it was used as a forward airfield for aircraft returning from long range missions where they were repaired, rearmed, and made ready for the next vital mission. The Army came up with an idea in 1944 for forward-based, mobile air depots to repair and maintain American bombers and fighters. The idea was then advanced to Washington, where it was reviewed and approved by the commander of the Army Air Corps, Gen. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. It was then approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Brookley Army Air Field near Mobile, Alabama had become the major Army Air Forces supply base for the Air Materiel Command in the southeastern United States and the Caribbean.Thomason, Michael. Mobile: the New History of Alabama's First City, page 213. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. The military decided to take advantage of Brookley's large, skilled workforce for the top-secret project. It selected Colonel Matthew Thompson, a former member of the British Royal Navy, to lead the training effort. He took over the Grand Hotel in Point Clear, Alabama and in less than five months trained about 5000 Army soldiers in the skills necessary to repair aircraft and to operate aboard a ship. Meanwhile, the ships were fitted with all of the shops and materials necessary to support and repair aircraft. In October 1944 the First Aircraft Repair Unit deployed and by the following February, all six vessels traveled through the Panama Canal to the Pacific. The ships were manned by members of the Army, Navy and Merchant Marines. They operated near Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands, Saipan and Tinian in the Northern Mariana Islands, Iwo Jima, Luzon, Guam, and Okinawa. The ship's early model Sikorsky R-4 helicopters were used to transport mechanics, parts, and later to ferry wounded soldiers to field hospitals. The helicopters were instrumental in saving dozens of lives. The project was declassified in 1953. == Origins == The idea of floating aircraft repair units was conceived during U.S. military operations in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II. The Army Air Force learned when moving forces from Tunisia in North Africa to Sicily and Italy that relocating a land-based repair depot with its large maintenance facilities could take two to six months. Air Technical Service Command, responsible for maintaining aircraft, was given responsibility for finding a solution. During World War II, Brookley Army Air Field had become the major Army Air Forces supply base for the Air Technical Service Command in the southeastern United States and the Caribbean. Brookley became Mobile's largest employer, with about 17,000 skilled civilians capable of performing delicate work with fragile instruments and machinery. The Air Technical Service Command decided in 1944 to take advantage of Brookley's large, skilled workforce for its top-secret "Ivory Soap" project to hasten victory in the Pacific. The project required 24 large vessels to be re-modeled into Aircraft Repair and Maintenance Units that could support repair and maintenance of B-29 bombers, P-51 Mustang, Sikorsky R-4 helicopters, and amphibious vehicles. The operation remained classified until 1953. It is not even mentioned in the official history book The Army Air Forces In World War II. == Conversions == thumb|Soldiers learn to handle lines aboard Liberty ships The Army Air Force delivered 24 vessels to Mobile, Alabama, in spring 1944 to start conversion. Six Liberty ships were converted into floating shops to repair aircraft. They were designated Aircraft Repair Units (Floating) and were equipped to repair planes as big as the B-29 Superfortress. Eighteen smaller ships were outfitted as Aircraft Maintenance Units for the repair of fighter aircraft. Eventually, six -long Liberty ships were modified into Aircraft Repair Units (Floating) carrying about 344 men. Eighteen smaller long coastal freighters were designated as Aircraft Maintenance Units and manned by 48 troops. Everything from the smallest aircraft parts to complete fighter wings were carried on these ships. The repair and maintenance facilities were manned 24 hours a day and the Liberty ships were equipped with a steel deck to support helicopter operations, including quick ship-to-shore repair transport. The conversion added multiple shops and equipment to the Liberty Ships: machine tools, welding, cranes, sheet metal, radiator, tank, wood, patterns, blue print, electrical, fabric and dope, paint, air-conditioned instrument and camera shops, radio, battery, propeller, tires and fuel cells, armament and turrets, plating, radar, carburetor, and turbosupercharger. A shop for generating oxygen used aboard the bombers was also built. Each ship had a hospital, orderly room, mess facilities, sleeping quarters, laundry, post office, brig, and post exchange. The only work they did not perform was engine overhaul due to limited space. Two LCVPs and two DUKWs were added for ship-to-shore transportation along with three or four Sikorsky R-4 helicopters. The helicopters were used to locate downed planes, rescue flight crews and passengers, ferry technicians and mechanics to islands, and to transport parts. The ships carried a large inventory of steel, lumber, aluminum, and other materials to manufacture needed parts. They carried anti-aircraft guns. Each Liberty had a 3-inch 50 at the bow and a 5-inch 38 aft, plus two 40mm anti-aircraft and twelve 20mm anti- aircraft gun mounts. Proportionately less firepower went aboard the auxiliaries. The guns were manned by 27 members of the Naval Armed Guard while the ships' operations were performed by merchant marine crews. The ship conversion took place near Brookley Army Air Field. === Liberty ships === After their arrival in the Pacific in April 1945, the six converted Liberty ships were renamed with new "General" names. The first and second ships were specially equipped and trained to support B-29s in the Marianas, including repair of their radar and complex central fire control systems. They became known as "The Generals." * 1st ARU(F) SS Daniel E. Garrett renamed Major General Robert Olds. * 2nd ARU(F) SS Rebecca Lukens renamed Major General Herbert A. Dargue. * 3rd ARU(F) SS Thomas LeValley renamed Major General Walter R. Weaver. * 4th ARU(F) SS Richard O'Brien renamed General Asa N. Duncan. * 5th ARU(F) SS Robert W. Bingham renamed Brigadier General Clinton W. Russell. * 6th ARU(F) SS Nathaniel Scudder renamed Brigadier General Alfred J. Lyon. Commanded by Col. E. R. French and later by Col. Lelard D. Crawford. === Auxiliary Aircraft Repair Ships === thumb|USS Palm Beach AGER-3 underway in Puget Sound on 13 September 1967, formerly the Col. Armand Peterson. The auxiliary ships were designated as Aircraft Repair variant, Design 427, "Vessel, Supply, Aircraft Repair, Diesel, Steel, 180-foot 573 ton" vessels. They were purpose built by Higgins Industries in New Orleans, Louisiana, for use by the United States Army. The ships were designed with a covered well deck to provide shop space to repair aircraft by an embarked Aircraft Maintenance Unit (Floating). The 18 auxiliaries were completed in December 1944 and named in honor of an Army Colonel, gaining the nickname as a group of "The Colonels." * FS-204 Col. Clifford P. Bradley * FS-205 Col. Richard E. Cobb * FS-206 Col. John D. Corkille (#1) and (#2) * FS-207 Col. Demas T. Craw * FS-208 Col. Everett S. Davis * FS-209 Col. Sam L. Ellis * FS-210 Col. Oliver S. Ferson * FS-211 Col. Percival E. Gabel * FS-212 Col. Donald M. Keiser * FS-213 Col. Douglas M. Kilpatrick * FS-214 Col. Raymond T. Lester * FS-215 Col. Donald R. Lyon * FS-216 Col. William J. McKiernan * FS-217 Col. Armand Peterson (went to the Navy as ) * FS-218 Col. Charles T. Phillips * FS-219 Col. Edgar R. Todd * FS-220 Col. Harold B. Wright * FS-221 Col. Francis T. Ziegler == Training == Colonel Matthew Thompson of the Army Air Force, formerly a member of the British Royal Navy, was called back from Anzio in Italy. He was given the mission to turn airmen into seamen and was given less than two weeks to organize the training program. Thompson learned of the Grand Hotel in Point Clear, Alabama. He contacted Ed Roberts, head of the Waterman Steamship Co., owner of the Grand Hotel. Roberts donated the use of his hotel. "Colonel, I'm too old to fight," Roberts told Thompson, "and this is my donation to the war effort." Thompson insisted that using the hotel free of charge didn't feel right. Thompson said Roberts told him, " 'Give me a dollar.' I gave him a dollar, and that was that." thumb|Merchant Marine Officer teaching lifeboat skills to the Army crewmembers Using the Grand Hotel, officers and men moved in and began living in "Navy style." All personnel referred to the floors as decks, kept time by a ship's bell and indulged in the use of tobacco only when the "smoking lamp" was lit. The hotel was used to house soldiers and served as a maritime training facility. It was the focal point for training the Army Air Force officers, mechanics, and machinists in basic seamanship, marine and aquatic training, including how to abandon ship if needed. Courses included swimming, special calisthenics, marching, drill, navigation, ship identification, signaling, cargo handling, ship orientation, sail making, knot-tying, amphibious operations, and more. Two men from each ship were also trained to be underwater divers. "We called this the Ivory Soap Project," Thompson later told a newspaper. "Now how did this become that code name? Someone went to the restroom, and when he came back, said, 'I've got a name for the mission: Ivory Soap.'" Ivory soap, like the experimental Aircraft Repair Units, floats. Operation Ivory Soap training began on July 10, 1944. In less than five months, Thompson led the conversion effort and trained 5,000 highly trained Army Air Force seamen to operate the ships once on the water. By October, the first vessel departed Mobile. == Operations == thumb|Brig. Gen. Asa N. Duncan at anchor in Guam, May 1945 On October 1, 1944, SS Maj. Gen. Herbert A. Dargue sailed for New Orleans, then to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, to join a convoy through the Panama Canal. Once in the Pacific, she sailed alone at toward Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands. From there it was ordered to Saipan. In November it anchored the hook in Tanapag Harbor near Saipan. Colonel Thompson joined the men in the Pacific Campaign. The ships participated in landings in the Philippines, Guam, Tinian, Saipan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. The Brig. Gen. Alfred J. Lyon departed for the Pacific on February 2, 1945. By the end of February, all six vessels were in the Pacific. The soldiers wore Navy dungarees and white sailor hats while on board ship, and an Army uniform while on land. They were nicknamed "saildiers" (sail-jers) by other soldiers and sailors. At the beginning of June 1945, the Third, Fifth, and Sixth Aircraft Repair Units were operating in the Philippines, supporting the Fifth Army Air Force, while the remaining three supported the 20th Air Force in the Marianas. Fighter aircraft and B-29s taking off from these bases flew continuous missions over Japan. The soldiers saved many lives and serviced hundreds of aircraft.146 Cong. Rec. 22129 - Operation Ivory Soap Congressional Record (Bound Edition), Volume 146 (2000), Part 15 The Brigadier General Clinton W. Russell commanded by Major R. E. Culberson was stationed at Biak, Tacloban, and Naha. As needed, the mechanics and craftsmen would take the DUKW or the helicopter to shore to inspect damaged aircraft. Small assemblies would be flown back to the ship for repair. Larger parts could be transported on the DUKW. Mechanics could also set up on shore and complete repairs there. Between November 1944 and 1 September 1945, Major General Herbert A. Dargue alone supplied B-29s and P-51s with over 38,000 parts and units, ranging from spark plugs to the central fire controls for the . After the war ended, the USS Brig. Gen. Alfred J. Lyon was the first supply vessel docked in Tokyo Bay at Yokohama, Japan. It was later used as a repair ship to maintain specialized equipment used during Operation Crossroads, the nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. === Medical evacuations === thumb|left|R-4B Sikorsky helicopter landing on the SS Daniel E. Garrett Helicopter pilot 2LT Louis Carle was assigned to the Brigadier General Clinton W. Russell, the Fifth Aircraft Repair Unit. On June 15, 1945, the Fifth Air Force received a request from the 38th Infantry Division to evacuate two soldiers with head injuries from a spot east of Manila. Carle flew one of his ship's Sikorsky R-4 helicopters and landed near the front lines, much to the amazement of the soldiers, who had never seen a helicopter. Under the best of conditions, the R-4 could carry, in addition to the pilot and fuel, only , which meant only instruments and small components such as propeller hubs. But the timely delivery of even small payloads was highly valued. The helicopter was not configured to handle stretchers. Carle removed a seat, placed the wounded soldier on the aircraft floor, and flew him to the 311th General Field Hospital near Manila. Once word got out of the helicopter's availability, they were called on again and again. During one day, Carle flew seven hours and evacuated six wounded soldiers. From June 15 to July 29, 1945, Carle and five other pilots evacuated 75 to 80 wounded soldiers, one or two at a time, from the highlands northeast of Manila. They were the second group of helicopter pilots after Lieutenant Carter Harman to evacuate wounded via helicopter during World War II. Unlike Harmen, they were targeted by Japanese soldiers who tried to shoot them down with machine guns. Their six-week effort constitutes the largest combat helicopter operation before the Korean War. On June 25, the Brigadier General Alfred J. Lyon arrived in Manila Bay. Its pilots also flew rescue operations using their R-4B and R-6A helicopters. In four days, pilots 1LT James Brown, 2LT John Noll, and Flight Officer Edward Ciccolella transported around 40 wounded. == Legacy == The Merchant Marines who worked with the soldiers praised them as "equal to any seagoing combatants they had ever served with." During the Grand Hotel's 150th anniversary, room 1108, used as an office by Thompson, was officially renamed the Thompson Suite. After Thompson retired in Pensacola, Florida, he returned to the hotel and would only stay in that room. Every day at 3:45 p.m., the Grand Hotel honors its wartime history with a procession across the grounds, concluding with a brief history lesson and cannon firing on the edge of Mobile Bay. , the Grand Hotel still operates. The Air Force Museum at Dayton, Ohio established an exhibit commemorating the ships and men of Ivory Soap. A Memorial Plaque was dedicated there by the Floating Aircraft Repair and Maintenance Association (FARAMA) on . Sgt. John Francis Sullivan had served with the 107th Quartermaster Company, 126th Infantry, 32nd Infantry Division, in New Guinea during the Battle of Buna–Gona in late 1942 and early 1943. He was a 1Lt serving with the Air Materiel Command (AMC) at Brookley Field in late 1943 when Operation Ivory Soap was launched and was directly involved in the project. He served aboard the Rebecca Lukens (Brigadier General Alfred J. Lyon) in the Pacific at Gram, Saipan, and Tinian through 1945. He was later called on to apply the lessons learned in converting the Liberty Ships. By November 1962 Col. Sullivan was a widely respected Army aviator. Frank S. Besson, commanding general of AMC, recognizing Sullivan's unique background in converting the Liberty Ships and his Army helicopter experience, assigned him as project officer for Operation Flat Top. This program involved conversion of a former World War II seaplane tender, the USS Albemarle (AV 5), into a floating helicopter repair shop for service off the coast of Vietnam. ==See also== *Mobile Naval Air Base - equivalent British scheme == Notes == == References == == External links == * Top Secret Project Ivory Soap -- Aircraft Repair Ships * Operation Ivory Soap * Operation Ivory Soap was a secret, but no beauty secret * 146 Cong. Rec. 22129 - OPERATION IVORY SOAP * 801st Special Operations Aircraft Maintenance Squadron This article contains content in the public domain from U.S. government sources. Category:Military logistics of World War II Category:United States Army projects Category:Military logistics of the United States Category:Sikorsky aircraft Category:Liberty ships
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This page details the match results and statistics of the New Zealand national football team from 2000 until 2019. ==Key== ;Key to matches: *Att. = Match attendance *(H) = Home ground *(A) = Away ground *(N) = Neutral ground ;Key to record by opponent: *Pld = Games played *W = Games won *D = Games drawn *L = Games lost *GF = Goals for *GA = Goals against ==A-International results== New Zealand's score is shown first in each case. No. Date Venue Opponents Score Competition New Zealand scorers Att. Ref. 259 Tianhe Stadium, Guangzhou (A) 0–1 260 Tianhe Stadium, Guangzhou (N) 1–2 Guangzhou Four Nations' Tournament Elliott — 261 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 0–1 Friendly 262 Showgrounds, Palmerston North (H) 0–0 Friendly 263 Stade Pater, Pirae (N) 2–0 2000 OFC Nations Cup Bouckenooghe, Jackson 264 Stade Pater, Pirae (N) 3–1 2000 OFC Nations Cup Killen (2), Perry 265 Stade Pater, Pirae (N) 2–0 2000 OFC Nations Cup Elliott (2) 266 Stade Pater, Pirae (N) 0–2 2000 OFC Nations Cup 267 Stadium Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur (A) 0–0 2000 Merdeka Tournament — 268 Stadium Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur (N) 1–0 2000 Merdeka Tournament Scott — 269 Stadium Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur (A) 2–0 2000 Merdeka Tournament Nelsen, Urlovic 270 Bishan Stadium, Singapore (A) 0–3 Friendly 271 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 5–0 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification Coveny (3), Lines, Perry 272 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 2–0 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification Hickey (2) 273 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 5–1 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification Coveny (2), Jackson (2), Urlovic 274 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 7–0 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification Coveny (3), Jackson, Lines, Burton, Vicelich 275 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 0–2 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification 276 Stadium Australia, Sydney (A) 1–4 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification Coveny 277 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (N) 4–0 2002 OFC Nations Cup Nelsen, Vicelich, Urlovic, Campbell 278 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (N) 9–1 2002 OFC Nations Cup Killen (4), Campbell (2), Nelsen, Burton, De Gregorio 279 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (N) 6–1 2002 OFC Nations Cup Vicelich (2), Urlovic, Campbell (2), Burton 280 Mount Smart Stadium, Auckland (N) 3–0 2002 OFC Nations Cup Burton (2), Killen 281 Mount Smart Stadium, Auckland (N) 1–0 2002 OFC Nations Cup Nelsen 282 Lilleküla Stadium, Tallinn (A) 2–3 Friendly Hickey, Lines 283 0–2 Friendly 284 Tynecastle Park, Edinburgh (A) 1–1 Friendly Nelsen 285 City Stadium, Richmond (A) 1–2 Friendly Coveny 286 Stade de France, Saint-Denis (N) 0–3 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup 287 Stade de Gerland, Lyon (N) 1–3 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup De Gregorio 288 Stade de France, Saint-Denis (N) 0–5 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup 289 Azadi Stadium, Tehran (A) 0–3 2003 AFC–OFC Challenge Cup 290 Hindmarsh Stadium, Adelaide (N) 0–1 2004 OFC Nations Cup 291 Marden Sports Complex, Adelaide (N) 3–0 2004 OFC Nations Cup Fisher, Oughton, Lines 292 Hindmarsh Stadium, Adelaide (N) 2–4 2004 OFC Nations Cup Coveny (2) 293 Marden Sports Complex, Adelaide (N) 10–0 2004 OFC Nations Cup Coveny (3), Fisher (3), Jones, Oughton, Nelsen (2) 294 Hindmarsh Stadium, Adelaide (N) 2–0 2004 OFC Nations Cup Bunce, Coveny 295 Craven Cottage, London (N) 0–1 Friendly 296 Queen Elizabeth II Park, Christchurch (H) 1–0 Friendly Steven Old 297 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 2–1 Friendly Banks, Barron 298 Estadio El Teniente, Rancagua (A) 1–4 Friendly Smeltz 299 Estadio Municipal Nicolás Chahuán Nazar, La Calera (A) 0–1 Friendly — 300 Szusza Ferenc Stadion, Budapest (A) 0–2 Friendly 301 Stadion Altenkirchen, Altenkirchen (N) 3–1 Friendly Coveny (2), Killen 302 Lilleküla Stadium, Tallinn (A) 1–1 Friendly Hay 303 Stade de Genève, Geneva (N) 0–4 Friendly 304 Estadio Ricardo Saprissa Aymá, San José (A) 0–4 Friendly 305 Estadio José Pachencho Romero, Maracaibo (A) 0–5 Friendly 306 Racecourse Ground, Wrexham (A) 2–2 Friendly Smeltz (2) 307 Churchill Park, Lautoka (A) 2–0 2008 OFC Nations Cup Vicelich, Smeltz 308 Port Vila Municipal Stadium, Port Vila (A) 2–1 2008 OFC Nations Cup Smeltz, Mulligan 309 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 4–1 2008 OFC Nations Cup Mulligan (2), Smeltz (2) 310 Stade Numa-Daly Magenta, Nouméa (A) 3–1 2008 OFC Nations Cup Sigmund, Smeltz (2) 311 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 3–0 2008 OFC Nations Cup Smeltz (2), Christie 312 Churchill Park, Lautoka (H) 0–2 2008 OFC Nations Cup 313 Supachalasai Stadium, Bangkok (A) 1–3 Friendly Bright — 314 National Stadium, Dar es Salaam (A) 1–2 Friendly Smeltz 315 University of Botswana Stadium, Gaborone (A) 0–0 Friendly — 316 Super Stadium, Atteridgeville (N) 3–4 Friendly Smeltz, Killen (2) 317 Royal Bafokeng Stadium, Rustenburg (N) 0–5 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup 318 Royal Bafokeng Stadium, Rustenburg (N) 0–2 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup 319 Ellis Park Stadium, Johannesburg (N) 0–0 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup 320 King Abdullah Stadium, Amman (A) 3–1 Friendly Smeltz (2), Fallon — 321 Bahrain National Stadium, Riffa (A) 0–0 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification 322 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 1–0 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification Fallon 2010s Rose Bowl, Pasadena (N) 0–2 Friendly 324 Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne (A) 1–2 Friendly Killen 325 Wörthersee Stadion, Klagenfurt (N) 1–0 Friendly Smeltz 326 Ljudski vrt, Maribor (A) 1–3 Friendly Fallon 327 Royal Bafokeng Stadium, Rustenburg (N) 1–1 2010 FIFA World Cup Reid 328 Mbombela Stadium, Nelspruit (N) 1–1 2010 FIFA World Cup Smeltz 329 Peter Mokaba Stadium, Polokwane (N) 0–0 2010 FIFA World Cup 330 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 1–1 Friendly Wood 331 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 0–2 Friendly 332 Wuhan Sports Center, Wuhan (A) 1–1 Friendly McGlinchey — 333 Mile High Stadium, Denver (N) 0–3 Friendly 334 Adelaide Oval, Adelaide (A) 0–3 Friendly 335 Mount Smart Stadium, Auckland (H) 2–3 Friendly Wood, Killen — 336 BBVA Stadium, Houston (N) 2–2 Friendly Hogg, Barbarouses — 337 Cotton Bowl, Dallas (N) 1–0 Friendly Smeltz — 338 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (N) 1–0 2012 OFC Nations Cup Smith 339 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (N) 2–1 2012 OFC Nations Cup Smeltz, Wood 340 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (N) 1–1 2012 OFC Nations Cup Wood 341 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (N) 0–2 2012 OFC Nations Cup 342 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (N) 4–3 2012 OFC Nations Cup Wood (3), Smeltz 343 Stade Numa-Daly Magenta, Nouméa (A) 2–0 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification Smeltz, Wood 344 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 6–1 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification 345 Stade Pater Te Hono Nui, Pirae (A) 2–0 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification Smeltz, Sigmund 346 Rugby League Park, Christchurch (H) 3–0 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification McGlinchey (2), Killen 347 Hongkou Football Stadium, Shanghai (A) 1–1 Friendly Wood — 348 Forsyth Barr Stadium, Dunedin (H) 2–1 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification Killen, Smith 349 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara 2–0 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification Payne 350 King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh (A) 1–0 2013 OSN Cup Killen 351 King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh (N) 0–2 2013 OSN Cup — 352 Hasely Crawford Stadium, Port of Spain (A) 0–0 Friendly — 353 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City (A) 1–5 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification James 354 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 2–4 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification James, Fallon 355 National Stadium, Tokyo (A) 2–4 Friendly Wood (2) 356 Mount Smart Stadium, Auckland (H) 0–0 Friendly 357 Pakhtakor Markaziy Stadium, Tashkent (A) 1–3 Friendly Brockie — 358 Nanchang Bayi Stadium, Nanchang (A) 1–1 Friendly Wood — 359 80th Birthday Stadium, Nakhon Ratchasima (A) 0–2 Friendly — 360 Seoul World Cup Stadium, Seoul (A) 0–1 Friendly 361 Thuwunna Stadium, Yangon (A) 1–1 Friendly Smeltz — 362 Al-Seeb Stadium, Seeb (A) 1–0 Friendly Wood — 363 Sir John Guise Stadium, Port Moresby (N) 3–1 2016 OFC Nations Cup Tzimopoulos, Fallon, Wood 364 Sir John Guise Stadium, Port Moresby (N) 5–0 2016 OFC Nations Cup Wood (2), McGlinchey, Fallon, Barbarouses 365 Sir John Guise Stadium, Port Moresby (N) 1–0 2016 OFC Nations Cup Adams 366 Sir John Guise Stadium, Port Moresby (N) 1–0 2016 OFC Nations Cup Wood 367 Sir John Guise Stadium, Port Moresby (N) 0–0 (4–2p) 2016 OFC Nations Cup 368 Nissan Stadium, Nashville (N) 1–2 Friendly Rojas 369 Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, Washington, D.C. (A) 1–1 Friendly Patterson 370 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 2–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Rojas (2) 371 Stade Yoshida, Koné (A) 0–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 372 Churchill Park, Lautoka (A) 2–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Rojas, Wood 373 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 2–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Thomas (2) 374 Windsor Park, Belfast (A) 0–1 Friendly 375 Traktor Stadium, Minsk (A) 0–1 Friendly 376 Krestovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg (N) 0–2 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup 377 Fisht Olympic Stadium, Sochi (N) 1–2 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup Wood 378 Krestovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg (N) 0–4 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup 379 North Harbour Stadium, Auckland (H) 6–1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Wood (3), Barbarouses, Thomas, McGlinchey 380 Lawson Tama Stadium, Honiara (A) 2–2 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Bevan, Aengari (o.g.) 381 Toyota Stadium, Toyota (A) 1–2 Kirin Challenge Cup Wood 382 Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington (H) 0–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 383 Estadio Nacional del Perú, Lima (A) 0–2 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification 384 Pinatar Arena, San Pedro del Pinatar (N) 0–1 Friendly 385 Mumbai Football Arena, Mumbai (N) 1–2 2018 Intercontinental Cup Singh — 386 Mumbai Football Arena, Mumbai (N) 1–0 2018 Intercontinental Cup Bevan — 387 Mumbai Football Arena, Mumbai (N) 2–1 2018 Intercontinental Cup De Jong, Dyer — 388 Aviva Stadium, Dublin (A) 1–3 Friendly McCowatt 389 LFF Stadium, Vilnius (A) 0–1 Friendly ;Notes ==Streaks== *Most wins in a row **5, 5 July 2002 – 14 July 2002 **5, 17 October 2007 – 10 September 2008 **5, 10 June 2012 – 16 October 2012 **5, 12 November 2015 – 8 June 2016 *Most matches without a loss **9, 10 June 2012 – 5 September 2013 *Most draws in a row **4, 15 June 2010 – 9 October 2010 *Most losses in a row **7, 15 July 1999 – 21 January 2000 **6, 8 June 2003 – 29 May 2004 *Most matches without a win **11, 5 June 2010 – 23 May 2012 **11, 9 September 2013 – 7 September 2015 ==Results by opposition== ==Results by year== Per Year Year Pld W D L GF GA GD 2000 11 5 2 4 11 7 +4 2001 7 4 0 3 20 10 +10 2002 7 5 0 2 25 7 +18 2003 6 0 1 5 3 17 –14 2004 5 3 0 2 17 5 +12 2005 1 0 0 1 0 1 –1 2006 8 3 1 4 8 14 –6 2007 6 3 1 2 10 13 –3 2008 3 2 0 1 6 3 +3 2009 10 2 3 5 9 17 –8 2010 9 1 4 4 6 12 –6 2011 3 0 1 2 1 7 –6 2012 13 8 3 2 27 14 +13 2013 7 3 1 3 8 12 –4 2014 5 0 2 3 4 10 –6 2015 3 1 1 1 2 2 0 2016 9 5 3 1 14 4 +10 2017 12 3 2 7 14 17 –3 2018 4 2 0 2 4 4 0 2019 2 0 0 2 1 4 –3 Cumulative* Year Pld W D L GF GA GD 2000 269 114 47 108 498 425 +73 2001 276 118 47 111 518 435 +83 2002 283 123 47 113 543 442 +101 2003 289 123 48 118 546 459 +87 2004 294 126 48 120 563 464 +99 2005 295 126 48 121 563 465 +98 2006 303 129 49 125 571 479 +92 2007 309 132 50 127 581 492 +89 2008 312 134 50 128 587 495 +92 2009 322 136 53 133 596 512 +84 2010 331 137 57 137 602 524 +78 2011 334 137 58 139 603 531 +72 2012 347 145 61 141 630 545 +85 2013 354 148 62 144 638 557 +81 2014 359 148 64 147 642 567 +75 2015 362 149 65 148 644 569 +75 2016 371 154 68 149 658 573 +85 2017 383 157 70 156 672 590 +82 2018 387 159 70 158 676 594 +82 2019 389 159 70 160 677 598 +79 *Cumulative table includes all results prior to 2000. ==See also== *New Zealand national football team *New Zealand at the FIFA World Cup *New Zealand at the FIFA Confederations Cup *New Zealand at the OFC Nations Cup ==References== 2000-19
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This timeline is a supplement of the main article Uyghur. Dealing with the centuries between 400 and 900 AD, it refers to a critical period in the cultural formation of the Uyghur nation, as they transitioned from a minor Turkic tribe to the Uyghur Khaganate. == Events leading to the formation of the Uyghur Khaganate== Date People Event Geopolitical Context 546 Bumin Pre- emptively strikes a planned Töle revolt Attempt of the vassal Turks to gain ascendancy over the vassal Gaoqu people 560 Muqan Annexes Töle tribes under a federal system Muqan demonstrates his qut by the submission of the Töle (i.e. the right of taxation over their livestock); resolves internal power struggle 565 Wu Chen-Di Civil war divides the Wei Kingdom Muqan demonstrates his qut by the submission of the Töle (i.e. the right of taxation over their livestock); resolves internal power struggle 572 Istämi Divides Muqan's realm between his rival successors: Taspar-Qağan rules in the central region, Istämi-Yabgu in the far-west, Shetu in the east and Jotan in the west Traditional power transfer from elder to younger brother, subsequently from youngest uncle to eldest nephew 575 Tardu Takes power in far-west region His father dies in Taraz 575 You-Zhou Qi dynasty collapses Qi = Eastern Wei, Rouran allies; Zhou = Western Wei, Turk allies 578 Taspar Repeatedly raids the Zhou Kingdom Under the influence of the Qi exiles 578 Wu-Di Gives Taspar 100,000 bales of silk and the Princess Zhou Tsienkien Marriage alliance prevents raids 578 Wu-Di Kidnaps Prince Kaozhou as he is hunting To eliminate rival to power 578 Taspar Takes no action against the Zhou Kingdom's violation of his power. Instead, he places 10,000 Turks as 'guests' in Zhou He has a secret agreement to trade the Prince Kaozhou for Princess Tsienkien. The lack of honor to a guest outrages the common people. This period shows the beginning of class separation and the movement of Turkic nobility into the Chinese cultural sphere. 580 Shang Sun Arrives with Zhou Tsienkien and befriends Shetu To collect information about the Turks for Zhou 581 Wen-Di At the death of Emperor Jing-Di, he seizes power as regent for the new Emperor who is still a child His dynastic claim is based on his daughter, the Emperor's Mother 581 Taspar ???Muqan Maybe as part of an agreement between Muqan and Taspar 581 Ishbara Qaghan Swearing he will attack Talopien to uphold tradition, he is the voice of conservative factions If tradition is followed, he will be the next Qağan 581 Änlo Taspar dies and the toy appoints Änlo To avoid conflict between the three conflicting claims of Tardu, Shetu and Talopien 581 Talopien Threatens Änlo He views himself as the legal Qağan because he has been given the title by the previous one 581 Änlo Cedes title to Shetu at Ötükän and takes title of second Qağan In exchange for protection, the empty title and to control the Tola Valley (Uyğur tribes) 582 Wen-Di Deposes Zhou Emperor and expels the 10,000 Turks from Changan To show his independence and to end the drain on the treasury 582 Shetu Forms a coalition force with Tardu, Jotan and Talopien To reinforce his position as Qağan and to avenge his wife's family 582 Wen-Di Sends ambassador Yuan Huei to recognize him as Qağan by presenting him with the symbolic wolf flag at Hami Tardu is upset that he was not made Qağan by the toy, so Wen-Di gives him diplomatic recognition which legitimizes his claim. He thereby acquires qut 582 Tardu Declares the far-west region as sovereign and separate with himself as Qağan The far-west region has de facto independence since the Istämi-Muqan era 583 Shetu Blames Talopien for the failures of the campaign Rivalry and the influence of Shang Sun 583 Talopien Joins Jotan and Boru in the west region. They are all opposed to Shetu's paranoia, assassination and tyranny west 583 Shetu Kills Talopien's family and burns his yurt in revenge Altay mountains 583 Tardu and Wen-Di Attack simultaneously with Khitan (Shetu's own vassals in the east) To block Shetu's power. The attack by his nominal vassals and allies erodes the credibility of Shetu, meaning he has lost qut 583 Shetu As he only controls the central region, it is hit by famine; he asks for Sui Imperial protection This act officially marks the end of his sovereignty, he is now a Chinese vassal 584 Talopien Takes control of east, central and west regions Talopien proves himself as the true Qağan by his qut 585 Wen-Di Renames Zhou Tsienkien as Sui Dai To make Shetu his vassal (son-in-law) because he now fears the growing power of Tardu and Talopien 585 Shetu Sends his son Kohoden as a hostage to Changan To seal the peace agreement 585 Talopien Defeats Tardu and takes over far-west region, now controlling all four regions Tardu no longer enjoys Sui Imperial support and is a rival to power that has to be eliminated as a threat 585 Tardu Flee to Sui protection Tardu no longer enjoys Sui Imperial support and is a rival to power that has to be eliminated as a threat 585 Tiele tribes Submit to Talopien He is strong enough to threaten them, therefore he has consolidated power/qut. 587 Shetu Dies while hunting Possible accident or an assassination 588 Chulo Captures Talopien Family vendetta, his older brother Shetu had been humiliated by this man. The Sui Empire supports this move to balance the growing power of Talopien 588 Nili Replaces Talopien as Qağan; Töle tribes revolt Try to regain lost independence in the chaos of the dynastic struggle 588 Chulo Dies fighting the Töle To reassert control over the tribes that had been vassal to Talopien 588 Tülan Takes power and returns to Mongolian Steppe All the rivals to power in the struggle for succession have been neutralized, so power reverts to the House of Shetu 589 Wen-Di Conquers Chen Kingdom, thus reunifying China ??? 590 Tardu Attacks Nili to regain the far-west region He is supported by Tülan who wants to see his last rival Nili eliminated. In effect, he recognizes the sovereignty of the far-west region 593 Tülan Stops paying taxes ??? 593 Sui Dai Plots with Nili to attack Sui Empire Revenge against Sui dynasty for overthrowing her family, the Zhou dynasty 593 Shang Sun Requests Tülan to kill Sui Dai, but he refuses To demonstrate he no longer is a vassal to the Sui 593 Shang Sun Offers Princess Anyi to Zhangar Khan if he will kill Sui Dai To create a rival to Tülan's power and thus restore a balance of power by creating another civil war 593 Tülan Suspects Zhangar of treason Zhangar has received so many gifts and visits from Chinese, this is tantamount to diplomatic recognition 594 Tülan Makes peace with Tardu Tardu has eliminated his rival; this act formally recognizes the independence of the far-west region from the Khanate 594 Shang sun Bribes an official of the toy and exposes Sui Dai plotting with Chinese (Chen government in exile) and Sogdians (with one of whom she is having an affair) To make the Tülan lose face in front of the toy to weaken his power, also to provide a pretext for killing the troublesome Sui Dai 594 Tülan Executes Sui Dai Under Turkic custom, adultery is punished by the death penalty 597 Zhangar Marries Sui Anyi and rebels against Tülan By marrying the Princess, he has a claim to sovereignty 597 Tülan Kills Zhangar's family and drives him to the Ordos Loop under Sui Imperial protection Asserts his authority 598 Tardu Defeats Nili, Chulo takes his place Asserts his authority 599 Tülan Killed in Töle revolt Töle tribes take advantage of the chaos to gain independence 600 Tardu Defeats Chulo and declares himself supreme Qağan A vacuum of power has been created by the loss of Zhangar, Chulo and Tülan 600 Chulo Takes Sui Imperial protection The Sui Empire needs him to balance the power of Tardu 600 Erkin Tegin Initiates diplomatic contacts with China This is the first official account of the Uyghur tribe, which at this time lived in the Tola valley with 10,000 yurts 601 Chang Sunsheng Creates an alliance with the Töle Beys including Erkin Tegin of the Uyghur tribe This is the first official account of the Uyghur tribe, which at this time lived in the Tola valley with 10,000 yurts 601 Tardu Attacks Changan As a warning to the Sui Empire not to interfere in the Turk's internal power struggles 601 Shang sun Poisons all the wells in the Gobi Desert Tardu's army is superior and cannot be defeated by conventional warfare 603 Erkin Tegin Töle tribes revolt against Tardu The Chinese are afraid of Tardu and must eliminate his base of power 603 Tardu Abdicates to Tibet ??? 603 Erkin Tegin Töle alliance dissolves in the aftermath of the revolt; three tribes come under Uyghur control (Bugut, Tongra and Bayirqu) The Uyghurs gained enough qut to pull in other tribes to the alliance 603 Zhangar Marries Sui Yicheng and assumes the title Qağan, but as a vassal to china Zhangar is the last of the vassal khans to China. He is particularly devoted and loyal 603 Chulo Assumes title Qağan in the far-west region, but as a vassal to China; rules from Tashkent and Kucha Since Tardu has been eliminated, power reverts to the House of Muqan 605 Sui Yang-Di Ascends the Dragon Throne ??? 609 Shipi Takes power after Zhangar ??? 609 Chang Sunsheng Replaced by Peichu ??? 609 Peichu Offers to support Shipi's brother Qağan and a Chinese Princess, but he refuses The traditional tactic of dividing power counter Shipi's growing strength 611 Chulo Attempts to extend his authority over the Töle By taxing their livestock 611 Töle Töle tribes revolt under Syr-Tardush drives out Chulo Uyghurs occupy second position in the alliance 611 Shekuei Takes power and restores House of Tardu ??? 615 Shipi Subjugates the Töle ??? 615 Shipi Stops paying taxes to the Sui Empire Asserts sovereignty 615 Peichu Lures Sogdian vizers to the city of Mai and kills them in a trap To keep them from exposing the Chinese plots to the Qağan 615 Shipi Attacks Sui Yang-Di Revenge for his treachery at Mai 615 Sui Yiching Lies to her husband that the Töle tribes are in revolt So he will leave, saving Sui Yang-Di from capture 615 Yang-Di Sui Empire begins civil war The humiliation of his defeat damages his prestige 616 Tang Taizong Captures Changan with support of Turks; he gains 20,000 horses and 5,000 cavalry in return for giving the rights to plunder all the gold and women in Changan ??? 618 Tang Taizong Places his father as Emperor of the Tang dynasty ??? 626 Tang Taizong Kills his brothers and becomes Emperor The Wu-men Gate incident 627 Khile Qagan Tries to tax the Töle to replace his horses that were killed during a summer snow ??? 627 Aynan Khan Initiates a Syr-Tardush lead revolt of Töle tribes against Khile-Qağan The Uyghurs again occupy second position under Pusa Ilteber 627 Aynan Khan Declares a Khanate at Otuken ??? 630 Taizong Attacks in coordination with Khitan and Töle, utterly defeating the Turks and taking Khile-Qaghan prisoner Tang-Töle alliance replaces Sui-Töle against the Turks 632 Tang Taizong Annexes all Tokharian city states as vassals Indirect Chinese rule of Tarim city states 640 Tang Taizong Kucha (Kutsi) rebels in alliance with Onoq ??? 640 Songtsen Gampo Unifies Tibet with Buddhism as the state religion ??? 645 Jubi Qağan Unifies Onoq ??? 646 Pusa (菩萨), son of Tejian (特健) Allies with Syr- Tardush to defeat Eastern Qaġanate He is granted with a Chinese title of prefect creating a legal precedent for leadership 646 Tumitu Ilteber (吐迷度) Assassinates Pusa and defeats the Syr-Tardush; declares a state at Otuken First Uyghur state; this becomes the precedent for all later claims for the right to rule. Moreover, he is a Chinese vassal paying a tax of furs 648 Tang Taizong Replaces all vassal Tokharian kings with Chinese officials under the governor-general in Kaochang; the Tarim Basin is now the western protectorate The Chinese are now directly rule the Tarim city states 648 Tumitu Ilteber Assassinated by nephew Wuhe, who is in turn assassinated by Chinese spies Wuhe is a Gokturk sympathizer and therefore an enemy of Chinese interests 648 Pojuan Ilteber (婆闰) Installed as new Khan; he becomes a loyal vassal of China Uyghurs now carry Chinese titles and work as mercenaries in the 'pacifed west' 650 ??? China captures Kashgar and Khotan ??? 650 Tang Taizong Dies, his son Kaozong creating a scandal by marrying Taizong's former concubine Zhou Wu-Mei By custom, Wu-Mei should have retired to a convent after her husband's death. This unusual marriage indicates she had an extramarital affair with Kaozong prior to Taizong's death 651 Holu Khan Unifies the Onoq and threatens China ??? 651 Pojuan Ilteber Defeats Korean rebellion The Uyghurs view the Chinese as both allies and kingmakers 651 ??? Arabs advance to Herat ??? 652 ??? Arabs sack Balkh, then return to Khorosan ??? 657 Pojuan Khan Leads Uyğur army and defeats Holu in the name of the Tang Empire Onoq power is broken, the Uyghurs ally with China to defeat the last remnants of their ancestral enemy, the Turks Chu valley 657 Pojuan Khan Killed during the battle of Goguryeo (高句丽) The Chinese break off diplomatic ties with Uyghur 659 Kaozong Creates 10 tribal states in Onoq territory of which each one is governed by a vassal khan The far-western region of the Turks is now subdued by China 659 Xuanzong China annexes Suyab and Tashkent, marking the maximum extent of Chinese power ??? 660 Gaozong Suffers stroke and delegates power to his wife Wu Zetian ??? 661 ??? Onoq and Tibet drive the Tang out of Tarim ??? 660 Tiele Revolt against China Tribute has not been paid 661 Pilatu Succeeds her brother as Ilteber ??? 621 Wu Zetian Suppresses revolt at Khangai ??? 663 Pilatu Uyghur power declines ??? 663 ??? Arabs invade Bactria ??? 663 ??? Tibet takes Vakhan, Gilit and Kashgar ??? 665 ??? Onoq enters revolt ??? 670 ??? Tibet seizes four garrisons with the Chinese army retreating to Turpan The Chinese divert their trade route north from Turpan to Beshbaliq, Suyab and Tashkent 679 ??? Tibet controls four garrisons ??? 680 Kutlug Declares Orkhon Khanate End of Tang Imperial control of Mongolian Steppe 681 Pro-China Tiele Escapes to Liangzhou They have lost qut and must flee to the steppe 682 Kutlug Reunites the 16 tribes Rise of Turk power 682 Tuchiachi Is defeated by Kutluk; the Uyghurs move to the Selenga valley The Uyghur lose sovereignty but not autonomy 683 Wu Zetian Takes the Dragon Throne This is a coup d'état 688 Kutlug Defeats Uyğurs ??? 690 Wu Zetian Seizes absolute power by appealing to Buddhist millennialism ??? 691 Kutlug Defeats Toquz-Oghuz ??? 692 Wu Zetian Recovers Karashahr and Kucha ??? 692 Kapğan Succeeds his brother as the new Qağan Traditional succession from older to younger brother 692 ??? Tang Imperial army retakes the four garrisons ??? 693 Kapğan Defeats Tang Imperial army ??? 694 Wu Zetian Recovers Khotan and Kashgar ??? 698 Kapğan Defeats Türğish at the battle of Bolchu near Lake Urungu This rendered the western steppe region vassal to the Orkhon Khanate 700 Bilgä shad Attacks Tangut Kingdom ??? 701 Tonyukuk-Ayguchy Captures Sogdiana This was a vassal of the Onoq to achieve total victory over his enemies 702 Kapğan Attacks Xia Kingdom ??? 703 ??? Turko-Tibetan alliance is formed, but fails to defeat Tang army ??? 703 ??? Onoq retakes Suyab ??? 705 Wu Zetian Abdicates to Zhongzong ??? 705 ??? Tibetan-Gandharan alliance is formed and drives the Arabs from Bactria ??? 705 Qutayba Appointed governor of Khorosan ??? 706 Qutayba Captures Bukhara ??? 707 Bukharan leader Asks Khapgan for military support against the Arabs ??? 708 Xuanzong Offers reward to three vassal tribes for the head of Kapğan ??? 710 Zhongzong Poisoned by his wife Empress Wei who has an affair with Wu Sansi ??? 710 Xuanzong Takes power with his aunt Princess Taiping (daughter of Empress Wu) ??? 710 Kyrgyz tribes Revolt and are defeated ??? 710 Qutayba Places Tugshada on the throne of Bukhara and Ghurek on the throne of Samarkand ??? 711 Turgish Khan Revolt begins ??? 711 Qarluk Revolt and are defeated in 714 ??? 712 Xuanzong Begins reign and kills Princess Taiping ??? 712 Qutayba Invades Bactria ??? 712 Samarkand leader Asks Khapgan for military support against the Arabs ??? 712 ??? Turks control Sogd ??? 712 King of Fargana Flees to Kucha under Chinese protection ??? 714 Izgil tribe Revolt and are defeated in 715 ??? 715 Toquz- Oguz tribe Revolt and are defeated in 716 (this revolt includes the Uyghur tribe) ??? 715 Qutayba Assassinated by his troops in the Fargana valley because he wishes to continue the campaign against the orders of the Caliph 715 King of Faragana Returns as a Chinese vassal ??? 715 King of Faragana Returns as a Chinese vassal ??? 716 Bayirqu tribe Revolt and are defeated, but a rouge warrior ambushes Kapğan and kills him and sends his head to Changan with envoy Ho Lingchüan (July 22, Tola river) ??? 716 Uyğur tribe Revolt with Qarluk and Toquz-oguz Although defeated they become autonomous vassals in the Selenga valley 716 Bilgä Kills Inel, Kapğan's whole family and all his officials Inel is not fit to rule, moreover, by Turk law the throne should pass to Bilgä 718 Bilgä Restores peace and ends all revolts ??? 720 Xuanzong Tries to attack Bilgä in coordination with Basmyl and Khitans, but fails, therefore accepting the terms of Bilgä's peace ??? 721 Xuanzong China controls Suyab, Kucha, Kashgar, Tashkent and Fargana ??? 721 Xuanzong Arabo-Turgish- Tibetan alliance defeats Chinese army; the Arabs take Faragana and the Turgish take Suyab ??? 721 ??? Tashkent becomes independent ??? 721 ??? Sogdo-Turgish alliance attacks Arabs ??? 725 Tonyukuk Dies ??? 727 Bilgä Refuses an anti- Tang alliance with the Tibetans ??? 728 ??? Sogdo-Turgish alliance liberates Sogd ??? 729 ??? Arabs control Bactria and Samarkand Turgish control of Sogd, Fargana and Suyab; China control of North Tarim and Tibet control South Tarim 731 Köl Tegin Dies ??? 734 Bilgä Poisoned by Buyruk Chor as part of a Chinese conspiracy ??? 736 ??? Sino-Arabian alliance is formed and defeats the Turgish at Suyab China annexes Suyab, while Arabs occupy Sogd 739 ??? Tibet allies with Gandhara China annexes Suyab, while Arabs occupy Sogd 739 Ghurek Reign ends ??? 742 Xuanzong Begins affair with Yang Gueifei and leaves power in the hands of An Rokhan ??? 744 Ozmish Khan Killed by Uyghur, Basmyl, Qarluk rebellion ??? 745 ??? Qarluk and Uyghur overthrow Basmyl Khan ??? 745 ??? Uyghur defeat Qarluk and declare a new Khanate at Otuken; the Qarluk move to the far-west region ??? 745 Abu Muslim Begins a Jihad in Sogd ??? 747 Bayan Chor Begins reign ??? 748 ??? Abbasid Caliphate begins ??? 750 Chabish of Tashkent and Ilkhshid of Fargana Begin a dispute; Chinese ally Ilkhshid and Turkish ally the Chabish send for help ??? 750 General Kao Hsienchih Sacks Tashkent after it surrenders, taking the Chabish and the Khan to be executed in Changan ??? 750 Son of Chabish Petitions governor Ziyad ibn Salih in Samarkand for revenge ??? 751 Abu Muslim Sends army at the request of Governor Salih, meeting the Kao Hsienchih at Talas ??? 755 Abu Muslim Assassinated ??? 755 An Rokhan Rebels against Xuanzong ??? 755 An Rokhan Captures Changan ??? 756 Xuanzong Abdicates and Yang Guifei is killed ??? 759 Bogu Khan Begins reign ??? 763 Bogu Khan Ends Ungluk Suyluk Topilingi (An Lushan) rebellion ??? == References == *. Category:Uyghurs Category:Turkic timelines
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"Justified & Ancient" is a song by British band The KLF. It was featured on their 1991 album, The White Room, but its origins date back to the duo's debut album, 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?). The song is best known for its remake that was released on 25 November 1991 as a pop-house single subtitled "Stand by The JAMs", with verses featuring the vocals of American country music singer Tammy Wynette. This version was an international hit, reaching number two on both the UK Singles Chart, and the US dance chart, number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and hitting number one in 18 countries. "Justified & Ancient (Stand by the JAMs)" was the final release by the KLF through retail channels before Drummond and Cauty quit the music business and retired the KLF name. ==Background== The KLF—King Boy D (Bill Drummond) and Rockman Rock (Jimmy Cauty)—began working together in 1987 as The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (The JAMs). The song title "Justified & Ancient" refers to this pseudonym. The JAMs took their name from a fictional subversive cult from the 1970s conspiratorial novels The Illuminatus! Trilogy. Just as the fictional JAMs made it their remit to propagate chaos and confusion, so too did the real JAMs and the KLF. Their attempts to subvert the music industry and other establishments were frequent, unconcealed and controversial. The song "Justified & Ancient" is a statement of identity and rebellious intent. Moreover, it deliberately understates this intent. In contrast to the provocative and abrasive lyrics of the JAMs' album 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?), on which "Justified & Ancient" first appeared, the song has a soft and innocuous tune, and quaint lyrics: "We don't want to upset the apple-cart, and we don't want to cause any harm, but if you don't like what we're going to do, you'd better not stop us 'cause we're coming through." ==Origins== The words and music of "Justified & Ancient" feature several times in the work of The KLF and The JAMs, including their first album and their last full-release single. The melody and one repeated lyrical verse of the song first appeared as part of "Hey Hey We Are Not The Monkees" from The JAMs' debut album, 1987: What the Fuck Is Going On?."Hey Hey We Are Not The Monkees" lyrics. All of the album's most prominent characteristics are notably absent in this part of "Hey Hey...", which has female vocals (as opposed to the rapping of The JAMs' Scottish co-founder Bill Drummond), inoffensive lyrics, and it is free from plagiarised samples of other artists' recordings. Also in contrast, "Hey Hey" itself begins with a minute's worth of typical human sexual intercourse noises, arranged as a rhythm. It progresses into a cryptic and bleak spoken verse from Drummond and descends into a cacophony of samples from "The Monkees Theme". An abrupt cut takes the track into the gentle "Justified & Ancient" vocal line, which is syncopated similarly to African music and is at first a cappella. In 1990, the recording re-appeared on The KLF's ambient album, Chill Out, in a part of the composition titled "Justified & Ancient Seems a Long Time Ago". This time the song provides a complement rather than a contrast to the mood of the album, which is passive and contains various authentic ethnic sounds. In March 1991, a full song called "Justified & Ancient" appeared on The KLF's album The White Room. Sung by Black Steel, the song begins and ends the album. This version retains the lyrics and melody, adds an additional verse, and full song structure and instrumentation is present, in an arrangement akin to a lullaby. Where the song starts the album, it is interrupted at the point "...they're coming through" by urgent "Mu Mu!" samples and blazing machine guns that open the house track "What Time Is Love?". At the end of the mellower second half of the album, the song is presented in its entirety. =="Stand by The JAMs" featuring Tammy Wynette== In November 1991, the single "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" was released, featuring the lead vocals of country music singer Tammy Wynette, introduced in the sleevenotes as "the first lady of country". Drummond flew to Nashville to personally produce the recording of Wynette's vocals. "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" was an upbeat and funky version of the song, the subtitle referencing Tammy Wynette's signature song "Stand by Your Man", and the inclusion of subtle pedal steel guitar also referencing Wynette's country origins. The "Justified & Ancient" single marked a departure from The KLF's previous "Stadium House" trilogy of hits, which were driven by hooks and riffs and emulated a live performance by using sampled crowd noise. In contrast, the riffs, samples and rap of "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" were secondary to its conventional song structure of verses and choruses. Still, a riff borrowed from Jimi Hendrix' "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)" runs through the choruses. A longer mix of this arrangement, "Justified & Ancient (All Bound for Mu Mu Land)", dispensed with the pedal steel and substituted Wynette's lead vocals with those of Maxine Harvey, a regular contributor to The KLF's material. It also contained an additional verse making references to various aspects of The KLF's mythology. Some commentators were suspicious that the surprising pairing of Wynette with The KLF ("perhaps the oddest modern-day pop pairing" according to The Independent) was a marketing ploy. Other commentators pointed to The KLF member Drummond's fondness for country music as motivating the collaboration, or to the fact a period of almost exactly 23 yearsDrummond and Cauty's extensive referencing of The Illuminatus! Trilogy included the overt and covert placement of the number 23 throughout their output and activities. See The KLF article for more information. separated the first airings of "Stand by Your Man" and "... (Stand by The JAMs)". "I really don't know why they chose me. I was apprehensive at first, but I'm really excited with the way it's all turned out", Wynette said. "Mu Mu Land looks a lot more interesting than Tennessee.... But I wouldn't want to live there." "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" was the final single to be released commercially by The KLF through retail channels, following the US release of "America: What Time Is Love?" and followed only by a limited edition mail order release of a re- recording of "3 a.m. Eternal" featuring Extreme Noise Terror. ===Reviews and reaction=== The single reached number two on the UK Singles Chart, being held off the number one spot for New Year's Day 1992 (not Christmas 1991 as is often erroneously claimed) by the re-release of Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody".McAleer, David, 'Top 40 Charts', Virgin Books, Pgs 638-639, 2009 "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" also reached number 11 in the US Billboard Hot 100, (returning Wynette to the top-40 on that chart for the first time since 1969), number three on the Australian Singles Chart,ARIA chart data cited in: number one in Sweden, and number one on the Austrian Top 40. The UK music press received the release generally positively: it was "single of the week" in New Musical Express (NME) and Melody Maker."Justified & Ancient" review, Melody Maker, 7 December 1991. NME noted the "beautiful ethnic chorus lines! Ice Cream Vans! F--king awful lyrics!" [sic], and found that although the single "...lacks the sheer frantic rush of 'Last Train to Trancentral' ..., The KLF model a spiritual crown which elevates them several tower blocks above their amateur peers." Johnny Dee from Smash Hits commented, "Very weirdy and very ravey, as we've come to expect from the odd bods in the snoods, but this "anthem" is given an extra tang by the vocals of country star, Tammy Wynette". In the US, Larry Flick from Billboard commented, "The decision to enlist country music queen Tammy Wynette for the lead vocal was a stroke of pure genius. Her distinctive style provides a weird-but-appealing contrast to the British dance duo's electro/hip-hop instrumental noodlings. Sort of sounds like the theme to a space-age spaghetti western. A sure-fire club smash, look for this gem to reignite top 40 interest pronto." In 1995, a celebrity panel working for The Times compiled a list of 90 songs that represented the decade in music so far, with no more than one song per band allowed. "Justified & Ancient" was The KLF's entry (at number 44), with the lyrics described as "delightful nonsense"."90 from the 90s", The Times (London), 23 December 1995, Features p1. Splendid Magazine echoed this, but even more eulogistically. "I still maintain that this song deserves a place among the greatest artworks of the 20th century. Not only is it a brilliant, gleefully daft, wholly nonsensical, perfectly ludicrous pop song with a chorus to kill for, not only is it a slyly subversive comment on the cynically repulsive old-artist-collaborates-with-young-artist phenomenon at the expense of itself, but, self-referential irony and all, it is and always will be globe-straddling pop music incarnate. Were a decision reached that all pop music was deemed unfit for human consumption and had to be destroyed, save for one song to keep us fickle masses in choruses, this would have to be the one, folks."Harrison, A., The White Room review, Splendid Magazine (link ) In 2006, Slant Magazine ranked the song at number 79 on their list of the "100 Greatest Dance Songs". Following their collaboration with Tammy Wynette, and the subsequent appearance of Glenn Hughes on "America: What Time Is Love?", The KLF were, according to mixer Mark "Spike" Stent, swamped by phone calls from fading music stars, including Neil Sedaka and Sweet, who were eager to work with The KLF to revive their careers.Mark Stent, in This side-effect of The KLF's collaborations was at odds with their aim to subvert the music industry, as noted by GQ magazine in 1995. GQ published a retrospective of The KLF's career and interview with Bill Drummond, and suggested that such collaborations were a contributory factor in The KLF's abandonment of music: "[Bill Drummond's] distaste for the machinery of pop was at war with the creative populism of KLF", and "KLF had become bona fide pop miracle workers... It was all spinning way out of Drummond's control". ===Themes=== Promotional material and antics for "Stand by The JAMs" used iconography of ice cream and an ice cream van, while the lyrics included the phrase "Make mine a '99' ". A working title for the "Justified & Ancient" project was "The Ice Cream Men". Several months prior to the single's release, The KLF appeared at the Liverpool Festival of Comedy, where they sold ice creams to the audience while, on stage, figures swathen in grey and yellow robes chanted "justified...ancient...". The magazine reported that this appearance was the day after the KLF's burning of a wicker-man and the making of their film Waiting on the Isle of Jura; the group onstage were reportedly the same journalists and members of The KLF's entourage who had been transported to Jura for that performance. The ice cream van, introduced upon release of The JAMs single "It's Grim Up North", superseded the JAMsMobile (aka Ford Timelord) as The KLF's vehicle of choice. The van appeared with The KLF on stage when they 'performed' "Justified & Ancient" on Top of the Pops, with King Boy D (Drummond) and Rockman Rock (Cauty) dressed as ice cream cones and Tammy Wynette appearing behind them on a large screen. The "ethnic chorus line" to which NME referred is the refrain "All bound for Mu Mu land", a reference to the Lost Continent of Mu, which is identified with the fictional land Lemuria in The Illuminatus! Trilogy novels. Indeed, at the end of the "Justified & Ancient" music video, The KLF exit in a submarine, while being waved off by the rest of the cast, before the video finishes with a snippet from the "Doctorin' the Tardis" music video featuring the superimposed credit- like text saying "The KLF would like to thank 'THE FIVE' for making all of this impossible". ==Personnel== ===The White Room version=== * Bill Drummond – production, performance, programming * Jimmy Cauty – production, performance, programming * Black Steel – vocals, bass guitar * Nick Coler – keyboards and programming * Tony Thorpe – break Source: JAMS LP006 sleeve notes ===Single versions=== The recordings were, according to the "Justified & Ancient" sleevenotes, "exhumed, explored and exploited by The KLF", with Jimmy Cauty playing electric guitar, bass, drums and keyboard. Additional contributors included: * Tammy Wynette – lead vocals "Stand by The JAMs" * Maxine Harvey – lead vocals "All Bound for Mu Mu Land", lead chorus "Stand by The JAMs" * Ricardo da Force – rap * Scott Piering – narration * Rusty Pence – pedal steel "Stand by The JAMs" * Tony Thorpe – 'groove consultant' * Mark 'Spike' Stent – mixing "Stand by The JAMs", "All Bound for Mu Mu Land" Source: KLF 99CD sleeve notes ==Formats and track listings== "Justified & Ancient" was given an international release as a single on 25 November 1991. In each case, all tracks are versions or mixes of this song, as tabulated below. The versions subtitled "(Make Mine a '99')" and "(Let Them Eat Ice Cream)" are deep house remixes of the single arrangement by Tony Thorpe, the former using Maxine Harvey's vocal and the latter mainly voxless. Format (and countries) Track number Track number Track number Track number Track number Format (and countries) 1 2 3 4 5 7-inch single, cassette single, CD single (Japan) s W 12-inch single (UK, world) A m s L 12-inch single (US) A m S L 12-inch single (Scandinavia) A M s L CD single (US) s S W A L CD single (France) A m s L W CD single (Belgium) s W A m L CD single (elsewhere) s W A M L Key *s - "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" – 3:37 *S - "Justified & Ancient (Stand by The JAMs)" (12-inch Version) – 5:31 *A - "Justified & Ancient (All Bound for Mu Mu Land)" – 7:45 *L - "Justified & Ancient (Let Them Eat Ice Cream)" – 6:31 *m - "Justified & Ancient (Make Mine a '99')" (Edit) – 3:17 *M - "Justified & Ancient (Make Mine a '99')" – 5:52 *W - "Justified & Ancient (The White Room Version)" – 5:04 ==Charts and sales== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (1991–1992) Peak position Denmark (IFPI) 1 Europe (Eurochart Hot 100) 2 Europe (European Dance Radio) 16 Finland (Suomen virallinen lista) 1 Greece (IFPI) 2 Portugal (AFP) 8 Spain (AFYVE) 5 UK Dance (Music Week) 11 US Hot Dance Singles Sales (Billboard) 3 US Cash Box Top 100 8 ===Year-end charts=== Chart (1991) Position UK Singles (OCC) 27 Chart (1992) Position Australia (ARIA) 39 Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40) 6 Belgium (Ultratop) 18 Canada Top Singles (RPM) 69 Canada Dance/Urban (RPM) 4 Europe (Eurochart Hot 100) 9 Germany (Official German Charts) 21 Netherlands (Dutch Top 40) 25 Netherlands (Single Top 100) 32 New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ) 15 Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade) 11 UK Singles (OCC) 81 US Billboard Hot 100 86 === Decade-end charts === Decade-end chart performance for "Justified & Ancient" Chart (1990s) Position Canada (Nielsen SoundScan) 32 ===Sales and certifications=== ==References== ==External links== * Justified And Ancient 8:18 video clip. Archived * Justified And Ancient 3:47 with Maxine Harvey and Ricardo da Force live. * KLF - the making of Justified & Ancient and America: What time is love? Documentary by Robert Wallace. Category:1991 songs Category:1991 singles Category:KLF Communications singles Category:The KLF songs Category:Number-one singles in Austria Category:Number- one singles in Denmark Category:Number-one singles in Finland Category:Number- one singles in New Zealand Category:Number-one singles in Sweden Category:Song recordings produced by the KLF Category:Songs written by Bill Drummond Category:Songs written by Jimmy Cauty Category:Tammy Wynette songs
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William Alexander Lester III (born February 6, 1961) is an American semi- retired professional racing driver. He last competed part-time in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series, driving the No. 17 Ford F-150 for David Gilliland Racing. Lester previously competed full-time in the Truck Series from 2002 to midway through 2007. Lester was the NASCAR's only full-time African-American driver during that time. After that, he moved to sports car racing, competing in the Rolex Sports Car Series from 2007 to 2012. Lester had also competed part-time in the same series from 1998 to 2001. He also made two NASCAR Cup Series starts in 2006 and one Busch Series (now Xfinity) start in 1999. Since his retirement from driving, Lester has worked as a member of the NASCAR National Motorsports Appeals Panel. ==Racing career== ===Early career=== He began racing in the road course circuits, running in the SCCA and IMSA series. He made his IMSA debut in 1989 at Sears Point International Raceway, qualifying ninth and finishing 12th in a Chevrolet Camaro. He also picked up a victory that year in an endurance race at Sears Point. In 1990, he began running the SCCA, running an unsponsored Oldsmobile Cutlass for Rocketsports at Portland, and one race for Tom Gloy at Mid-Ohio. He did not race professionally again until 1996, running SCCA events at Watkins Glen, Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, Sears Point, and Reno, Nevada. He competed in the 24 Hours of Daytona in 1998 and 1999, finishing fifth and tenth, respectively. ===NASCAR=== In 1999, he became the first African-American to run a Busch Series race, when he ran at Watkins Glen in the No. 8 Dura Lube Chevrolet Monte Carlo owned by Bobby Hillin Jr. He started 24th and ran near a top-ten most of the day before an accident relegated him back to 21st. The next season, he made his Craftsman Truck debut at Portland, starting 31st and finishing 24th in the No. 23 Red Line Oil truck owned by Team 23 Racing. He also competed against Bobby Norfleet in that race, marking the only time in NASCAR two African-Americans have competed in the same race. He ran five races the next season in the No. 4 for Bobby Hamilton Racing, his best finish an eighteenth at Phoenix International Raceway. In 2002, he ran in the Craftsman Truck series full-time for Hamilton. While he did not finish in the top-ten, he had sixteen finishes between 11th-18th, leading to a seventeenth-place points finish and runner-up to Brendan Gaughan for NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series Rookie of the Year. The next season, he grabbed his first career pole at Lowe's Motor Speedway and had a tenth-place run at Kansas Speedway, garnering a 14th-place finish in the championship standings. He switched over to Bill Davis Racing in 2004. He had a best finish of tenth and finished 22nd in points. In 2005, he won two consecutive poles, and had his first top-five finishes. Lester raced in his first Nextel Cup race in the Golden Corral 500 at Atlanta Motor Speedway, driving the No. 23 Waste Management Dodge Charger for Davis in 2006. The race was supposed to be run on March 19, but was postponed for a day due to rain. He qualified 19th, becoming the first African-American to make a Cup race since 1986, and the sixth in series history. He finished 38th, six laps down. He ran another race that season at Michigan, finishing 32nd. He later DNQed at California after spinning in qualifying. After failing to finish in the top-ten in 2006, Lester departed Davis to drive the No. 15 Billy Ballew Motorsports Chevy. His best finish was an eighth at Kentucky, when he stepped out of the truck due to sponsor problems. After he was unable to find another ride in NASCAR, he left in 2008 to return to sports car racing. On February 26, 2021, Lester announced on NASCAR Race Hub that he would be coming out of retirement to compete in the Truck Series race at his home track of Atlanta, which was also the same track where he made his Cup Series debut at in 2006. The team was revealed as David Gilliland Racing on March 12, with local Ford dealerships and Camping World as his sponsors. He finished 36th. ===Return to sports cars=== thumb|left|2011 Rolex Sports Car Series GT car In 2008, Lester drove the No. 3 Riley Daytona Prototype for Southard Motorsports in the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series, partnering with Shane Lewis. He moved to Orbit Racing for 2009, finishing 3rd at the summer Daytona race. The next year, Lester moved to a new team in Starworks Motorsport driving the No. 7 BMW Riley for the full season, finishing 17th in points. For 2011, Lester moved to the GT category with Autohaus Motorsports and their Chevrolet Camaro team. On May 14, 2011, Lester made sports car history by becoming the first African-American driver to win in any Grand-Am division. Fittingly, Lester won at the Virginia International Raceway, located close to the home of NASCAR's first African-American winner, Wendell Scott. ==Personal life== In 1984, he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in EECS from the University of California, Berkeley.Biography of William Alexander Lester III, TheHistorymakers.org, March 10, 2018, Retrieved June 24, 2020 Fresh out of college, he worked at Hewlett-Packard for 15 years before deciding to focus full-time on auto racing.Former NASCAR Driver Discusses Competing as a Black Man, NPR Morning Edition, June 24, 2020, Retrieved June 24, 2020 Lester lives in Windermere, Florida with his wife Cheryl, and their sons William Alexander IV (Alex) and Austin Richard. He published an autobiography, Winning in Reverse, in February 2021. ==Motorsports career results== ===NASCAR=== (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) ====Nextel Cup Series==== NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Pts Ref 2006 Bill Davis Racing 23 Dodge DAY CAL LVS ATL BRI MAR TEX PHO TAL RCH DAR CLT DOV POC MCH SON DAY CHI NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI CAL RCH NHA DOV KAN TAL CLT MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM 68th 67 ====Busch Series==== NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results NASCAR Busch Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Pts Ref 1999 Robert Hayes Racing 8 Chevy DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR TEX NSV BRI TAL CAL NHA RCH NZH CLT DOV SBO GLN MLW MYB PPR GTY IRP MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV CLT CAR MEM PHO HOM 111th 100 ====Camping World Truck Series==== NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results NASCAR Camping World Truck Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pts Ref 2000 Team 23 Racing 23 Chevy DAY HOM PHO MMR MAR PIR GTY MEM PPR EVG TEX KEN GLN MLW NHA NZH MCH IRP NSV CIC RCH DOV TEX CAL 86th 122 2001 Bobby Hamilton Racing 4 Dodge DAY HOM MMR MAR GTY DAR PPR DOV TEX MEM MLW KAN KEN NHA IRP NSH CIC NZH RCH SBO TEX LVS PHO CAL 59th 304 2002 Bobby Hamilton Racing 8 Dodge DAY DAR MAR GTY PPR DOV TEX MEM MLW KAN KEN NHA MCH IRP NSH RCH TEX SBO LVS CAL PHO HOM 17th 2320 2003 Bobby Hamilton Racing 8 Dodge DAY DAR MMR MAR CLT DOV TEX MEM MLW KAN KEN GTW MCH IRP NSH BRI RCH NHA CAL LVS SBO TEX MAR PHO HOM 14th 2712 2004 Bill Davis Racing 22 Toyota DAY ATL MAR MFD CLT DOV TEX MEM MLW KAN KEN GTW MCH IRP NSH BRI RCH NHA LVS CAL TEX MAR PHO DAR HOM 22nd 2400 2005 Bill Davis Racing 22 Toyota DAY CAL ATL MAR GTY MFD CLT DOV TEX MCH MLW KAN KEN MEM IRP NSH BRI RCH NHA LVS MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM 17th 2672 2006 Bill Davis Racing 22 Toyota DAY CAL ATL MAR GTY CLT MFD DOV TEX MCH MLW KAN KEN MEM IRP NSH BRI NHA LVS TAL MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM 20th 2252 2007 Billy Ballew Motorsports 15 Chevy DAY CAL ATL MAR KAN CLT MFD DOV TEX MCH MLW MEM KEN IRP NSH BRI GTW NHA LVS TAL MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM 23rd 1550 2021 David Gilliland Racing 17 Ford DAY DAY LVS ATL BRI RCH KAN DAR COA CLT TEX NSH POC KNX GLN GTW DAR BRI LVS TAL MAR PHO 89th 1 Season still in progress Ineligible for series points ==References== ==External links== * * Category:Living people Category:1961 births Category:Racing drivers from Washington, D.C. Category:24 Hours of Daytona drivers Category:Rolex Sports Car Series drivers Category:NASCAR drivers Category:Trans-Am Series drivers Category:UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni Category:African-American racing drivers Category:21st-century African-American people Category:20th- century African-American sportspeople Category:Starworks Motorsport drivers
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Gregory Horror Show (stylized as GREGORY HORROR SHOW) is a Japanese CGI anime television series created by Naomi Iwata and televised by Asahi National Broadcasting Company. ==Synopsis== The first series, "The Nightmare Begins", is a set of 25 stories about a businessman arriving at the hotel after taking a train home from work. He encounters the mysterious owner of the hotel, an old mouse known as Gregory, who suggests that he stay awhile in Room 205. With the help of various guests residing in the hotel, Gregory gradually erodes away his individuality, denouncing the first guest as nothing more than a small part of himself and confronting him on his workaholism. The man soon becomes drawn into a bizarre series of events taking place within Gregory House as he tries desperately to escape from this purgatory. Though he escapes back to his wife and son, he finds reality too boring, and returns voluntarily. It is heavily implied that he becomes an empty shell, Haniwa Salaryman. The second series, "The Second Guest", is similarly set with 25 stories, except this time the main victim is a woman who has just taken a taxi home from her best friend's wedding ceremony. She has had to endure many failed relationships and careers. It is also implied that her old flame was once the first guest, but their relationship went disastrously wrong. Due to her insanity from the degrading events, she starts a fire, burning down the house - however, the Gregory family survive, and welcome her into their family. The third series, "The Last Train", is set with 26 stories during a bizarre train ride that Gregory embarks upon. It differs from the previous two series in that there is no guest, nor is the hotel the central setting. Instead, Gregory himself is the protagonist, and the series takes place on the previously mentioned train as Gregory tries to escape from his own home and his role as the innkeeper. However, unlike the previous two protagonists, he fails, and the train only takes him back to Gregory House. The fourth series, "The Bloody Karte", is a set of 12 stories about Catherine working in a mysterious hospital. ==Characters== ; :Voiced by: Chafurin (Japanese); Dave Pettitt (English) :Gregory is the Innkeeper of the hotel and also the narrator, a slightly creepy old anthropomorphic rat with an obsession for keeping guests at his hotel. He loves to mess with one's mind and has a habit of appearing out of nowhere. It is strongly implied that Gregory is a manifestation of the hidden dreams and desires that people suppress, and his hotel the same. Although how several different people can manifest the exact same apparition is unknown, and it is highly probable that Gregory is in fact a spirit of dreams and desires, instead of a single person's manifestation. Gregory's aims seem unclear in both the game and the series, but he seems to be subservient to his mother, who is thoroughly and unambiguously wicked, unlike Gregory, consuming wayward souls to remain young. Gregory himself is more morally ambiguous, since he never overtly harms the guest, though he never makes any attempt to prevent harm coming to them. This may be because everyone in the hotel is effectively immortal, however. While enigmatic, he is, if nothing else, polite and sincere. To the unseen guest of the first series, he always refers to him as "My friend" and to female guest of the second series, as "My dear". One thing is clear though, Gregory is indestructible and inescapable. Even if the guest tries to flee the purgatory of his hotel, or attempt to destroy him, they'll still somehow return, and Gregory will still be there, keeping their room ready for them. In the third series, Gregory is more unambiguously sympathetic, trying to escape from his role as the keeper of Gregory House and enduring as many strange and bizarre events as either of the previous protagonists. Like them, he ultimately fails to escape, suggesting that even he is a prisoner in his strange world despite his ostensible mastery and ownership of it. In the game, a player can overhear him talking about how they would not be in any danger if they simply accepted the purgatory of Gregory House, but several times in both the series and the game, Gregory is seen to be an antagonistic force, putting his guests, and even himself, quite literally through hell. :In the exclusive Gregory Gallery Tour series, Gregory seems to have vast knowledge about the guests in the hotel, as he gives a tour to an unseen audience. He also seems to have the ability to impersonate each of their personalities and certain parts of their appearances. As is typical for a man his age, Gregory also has a secret, although it is not a secret among the other residents of the hotel - a liking for dirty magazines. He often reads them when he thinks he is alone; in the game, his secret place for reading the magazines is the storeroom. ; :Voiced by: Erina Yamazaki (Japanese); Brett Bauer (English) :He is Gregory's grandson, a mischievous young mouse who loves to play pranks on anyone he can find. He drives Gregory to despair and distraction. In the videogame, he is the one who allowed the guests to steal bottled souls from Gregory's Mama. He hates being alone, so he hopes the wandering guest in the game will stay forever so that they can get into all kinds of trouble together. ; :Voiced by: Nao Nagasawa (Japanese); Onalea Gilbertson (English) :He is a zombie cat who once lived with a family that stayed in Gregory's Hotel. Once a glossy beautiful cat, it escaped from a normal world and ended up at the hotel where Gregory stitched up its eyes, mouth and ears as act of revenge, possibly against cats in general due to their inter-species conflict. His room is nothing more than a prison cell, revealing the true nature of this strange place. :He is the character who seems the most supportive of the protagonist in both the game and the series, as he is constantly giving them hints on how to battle their inner demons. More than anything, Neko wants the guest to escape this hell-like place. He also attempts to kill Gregory and his mother during the Great Fire of Gregory House (during the series, this fire is caused by him). He ends up turning to ash, when Gregory House is burned down, however the attempt failed when Gregory's sister reincarnated the hotel along with the other guests being resurrected. Neko Zombie however is killed off and never to be seen again. :He is a manifestation of a broken heart, stitched together by anger and misery. ; :Voiced by: Ayana Inoue (Japanese, TV series), Minako Ichiki (Japanese, Bloody Karte); Elinor Holt (English) :She is a pink lizard nurse with a giant syringe. She has an obsessive desire to steal blood from guests, and searches for any excuse she can find to do so. One suck of her syringe appears to drain almost all of a person's blood. She easily falls in love with people with nice veins, but she is also shown to take blood for no reason other than personal pleasure, suggesting that it may be fetishistic in nature. She has had relationships with many characters throughout the house, although all of them have ended badly - usually for the other person. ; :Voiced by: Naochika Hayashida (Japanese); Brendan Hunter (English) :A set of anthropomorphic scales balanced between love and money. He passes judgment on all of the troubled souls of the hotel, and can see through anyone's lies. His skills at determining the truth are slightly questionable. When he's not judging others, he usually sings to himself about himself ("Do you know who I am? They call me Judgement Boy!"). ; :Voiced by: Naochika Hayashida (Japanese); Steve Olson (English) :He is a solid gold Judgment boy and the boss of all other judgment boys. In the game, he trains all the other judgment boys for the final judgment and is the last guest to visit the hotel. In Bloody Karte, it is revealed that he isn't really gold; he's just gold-plated. ; :Voiced by: Ryuzaburo Otomo (Japanese); Byron Close (English) :He is the chef of Gregory Hotel that looks very much like a dark-faced candle with glowing red eyes and a giant knife that is said to cleave elephant bones like butter. He often butchers/poisons the guests that don't eat or refuse his meals (even if they are just not hungry), and then serves them to other guests. He speaks with a dark, sinister, evil voice. :He is apparently very particular and passionate about his food preparation, and refuses to eat anyone's cooking but his own. He hates smokers/smoking because "They are the enemy of cuisine!" (he hates that it eventually numbs the taste buds). The candle on his head is almost always seen burning because it somewhat acts as his life spark - if it's blown out, he stops moving and his eyes stop glowing, and when it is re-lit, he continues as if nothing had happened. ; :Voiced by: Naoko Matsui (Japanese); Angie Beers (English) :She is a poor girl looking forever for her doll. At first, she looks harmless but when approached or picked up, she becomes violent and turns blue. She herself is in fact the doll she is looking for. She has a good friendship with Cactus Gunman. Her name may have once been 'Katie'. Her only friend was a doll which was her constant companion, but one day, her parents decided to dispose of the doll. The girl searched endlessly for her lost doll, until she happened upon the place known as Gregory House, where she became a permanent resident. ; :Voiced by: Hitoshi Takagi (Japanese); Jonathan Love (English) :He is a father dog with bandaged body and his skull partly cloven by a saber which does not affect him at all apart from a headache. He is a proud hypochondriac with a loving son. ; :Voiced by: Natsumi Sakuma (Japanese); Sean Broadhurst (English) :He is Mummy Papa's son, a smaller dog in dungarees and bandages with his skull partly cloven by an axe. He is also a proud hypochondriac like his father. As he suffers from constant migraines, Mummy Dog is very empathetic to those who look or feel poorly, by getting them help. Unfortunately, that medical attention usually comes in the form of Catherine. ; :Voiced by: Yoshiyuki Kono (Japanese); Roger Rhodes (English) :He is a cactus in bandit clothes and sombrero who loves to challenge guests into fights. He was once a leader of revolutionaries and is infamous for his terrible aim. He is also quite the macho man, playing tough while any real danger would easily scare him away. ; :Voiced by: Mikako Sato (Japanese); Carol-Anne Day (English) :She is Cactus Gunman's younger sister. She is fiercer than her brother and uses a lasso to steal other's clothes, confident of their lack of fashion sense. ; :Voiced by: Yoko Asada (Japanese); Mariette Sluyter (English) :He is a small red-faced child with a roulette wheel on his head. He loves to play games and challenges guests to test their luck, usually ending in terrible mishaps and accidents for the players. For this reason, Gregory absolutely hates Roulette Boy as he's always haplessly landing on unlucky squares. ; :Voiced by: Masashi Hirose (Japanese); Mike Shepherd (English) :He is the God of Death who visits guests in their dreams with his scythe. He seems to be manic-depressive, considering the fact that in the anime he speaks darkly with a grim voice, while in the game he has a funky and cheery presence. He wears a Swedish flag on his head in reference to the Ingmar Bergman movie The Seventh Seal. Death personally intervenes with the first guest, enabling him to evade Gregory, but forewarns that he may never truly escape for reality is no paradise, but a dull monotonous cycle. ; :It is a skeletal floating fish able to swim in the air and through walls. It has a TV for a face and projects the memories of any guests nearby passively. However, because all guests at Gregory Hotel are uncertain of themselves, the TV shows distorted images. In the anime, there are multiple TV Fish, including one with a Gregory TV satellite. ; :Voiced by: Katsumi Suzuki (Japanese); Meredith Taylor-Parry (English) :She is a green frog residing in the hotel. . She appears before people from a white mist, telling people of their fortunes, never seen without her booth or crystal ball. All of her fortunes come true, but how long it takes before it does can very greatly. ; :Voiced by: Jin Yamanoi (Japanese); Jonathan Love (English) :He is a man with the face of a clock residing in the hotel. He has the ability to control time, although he has grown old and can't travel that far in time anymore. He usually drinks his problems away. He's a very civil and jolly fellow. However, if he catches anyone he even remotely suspects of picking on his child, My Son, he flies into a fit of time-warping rage. ; :Voiced by: Maiko Ito (Japanese); Mike Thiessen (English) :He is the son of Clock Master, who is currently learning the art of time control. He greatly admires his father. ; :Voiced by: (Japanese); Roger Rhodes (English) :He is a skeleton character that resides under the cemetery in front of Gregory Hotel. "Drinks his cares away" with wine until he can find a body to replace his own fragile form. He is weak to wind and water because his powdery bones can easily blow away or melt in the rain. ; / :Voiced by: Rei Sakuma (Japanese); Chris Simms (English) :She is a canine with an angelic appearance that invites you to be near her. She has somewhat of a split personality, however, and frequently changes into the Devil Dog and invites you to hell. Gregory, being the embodiment of eternal Purgatory, has a negative relationship with her, as she is the manifestation of Heaven and Hell. She acts like a teenager, arguing with Gregory about how he is always cleaning when she wants to watch football. ==Video game== The anime was adapted into a PlayStation 2 game by Capcom Production Studio 3 and published by Capcom on August 7, 2003 in Japan and December 15, 2003 in Europe. The general premise of the game involves the player (who can choose to be male or female) trying to escape from Gregory House, a deranged hotel run by the old mouse Gregory. The game involves having to steal bottled souls from twelve guests, and returning them to Death before going to sleep in Room 101. In the game, Neko Zombie helps explain the gameplay and introduces the player to mental health. Mental health acts like a health gauge of the player's mental fortitude. The player must maintain a good level of mental health by sleeping, reading books, or using special "herb" items reminiscent of the Resident Evil game series. If the player's mental health completely runs out, then the character goes insane, and becomes a permanent guest at Gregory House. While the bizarre cube-esque graphics (which were a staple of the 'anime') give the game an unusual look for a survival horror game, there is still an element of tension and unease because the player must creep around the hotel, avoiding detection by the various guests. If the player gets caught by one of them, then the guest will attack them by forcing them to watch some 'Horror Shows', a bizarre vision of violence set in a traditional Japanese theatre in which the guest will inflict severe harm upon you. The game features a goldmine of Easter eggs and many backstory which either reference or expand upon certain events of the series. For example, in the 'Bloody Karte' arc, Catherine develops an attraction for Hell's Chef; in the game, the player can find a signed trading card of him in the psychotic nurse's treatment room. Also, if a player takes the time to follow the guests around the building at various points in the game, they will often divulge interesting tidbits about the hotel and each other. For example, if the player follows Gregory around early in the game, a huge amount of how Neko Zombie came to be the way he is can be learned. ==Mobile game== Milky Cartoon and Unframe, Inc. launched a mobile game based on the show in October 2018 for Android and iOS, titled Gregory Horror Show: Lost Qualia. So far, the game is only available in the Japanese app store. An English version has yet to appear in the United States and Europe. Gregory Horror Show: Lost Qualia is a Gacha- based RPG mobile game that combines the elements of dungeon crawling with a Gacha card system. Lost Qualia uses the original 3D cube-esque graphics and style that the series is known for. The main storyline tells of the player showing up at Gregory House, where Gregory the manager himself meets the player and tells him about a previous guest known only as "that man". Gregory further explains that the guests delusional beliefs has gotten far too powerful, and that he is able to take over the hotel, turn it into a dungeon, and distort the surreal world around it. Gregory wants the player to help him and the other guests on a quest to take back Gregory House and defeat the man, who is mad with delusional power. The main quest also takes the player and company outside the hotel to the cactus sibling's homeland, (seen in volume 3) which is called Cactus Land. The quest also takes the player & co. to Roulette boy's casino. Like the PS2 video game, The player has a hotel room that serves as the central hub when they finish the tutorial or start up the game. They are able to customize their room with items they get either in a quest or in the Gacha cards from the fortune teller, level up their characters, and manage their Gacha cards and deck to us in a quest. Occasionally and randomly, Gregory, Neko Zombie, Catherine, Hell's Chef, and other playable characters will drop by to visit the player in their room talking to them and offer their support in a quest where the player is able to optionally choose them and play as them in any level. If the player has a playable character unlocked from either in a quest or found in Gacha card pack they can engage in conversation with the other visiting characters in the player's room, usually giving their commentary on the player, the current situation, and chat among themselves based on relationships they have with the other characters, or different topics. The game has the player, Gregory, or other playable characters going through a labyrinth, where they battle through hostile mages and souls that lurk in the dungeons and can appear from anywhere. Using melee attacks, throwable or ranged items, or using Gacha cards to regain health, buff their attacks or speed, special abilities, and using "horror show" Gacha cards to even the odds with one or many hostile souls surrounding them. The objective is for the player to survive and reach the goal to complete the level, sometimes having to climb stairs to the next floor to get there. Optionally, the player can set the game in autoplay (similar to an idle RPG) where the AI takes over for the player on certain parts of the game or just taping the move button on-screen has the playable character temporarily moving through a corridor and resuming control back to the Player when they are in an area with more room. While reaching the goal is important, it also vital for the player to look for Kinko safes around the dungeon for items such as skull gems, soul energy, or gacha cards for the possibility of getting new customize hotel room items or unlocking a character to keep permanently and play as in a quest. In addition to the main story quest, there are two types of quest offered in the game: event quests that can sometimes be holiday-based events, and special events that are added in the game during updates and have their own storylines. for example, the "Gregory Quest" events tell about the player, Gregory, Neko Zombie, and the other guests getting sucked up by TV fish and entering into a world based on fantasy RPG video games and became RPG characters based on character classes, each with their own quest in each Gregory Quest event. Depending on certain quest events and levels, both will automatically have the player play as specific characters as they have specific quests in the event storyline, or Ranked quests which are competitive survival quests where the player have to fight through hostile souls to reach the highest position of the leaderboard. Depending on the first, second, and third position when a ranking quest ends, the winning player earns a trophy to display in their hotel room. ==Manga== A manga adaptation called Gregory Horror Show: Another World by Suzuki Sanami started in the November 1, 2007 issue of Weekly Morning magazine; it was then published as a graphic novel and released in Japan, on September 22, 2008. It follows Tooru Takenozuka, a 22-year-old freeter who comes to the city to follow his dreams. Thanks to his status he is unable to find an apartment to live in until a seedy real estate agent introduces him to Gregory House. He ends up in Room 404 and endures the nightmarish surroundings and residents. Over the course of chapters, it is revealed that Takenozuka's very form and spirit, is in a state of constant flux. He is, in reality, Tooru is a 94-year-old man in the year 2078, though part of him could never accept the fact that he grew beyond his twenties without accomplishing anything extraordinary or wonderful with his life. All of his dreams and ambitions went unfulfilled. As Gregory is a collector of the rare and unusual, he takes an instant liking to Takenozuka. The man battles between choosing his dreams and the reality that he has responsibilities as a father. Though he manages to escape Gregory, like all the protagonists, he eventually wanders back, becoming a permanent guest who refuses to abandon his dreams. ==Mystery Holiday== The creator's website announced in 2016 that a new Gregory Show was to be produced. Little is known about it other than a plot synopsis and some redesigns. It seems that the main character will be a kid named Hiroshi who wanders into Gregory House on a whim hoping it will grant his wishes but has to stop Gregory's evil plan to destroy the world. No release date has been announced. ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1999 anime television series debuts Category:2003 Japanese television series endings Category:Japanese animated horror television series Category:Japanese computer-animated television series Category:Geneon USA Category:Horror anime and manga Category:Dark comedy anime and manga Category:Television shows adapted into video games Category:Fictional rodents Category:Supernatural anime and manga Category:Psychological horror anime and manga
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Pavel Valerievich Datsyuk (, ; born 20 July 1978) is a Russian former professional ice hockey player. Datsyuk was nicknamed the "Magic Man" honoring his incredible stickhandling and creativity with the puck. From 2001 to 2016, he played for the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League (NHL). In 2017, Datsyuk was named one of the "100 Greatest NHL Players" in history, and was the only active player outside of the NHL at the time of announcement. Datsyuk won the Stanley Cup in 2002 and 2008 with the Red Wings, and the Gagarin Cup in 2017 with SKA Saint Petersburg. He was part of the Russia men's national ice hockey team at the Olympic Games in 2002, 2006, 2010 and was team captain in 2014 and 2018. With his gold medal win at the 2018 Olympics, Datsyuk joined the Triple Gold Club. Datsyuk won the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the NHL's top defensive forward in the 2007–08, 2008–09 and 2009–10 NHL season. He also won four consecutive Lady Byng Memorial Trophies, from 2006 to 2009, awarded for performance and sportsmanship. He was nominated for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player following the 2008–09 season. Datsyuk is well known for his elite defensive play and game-changing offensive skills. He was also a leading player for the Russian hockey team at multiple Olympics and World Cups. ==Early years== Datsyuk was born in Sverdlovsk of the then-Soviet Union. His parents have called him by his short name "Pasha" from an early age. His childhood had more than its fair share of difficulties, especially at the age of 16, when his mother died. While Datsyuk displayed above-average hockey skills, he was often overlooked by scouts because of his smaller size. He began playing for the farm club of Dynamo Yekaterinburg in the mid-1990s, though he seemed headed for an undistinguished career until noted Olympic trainer Vladimir Krikunov began coaching the team. The boy "with the twitchy walk" caught the eye of Krikunov, but not on the ice. Instead, Datsyuk excelled on the soccer field, where his anticipation, vision and intelligence were more apparent. Under Krikunov, Datsyuk evolved into a particularly efficient two-way player, and he began to draw wider attention among Russian hockey fans. Despite his early successes, however, he went undrafted in the 1996 and 1997 NHL drafts. ==Playing career== ===Early play in Russia=== Datsyuk was first noticed by Detroit Red Wings Director of European Scouting Håkan Andersson in the summer of 1997–98. Andersson was in Moscow to scout defenseman Dmitri Kalinin, but the one who caught his eye was Datsyuk, described as "this little guy on the other team." Andersson made another trip to see Datsyuk and would have gone a third time, though his flight was canceled due to a storm. A scout from the Calgary Flames was scheduled to fly on the plane as well, and as a result of the storm Andersson believes he was the only NHL scout to have seen Datsyuk play prior to the 1998 NHL Entry Draft, when the Red Wings drafted him 171st overall. ===Detroit Red Wings=== ====2001–2005: Early years==== When Datsyuk began his NHL career for the Red Wings, he was mentored by Soviet stars Igor Larionov and Sergei Fedorov, as well as Detroit captain Steve Yzerman. He was put on a line with Brett Hull and Boyd Devereaux and had a moderately productive first year. The length and difficulty of the NHL season forced him to sit out a number of games at the end of the year in preparation for the Stanley Cup playoffs. He contributed three goals and three assists to the Red Wings' 2002 Stanley Cup run. 260px|left|thumb|Datsyuk warms up before a game in 2008 Expectations were high for Datsyuk's second season, particularly with the addition of another highly touted prospect to the team, Henrik Zetterberg. Zetterberg replaced Boyd Devereaux on the Datsyuk–Hull line, and the famous version of the "Two Kids and an Old Goat Line" was born. He played only 64 games due to a knee injury but ended up with 51 points for the season. His playoff performance was disappointing, however, the same as the entire Red Wings team; Detroit was swept by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the first round, and Datsyuk was held pointless. The departure of Sergei Fedorov in the 2003 off-season made room for Datsyuk to rise to prominence on the Red Wings. He took full advantage of his elevated ice time, where his playmaking skills earned him a spot in the 2004 NHL All-Star Game. In the 2004 playoffs, he had no goals and six assists through 12 games before Detroit was eliminated in the second round by the Calgary Flames. Datsyuk became a restricted free agent during the 2004–05 off- season but could not reach a deal with the Red Wings despite repeated statements by his agent, Gary Greenstin, indicating his desire to stay in Detroit. He chose not to take the salary dispute to arbitration, and instead played with Dynamo Moscow during the 2004–05 NHL lockout. On 4 September 2005, Datsyuk then signed a one-year contract with Avangard Omsk of the Russian Superleague (RSL), where Dynamo Moscow matched the offer two days later, retaining the player. On 19 September 2005, the day the arbitration committee of the RSL was set to determine which club had Datsyuk's rights, Datsyuk agreed to a two-year deal with the Red Wings for a total of US$7.8 million. ====2005–2010: Ascent to stardom==== During the 2005–06 season, Datsyuk's high level of play, combined with his sportsmanship (just 22 penalty minutes for the entire season), won him the Lady Byng Trophy, the first of four consecutive awards. Datsyuk also earned a spot on the Russian national team for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. During the 2006–07 season, Datsyuk debuted Reebok's new hockey stick, with holes bored into the shaft to make it more aerodynamic, dubbed the 9KO. He completed the season matching his previous campaign's total of 87 points. Prior to the beginning of the playoffs, on 6 April 2007, Datsyuk signed a seven-year, US$46.9 million contract extension with the Red Wings. He then helped Detroit advance to the Western Conference Finals against the eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Anaheim Ducks, contributing 16 points in 18 games. 200px|right|thumb|Datsyuk hoisting the Stanley Cup in 2008 In 2007–08, Datsyuk was voted by NHL fans, along with teammates Nicklas Lidström and Henrik Zetterberg, to start for the Western Conference in the 2008 All-Star Game at Philips Arena in Atlanta. He went on to have a career year, scoring a team-high 97 points in 82 games while also leading all Red Wings forwards in blocked shots. In leading the team in scoring, he joined Ted Lindsay, Gordie Howe and Steve Yzerman as the only players in franchise history to do so in three consecutive seasons. Entering into the playoffs, Datsyuk scored his first career NHL hat-trick on 12 May 2008, in a 5–2 win over the Dallas Stars in Game 3 of the Western Conference Finals, en route to a meeting in the Finals with the Pittsburgh Penguins. In Game 6 of the series, Datsyuk recorded two assists in a 3–2 win to clinch the team's 11th Stanley Cup title and its fourth in 11 years. Having led the NHL in 2007–08 with a plus-minus of +41 and 144 takeaways (58 more than Mike Modano's second-best total of 86), Datsyuk was awarded the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the League' best defensive forward. With just 20 penalty minutes, he also won the Lady Byng Trophy. In voting for the Selke, Datsyuk received 537 points (43 first place votes) while John Madden of the New Jersey Devils received 447 points and Datsyuk's linemate Henrik Zetterberg received 425 points. In voting for the Lady Byng, Datsyuk received 985 points (75 first place votes). In addition, Datsyuk became the first NHL player to win the Lady Byng three consecutive times in over 70 years, since Frank Boucher of the New York Rangers won from 1933 to 1935. Datsyuk and Ron Francis are the only players to have been awarded both the Selke and Lady Byng trophies during their careers. Datsyuk was selected to his third NHL All-Star Game in 2009, but due to a hip injury, he did not participate. However, as per a newly formed League policy stating players must demonstrate injury by missing at least one game prior to the All-Star Game, Datsyuk was suspended one game, along with teammate Nicklas Lidström, for not attending. Datsyuk finished the 2008–09 season with 97 points (32 goals and 65 assists), matching his career high. He also won the Frank J. Selke Trophy, beating out the Philadelphia Flyers' Mike Richards and the Vancouver Canucks' Ryan Kesler, and won the Lady Byng for the fourth consecutive season.Red Wings' Pavel Datsyuk wins Selke, Lady Byng; Zdeno Chara ends Nicklas Lidstrom's Norris run. Mlive.com. 18 June 2009. Retrieved on 1 January 2012. Datsyuk also received a nomination for the Best NHL Player Award at the ESPYs, but lost to the Pittsburgh Penguins' Sidney Crosby. Datsyuk finished with his lowest end-of-season point total since the lockout in the 2009–10 season, scoring 70 points in 82 games. As a result of early season injuries to sniper Johan Franzén, center Valtteri Filppula and defenceman Niklas Kronwall, the Red Wings struggled to find consistency. However, a strong finish escalated the team from ninth place in the Western Conference in February to fifth place, and another 100-point season. Datsyuk scored the first two goals in Game 7 of the first round against the Phoenix Coyotes, including a breakaway deke on Ilya Bryzgalov, that sent the Wings to the second round for the fourth consecutive playoff season. The Red Wings, however, lost in five games to the San Jose Sharks. ====2010–2016: Final years in Detroit==== thumb|left|200px|Datsyuk playing for CSKA during the 2012 NHL Lockout Datsyuk achieved a Gordie Howe hat trick on the opening night of the 2010–11 season against the Anaheim Ducks with a goal, an assist and a fight, which came against Corey Perry. Datsyuk was yet again impressive in the 2011 playoffs, leading his team with 15 points in 11 games. As the Red Wings fell behind 3–0 to the San Jose Sharks in the second round (which also happened the previous year), Datsyuk almost led his team back from the deficit to win the series; a Game 5-winning assist to Tomas Holmström's goal, a Game 6-winning assist to Valtteri Filppula's goal and a Game 7 late backhand goal highlighted Datsyuk's heroics in an eventual losing effort. During the entirety of the 2011 pre-season, Datsyuk wore jersey number 24 as a tribute to former teammate Ruslan Salei, who perished on 7 September 2011, in the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash, along with 43 others. Datsyuk was an early-season candidate for the Hart Memorial Trophy, awarded to the League MVP, until a knee injury in February forced the Red Wings into a slump. The team dropped from first place in February to fifth at the end of the season, where they drew the Nashville Predators in the first round, losing the series four games to one. Datsyuk finished the season with 67 points in 70 games for the regular season, and was also named to the 2012 NHL All-Star Game in Ottawa. As the NHL entered its second lockout in eight years in 2012–13, Datsyuk followed other prominent NHL players, such as Alexander Ovechkin and Evgeni Malkin, in playing overseas; he signed with CSKA Moscow of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) in September. Datsyuk tallied 36 points in 31 games. When play resumed in January 2013, Datsyuk returned to the Red Wings and managed to score 49 points in 47 games. Detroit would make it to the second round of the 2013 playoffs before being defeated by the eventual champions, the Chicago Blackhawks, in seven games via an overtime goal by Brent Seabrook. The Red Wings lost the series despite being ahead at one point three games to one. Later in the 2013 off-season, Datsyuk signed a three-year extension to stay with Detroit. On 14 February 2016, Datsyuk became the sixth Red Wing player to reach the 900 point milestone, and the fifth Russian player to do so. Datsyuk was named the First Star of the Week for the week ending 15 February 2016. He shared the league lead with five goals and tied for second overall with seven points in four games to help lead the Red Wings to seven out of a possible eight standings points. On 18 June 2016, Datsyuk announced that he was leaving Detroit to play in Russia, ending his 14-year career with the Red Wings. He left the Wings having won two Stanley Cups (2002 and 2008), four consecutive Lady Byng trophies (2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009), 953 games played, and 918 points. He was the last remaining member of the Wings' 2002 Stanley Cup Championship team. On 24 June 2016, the Red Wings traded Datsyuk's contract to the Arizona Coyotes along with the 16th overall pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft, in exchange for the 20th overall pick, the 53rd overall pick, and Joe Vitale in order for the Red Wings to clear salary cap space. ===Return to Russia=== ====SKA Saint Petersburg: 2016–2019==== On 8 July 2016, Datsyuk signed a two-year contract with powerhouse SKA Saint Petersburg of the KHL. During the 2016–17 season, Datsyuk recorded 12 goals and 22 assists in 44 regular season games, and helped lead SKA Saint Petersburg to the Gagarin Cup in his first season back in the KHL. During the 2017–18 season, Datsyuk recorded eight goals and 27 assists in 37 regular season games. On 17 April 2018, Datsyuk signed a one-year contract extension with SKA Saint Petersburg. He was named "Male Athlete of the Year" in the nomination "Pride of Russia" by the Ministry of Sport of Russia, leaving behind runner Sergey Shubenkov and cross-country skier Alexander Bolshunov.Церемония награждения лауреатов Национальной спортивной премии за 2018 год ====Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg: 2019–2021==== Following completion of the 2018–19 season, his third with SKA, Datsyuk left the club as a free agent following the conclusion of his contract. On 5 June 2019, despite light speculation of a possible reunion with the Red Wings, Datsyuk opted to continue in the KHL, returning to play in his hometown with Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg on a one-year contract. On 10 July 2020, Datsyuk extended with Avtomobilist for another one-year contract. He retired in 2021. ==Personal life== At the age of 18, Datsyuk met his future wife Svetlana in Sverdlovsk. They married three years later, and had a daughter named Elizabeth in 2004. They divorced in 2010. Datsyuk got married for a second time in 2012; his new wife is named Maria. On 23 April 2014, she gave birth to his second child, a daughter named Vasilisa. His third child, a son named Pavel Jr., was born in February 2017. He is a Russian Orthodox Christian.Pavel Datsyuk, asked about Russia's anti-gay law: 'I'm an orthodox, and that says it all' ==Career achievements== ===International=== * Olympic gold medal – 2018 * World Championship gold medal – 2012 * World Championship best forward – 2010 * World Championship All-Star team – 2010 * Named captain of the Russia men's national ice hockey team for the 2014 Winter Olympics * Named captain of the Olympic Athletes from Russia men's ice hockey team for the 2018 Winter Olympics * Olympic All-Star team – 2018 ===NHL=== *2-time Stanley Cup champion – 2002, 2008 *NHL Second All-Star team – 2009 *Selected to the NHL All-Star Game – 2004, 2008, 2009*, 2012 *Played in the NHL YoungStars Game – 2002 *Lady Byng Memorial Trophy – 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 *Frank J. Selke Trophy – 2008, 2009, 2010 *NHL Plus-Minus Award – 2008 *NHL Offensive Player of the Month – December 2003 *Carhartt "Hardest Working" Player of the Month – December 2007 *2010–11 NHL Players Poll: Hardest to Take the Puck Off of; Cleanest Player. *2011–12 NHL Players Poll: Smartest Player; Most Difficult to Play Against; Hardest to Take the Puck From; Most Difficult to Stop; Cleanest Player; Toughest Forward to Play Against. *Kharlamov Trophy – 2011, 2013: Voted Best Russian NHL Player by Russian NHL Players *Selected as one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players (2017) * did not attend ===KHL=== *Gagarin Cup champion – 2017 *2-time KHL All-Star – 2013, 2017 *Sergey Gimayev Prize (top veteran player) – 2021 ==Career statistics== ===Regular season and playoffs=== Regular season Playoffs Season Team League GP G A Pts PIM GP G A Pts PIM 1994–95 SKA Avtomobilist–2 Yekaterinburg RUS.2 8 0 1 1 4 — — — — — 1995–96 SKA Avtomobilist–2 Yekaterinburg RUS.2 44 8 9 17 8 — — — — — 1996–97 Spartak Yekaterinburg RSL 18 2 2 4 4 — — — — — 1996–97 SKA Yekaterinburg RUS.3 7 3 3 6 2 — — — — — 1997–98 Dinamo–Energija Yekaterinburg RSL 24 3 4 7 4 — — — — — 1998–99 Dinamo–Energija Yekaterinburg RUS.2 13 9 8 17 2 — — — — — 1998–99 Dinamo–Energija–2 Yekaterinburg RUS.3 10 14 14 28 4 — — — — — 1999–2000 Dinamo–Energija Yekaterinburg RSL 15 1 3 4 4 — — — — — 2000–01 Ak Bars Kazan RSL 42 9 19 28 12 4 0 1 1 2 2001–02 Detroit Red Wings NHL 70 11 24 35 4 21 3 3 6 2 2002–03 Detroit Red Wings NHL 64 12 39 51 16 4 0 0 0 0 2003–04 Detroit Red Wings NHL 75 30 38 68 35 12 0 6 6 2 2004–05 Dynamo Moscow RSL 47 15 17 32 16 10 6 3 9 4 2005–06 Detroit Red Wings NHL 75 28 59 87 22 5 0 3 3 0 2006–07 Detroit Red Wings NHL 79 27 60 87 20 18 8 8 16 8 2007–08 Detroit Red Wings NHL 82 31 66 97 20 22 10 13 23 6 2008–09 Detroit Red Wings NHL 81 32 65 97 22 16 1 8 9 5 2009–10 Detroit Red Wings NHL 80 27 43 70 18 12 6 7 13 8 2010–11 Detroit Red Wings NHL 56 23 36 59 15 11 4 11 15 8 2011–12 Detroit Red Wings NHL 70 19 48 67 14 5 1 2 3 2 2012–13 CSKA Moscow KHL 31 11 25 36 4 — — — — — 2012–13 Detroit Red Wings NHL 47 15 34 49 14 14 3 6 9 4 2013–14 Detroit Red Wings NHL 45 17 20 37 6 5 3 2 5 0 2014–15 Detroit Red Wings NHL 63 26 39 65 8 7 3 2 5 2 2015–16 Detroit Red Wings NHL 66 16 33 49 14 5 0 0 0 4 2016–17 SKA Saint Petersburg KHL 44 12 22 34 14 7 3 5 8 27 2017–18 SKA Saint Petersburg KHL 37 8 27 35 8 15 4 3 7 0 2018–19 SKA Saint Petersburg KHL 54 12 30 42 6 12 1 6 7 4 2019–20 Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg KHL 43 5 17 22 10 4 2 2 4 2 2020–21 Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg KHL 51 12 23 35 10 5 1 2 3 0 RSL totals 146 30 45 75 40 14 6 4 10 6 NHL totals 953 314 604 918 228 157 42 71 113 55 KHL totals 260 60 144 204 52 43 11 18 29 33 ===International=== Year Team Event Result GP G A Pts PIM 2001 Russia WC 6th 7 0 4 4 0 2002 Russia OG 6 1 2 3 0 2003 Russia WC 7th 7 1 4 5 0 2004 Russia WCH 5th 4 1 0 1 0 2005 Russia WC 9 3 4 7 0 2006 Russia OG 4th 8 1 7 8 10 2010 Russia OG 6th 4 1 2 3 2 2010 Russia WC 6 6 1 7 0 2012 Russia WC 10 3 4 7 2 2014 Russia OG 5th 5 2 4 6 0 2016 Russia WC 10 1 10 11 0 2016 Russia WCH 4th 2 0 2 2 0 2018 OAR OG 6 0 6 6 0 2018 Russia WC 6th 8 2 8 10 2 Senior totals 92 22 58 80 16 ==References== ==External links== * Official Site * * Pavel Datsyuk in Russian Hockey Players Guide * Pavel Datsyuk: Intellectual might of the Red Machine Category:1978 births Category:Living people Category:Ak Bars Kazan players Category:Avtomobilist Yekaterinburg players Category:HC CSKA Moscow players Category:Detroit Red Wings draft picks Category:Detroit Red Wings players Category:HC Dynamo Moscow players Category:Frank Selke Trophy winners Category:Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics Category:Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics Category:Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics Category:Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics Category:Ice hockey players at the 2018 Winter Olympics Category:Lady Byng Memorial Trophy winners Category:Medalists at the 2002 Winter Olympics Category:Medalists at the 2018 Winter Olympics Category:National Hockey League All-Stars Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Russia Category:Olympic gold medalists for Olympic Athletes from Russia Category:Olympic ice hockey players for Russia Category:Olympic medalists in ice hockey Category:Russian expatriate ice hockey people Category:Russian expatriate sportspeople in the United States Category:Russian ice hockey centres Category:SKA Saint Petersburg players Category:Ice hockey people from Yekaterinburg Category:Stanley Cup champions Category:Triple Gold Club Category:Russian people of Ukrainian descent Category:Expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
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Barney Aaron (21 November 1800 at Aldgate - 11 July 1859 in Whitechapel, London, England) was an English bare-knuckle boxer. Aaron, the father of Hall of Famer Young Barney Aaron, began boxing in 1819, and became a leading lightweight contender in the 1820s, arguably the top-rated lightweight of the era in England.Roberts, James, and Skutt, Alexander,Boxing Register, (2006) International Boxing Hall of Fame, McBooks Press, Ithaca, New York, pg. 14 Known as The Star of the East, he was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2001. == Ascending the lightweight ranks, 1819–1823 == Aaron's earliest victory was against the far more experienced William Connelly, whom he beat in sixteen rounds and thirty minutes in 1819. One of his first losses was against the stronger and heavier Manny Lyons, who caused Aaron to quit from exhaustion after 70 grueling rounds, though Aaron soon avenged the loss in a fifty-minute rematch victory. His wins between 1823-24 against Ned Stockton, Lenney, Frank Redmond, and Peter Warren earned him a reputation as one of the best lightweights in England. In his 6 May 1823 bout with Ned Stockton, Aaron won convincingly in an important 40-round contest at Blindlow Heath in Sussex. Alhough Lenney, his next opponent, appeared game and made a noble effort, he had little chance against Aaron, who dominated and won a decision in eleven rounds at Harpenden Common on 5 August 1823. Each boxer took £25 for their efforts.Had little chance against Aaron in "Third Fight", The Ipswich Journal, Ipswich, Suffolk, England, pg. 2, 9 August 1823 In a rematch in November at Moulsey Hurst, the Bristol Mercury admitted that both boxers showed a great deal of "science" in their display, but that Aaron took most of the rounds and proved the better fighter. Drawing more attention and a larger crowd, the purse was £50 for each boxer."Battle Between Two Lightweights", The Bristol Mercury and Daily Post, Bristol, England, pg. 1, 17 November 1823 === Major win against Peter Warren, 1824 === His victory over the taller Peter Warren on 6 April 1824 in Colbrook, England was decisive and Aaron clearly led the fighting in the last fifteen of the twenty-nine rounds. In the first, Aaron caught Warren's head under his arm and hit him in the mouth, a move then known as "fibbing" and clearly illegal in today's boxing, governed by Marquess of Queensberry Rules. In the second and strongly in the fifth, Aaron threw Warren, a move legal under Broughton's Rules, and in the seventh, Aaron achieved a knock down. In the tenth, Warren caught Aaron around the neck with his left, and hit him repeatedly with his right, though Aaron quickly escaped. Exhausted and struggling, Warren was thrown down heavily in the thirteenth. After leading the second half of the match, in the 29th Aaron sent Warren reeling to the ground from a blow to the head that resulted in a knockout. London's Morning Chronicle wrote that "Barney has shown himself to be one of the best of his weight", though the reporter considered Warren to have the greater science and ring craft in his boxing. His victory over Warren cemented Aaron's claim as the top English lightweight contender."Fight Between Barney Aaron and Peter Warren", The Morning Chronicle, London, Greater London, England, pg. 4, 7 April 1824 == Boxing decline 1824–1834 == === Arthur Matthewson, 1824 === Aaron lost a fierce 57 round bout to Arthur Matthewson on 21 June 1824 at a ring near Colbrook, England for the impressive sum of £100 a side. Barney was said to weigh slightly over 140 pounds to Matthewson's 135 and had a two inch advantage in height. Aaron's chief second, Abraham "Abby" Belasco, and his financial backer Mr. Solomon accompanied him to the fight via coach. A major London newspaper, The Observer noted that Aaron's Jewish supporters were a majority of the crowd, comprising around sixty percent, but referred to them using the ethnic slur Sheenies. Aaron led in the early betting 5-4. The Observer clearly viewed the contest as a battle between Jew and Christian, though it admitted the Jewish supporters who favored Aaron did so on account of his "strength, his courage, and unwitting perseverance" and noted that in the close early rounds, Aaron's overzealous Jewish supporters were taking the rather unrealistic odds of 40-1. In the 17th, Aaron was floored by a blow from Matthewson that ended the round. The majority of the early rounds saw no clear advantage to either boxer, but as late as the 42nd through 49th, Aaron seemed to take a clear lead. In the 47th, Aaron got Matthewson in a headlock and hit him repeatedly, a tactic known as "chancery", though Matthewson recovered quickly. As the tide turned in the 50th through 56th, Aaron received severe blows to the body and head, silencing Barney's Jewish supporters. Aaron was finally knocked out in the 59th by a severe blow to the neck that threw him to the ground and left him senseless for a period of several minutes. Touting a common anti-Semitic stereotype, the Observer implied that unlike Aaron, Matthewson had more than purely pecuniary or financial motives for his win, and noted that in their disappointment over Aaron's loss, his Jewish followers acted like dogs, not reasoning human beings. In a contrasting salute to the character of Aaron, The Observer noted that Aaron "fought with great courage and firmness", and if not for Matthewson's final blow in the 57th, may have won the bout."Boxing, Two Great Fights", The Morning Post, London, Greater London, pg. 3, 22 June 1824Jews may have made up the majority of the crowd and late fight details in "Pugilism", The Observer, London, Greater London, England, pg. 2, 28 June 1824 upright=.5|left|thumb|Dick Curtis === Dick Curtis, and Frank Redmond === In a downward spiral on 27 February 1827, Aaron lost to the well known English opponent Dick Curtis in fifty minutes on a stage in Andover, England. Though Arron stood to profit from the £100 purse, Curtis was a threatening opponent, and though slightly shorter, he was an accomplished boxer, two years younger, and had easily defeated the skilled Peter Warren in four previous contests.100 pounds a side in "Sporting Correspondence", The Era, London, Greater London, 10 December 1848 As expected, Curtis was favored in the opening betting at 6-4. Aaron fared well in the first three rounds, but the momentum slowly turned and by the fifth he got far worse in a vicious exchange where his face was clearly injured. In the ninth round, only fifty minutes into the contest, Curtis floored Aaron with a blow that reflected "his whole force", on Barney's throat knocking him out and ending the match."Dick Curtis and Barney Aaron", The Morning Chronicle, London, Greater London, England, pg. 4, 28 February 1827"Singular Conflagrations", The Observer, London, Greater, England, pg. 1, 5 March 1827 upright=.4|right|thumb|Harry Broome Aaron enjoyed his last decisive win, and took £50 for a 42 round victory against Frank Redmond on 23 October 1827, near St. Albans, England. In the 22nd and 23rd, the exhausted Redmond was down, and in the remaining rounds, despite his opponent's speed and skill, Aaron's strength prevailed, and Redmond's seconds threw in the towel in the 42nd round."Barney Aaron and Frank Redmond", The Morning Chronicle, London, Greater London, England, pg. 3, 24 October 1827 His last fight was a loss to Tom Smith, a Sailor seven years younger, on 1 April 1834 for £50 a side. Aaron lost the twenty round bout at Greenstreet Green, Kent that may have been attended by as many as 1000 people, a very impressive turnout for a boxing match in that era. The Morning Chronicle noted that "Barney fought with great bravery, but his day has gone by and like the worn out post horse, he can no longer answer to the whip"."Easter Sports", The Morning Chronicle, Greater, London, England, pg. 4, 2 April 1834 On 16 March 1840, Aaron performed in an exhibition at the prestigious National Baths on Westminster Road in London. Also appearing were Deaf Smith, Peter Reid, Owen Smith and Tom Cribb."Manly Sports", The Morning Chronicle, London, Greater London, England, pg. 1, 14 March`1840 On 1 March 1846, Aaron acted as Master of Ceremonies for a benefit given for future English champion Harry Broome that included sparring by Broome, his brother Johnny, Joe Rowe and Johnny Walker."Broome's Benefit", The Era, London, Greater London, England, pg. 11, 8 March 1846 == Retirement careers == === Support for Lionel Rothschild === upright=.75|left|thumb|Boxer Abey Belasco, 1828 upright=.5|right|thumb|Lionel Rothschild in later life Showing his support for the London working class and members of his own religion during the election of August 1847, Aaron and fellow Jewish boxer Aby Belasco led a lightly armed band of protestors with bludgeons patrolling and protecting the streets of London's East end in support of the election of the wealthy Jewish patron, and emerging politician Lionel de Rothschild to membership in the House of Commons for the city of London. Aaron and his followers were referred to with disgust in a letter to the English newspaper the Liverpool Albion as "the lowest class of Jews in the east of London", and condemned for injuring the cause for which they marched. Though he won by a large margin, receiving 6792 votes, Rothschild would not be allowed to serve in Commons without taking a vow as a Christian upon a New Testament, which as a Jew, he refused to do.Supported Lionel de Rothschild's election with Aby Belasco in "The English Elections-The Character of the Next Parliament", The New York Daily Herald, New York, New York, pg. 1, 24 August 1847 The House of Commons then wrote the Jewish Disabilities Bill allowing Jews to serve in Commons by taking a modified oath, but it was repealed repeatedly by the House of Lords, and though serving for a year in Commons and winning subsequent elections by larger margins, Rothschild did not officially take the oath of office as a Jew until 1858, a year before Aaron's death. There were accusations that Lionel Rothschild's family bought votes, and paid Aaron and his band to patrol the streets during the voting week in August 1847, but this was never proven, and seemed unlikely as both sides of the vote were large in number. The family did expend capital to bring East end voters, many supporters of Aaron, to the polls free of charge. Rothschild's candidacy was supported by Benjamin Disraeli, a rising voice in the House of Commons since 1837 and its most prominent Jewish member. Both Rothschild and Disraeli believed the English government could form an alliance with the working classes of London, who at the time had limited social mobility, and lacked the right to vote. Aligned with Aaron and his brethren, Rothschild hoped to bring Jewish emancipation into the broader platform of the civil and religious liberties promised by his Liberal party. Disraeli was eventually successful in extending the vote to certain members of the English male working class in the Reform Act of 1867, the type of legislation that Aaron and his band may have marched for twenty years earlier. === Ringside attendant === In his retirement, he acted as a ringside attendant for important fights. During this period he acted as a second to John Barleycorn in 1839. Later he acted as an attendant in the English championship fight between Ben Caunt and Bendigo, the boxer William Thompson, in Suffolk in September, 1845, a long brutal bout where Barney was forced to hold back angry spectators in several rounds. He later worked as a fishmonger,"Grand Boxing Match", The Northern Liberator, pg. 3, 23 February 1839 and may have worked for a period as a Constable in London, once apprehending two men who were suspected of robbing houses in his neighborhood of Houndsditch.Constable in London in "Police", The Standard, London, England, pg. 4, 1 December 1846Two men robbed his neighborhood in "Police Intelligence", The Morning Chronicle, London, England, pg. 4, 10 April 1835Seconded in "The Great Fight Between Caunt and Bendigo", The New York Daily Herald, New York, New York, pg. 1, 4 October 1845 He was one of a number of Jewish boxers of the era whose popularity is credited with helping improve the social standing of Jews in England at a time when anti-Semitism was common. Despite his boxing success, Aaron never lived far from the poverty of East London and its struggling Jewish population. He died at the age of 58 in East London's Whitechapel. ==Selected bouts== |- | align="center" colspan=8|7 Wins, 4 Losses |- | align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Result | align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Opponent | align="center" style="border- style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date | align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location | align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Duration | align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes |- | Win | William Connelly | 1819 | ---- | 16 rounds, 30 mins | |- | Loss | Tom Collins | 19 May 1823 | Moulsey Hurst, Surrey, Eng. | Stopped due to injury, 30 minutes | |- | Win | Ned Stockton | 6 May 1823 | Blindlow Heath, Sussex, Eng. | 40 rounds | |- | Win | Lenney | 5 August 1823 | Harpenden Common, Eng. | 11 rounds | |- | Win | Lenney | 11 November 1823 | Moulsey Hurst | 21 rounds | Lenney was outmatched and quit the fight |- | Win | Frank Redmond | 30 December 1823 | Moulsey Hurst | 29 rounds | Aaron dominated til Redmond's seconds stopped the bout |- | Win | Peter Warren | 6 April 1824 | Colbrook, England | 29 rounds | Threw Warren twice and gained decisive knockout |- | Loss | Arthur Matthewson | 21 June 1824 | Near Colbrook | 57 rounds | Appeared to lead in late rounds 42-49, but fell behind in later rounds and was knocked out in 56th |- | Loss | Dick Curtis | 27 Feb 1827 | Andover, England | 50 minutes | For £100, Aaron knocked out in brutal loss |- | Win | Frank Redmond | 23 Oct 1827 | Near St. Albans, England | 42 Rounds | |- | Loss | Tom Smith | 1 April 1834 | Greenstreet Green, Kent, England | 20 Rounds | Last fight ==Personal== * He was the father of British- born American boxer Young Barney Aaron, also entered in the Boxing Hall of Fame. * His great-grandson was American playwright and theater director Moss Hart. ==See also== *List of select Jewish boxers ==Notes== ==External links== * Barney Aaron on the IBHOF website * Genealogy and extensive biography Category:1800 births Category:1859 deaths Category:People from Aldgate Category:People from Whitechapel Category:Sportspeople from the London Borough of Tower Hamlets Category:Bare-knuckle boxers Category:Boxers from Greater London Category:International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees Category:Jewish boxers Category:English male boxers Category:Lightweight boxers Category:English Jews
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Benjamin Aubery du Maurier (La Fontaine-Saint-Martin, August 1566 – La Fontaine-Saint-Martin 1636) was a French huguenot statesman and ambassador of his country to the States General of the Dutch Republic during the "Truce Quarrels". He tried in vain to save the life of Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt after he was sentenced to death in the Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets. ==Early life== Aubery was born the son of Jehan Aubery du Maurier and his second wife Madeleine Froger.Ouvré, p. 5 His parents were both huguenots. He was therefore also raised in that faith. He studied in Le Mans, and after 1582 in Paris at several colleges, among which the Collège de Clermont. He studied philosophy under Theodore Beza for a year after 1583 in the Republic of Geneva. He was destined for a career in the noblesse de robe, because a great-uncle (Jacques Aubery) was an advocate before the parlement de Paris during the reign of Henry II of France. (He took part in the prosecution of the perpetrators of the Mérindol massacre.Ouvré, pp.6-7; Martin, chap. 1er). But the events of the French religious troubles intervened. In 1585 (a year after his father died) the huguenots were given six months to convert to Roman Catholicism or to go into exile. Aubery decided to join the army of the prince of Condé and took part in the Battle of Coutras under Navarre in 1587. From there his career took flight.Ouvré, pp. 7-8; Martin, chap. 1er ==Personal life== Aubrey married Marie Magdeleine in 1600 in Paris. They would have eleven children of whom Louis Aubery du Maurier (a historian) is the best known. Other sons were Maximilien (who later served in the States Army), and Daniel (also a military officer). When he lived in the Netherlands as ambassador he had them educated by Benjamin Prideaux as preceptor on an estate belonging to Oldenbarnevelt. Among his daughters were Louise, born in 1614 in The Hague (who had Louise de Coligny for a godmother); Eleonore, born in 1615 in The Hague (with Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange as a godfather); and Emilia (with Countess Emilia of Nassau as a godmother).Vander Aa, pp. 425-426 His first wife Marie died in 1620 in The Hague when Aubery was ambassador there. She was buried in the Grote Kerk with a sumptuous grave monument. He remarried in 1622 with Renée de Jaucourt de Villarnoult, a relative of his mentor Philippe du Plessis-Mornay.Ouvré, p. 318 ==Career== ===Assistant of the Huguenot Great Nobles=== Aubery first went into the employ of du Plessis- Mornay as a secretary when that minister of the king of Navarre became governor of Saumur in 1589. He accompanied du Plessis-Mornay when he was sent on a mission to Queen Elizabeth in 1591-92.Ouvré, pp. 9-10 On 22 October 1590 Henri IV made Aubery a secretary in his household of Navarre. After du Plessis-Mornay broke with Henri IV, Aubery also became intendant to the new favorite, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon on 1 June 1592, shortly after the duke had married Charlotte de La Marck.Ouvré, p.19 When that lady died in 1594 Aubery helped select a new wife, Countess Elisabeth of Nassau, the half-sister of the Dutch stadtholder Maurice, Prince of Orange.Ouvré, p. 39 Aubery remained in the service of the duke, but when Bouillon fell in disfavor after he was implicated in the conspiracy of Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron in 1601, Aubery was placed in a difficult position between the king and the duke. But he managed to extricate himself, principally by being instrumental in negotiating a reconciliation between the king and the duke in April of 1607.Ouvré, pp.80-84, 141-146 After the submission of the duke to the king Aubery quit the service of the duke and retired to his chateau du Maurier for some time. Things started to look up for Aubery when in 1607 he was approached by the envoy of France to the Dutch Republic, Paul Trude Choart, duke of Buzenval, who needed a correspondent in France to facilitate the transfer of the subsidies France paid to the Dutch Republic. But Buzenval soon after died. The successor of Buzenval had someone else in mind, but the secretary of state Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy overruled him. Then Villeroy's colleague Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, the Superintendent of Finances appointed Aubery controleur des restes des etats du Conseil in October 1607.Ouvré, pp. 147-149, 157-158Sully also became godfather to Aubery's son Maximilien on 5 November 1608 as another sign of his favor; Cf. Ouvré, p. 165 At the same time the king also showed favor to Aubery, making him one of the twenty secretaries in his royal household on 30 August 1608. But this high point in Aubery's career ended soon after the assassination of the king on 14 May 1610. Sully was soon taken down by his jealous colleagues, and took Aubery with him in his fall. Another deception was that the office of president of the audit court of the province of Nérac, that Aubery had bought in 1610 with the consent of the king, was given to another claimant by the Conseil d'Etat; Aubery only received a pension. In 1612 he retired for a while to his chateau.Ouvré, pp. 165-168 ===Embassy to the Dutch Republic=== But then Villeroy asked him for the post of ambassador to the Dutch Republic, as successor of Eustache de Refuge. This was an important post as the Republic played a big part in the European policy of Henri IV and later the regency of Queen Marie de' Medici. The Republic had become an important ally in the early 1590s when Henri was fighting both the Catholic League's armies and the Spanish Army of Flanders. After he triumphed in France Henri needed the Republic as a counterweight against Spain in Europe. He definitely wanted the Republic in the French sphere of influence. When the Habsburg regime in the Spanish Netherlands made peace overtures to their northern counterparts when a stalemate in the Eighty Years' War developed in 1607, Henri sent Pierre Jeannin as a special envoy to The Hague to defend the French interests. Jeannin was instrumental in helping Land's Advocate of Holland Oldenbarnevelt obtain the Twelve Years' Truce with Spain (after a peace proved elusive) over the objections of stadtholder Maurice.Ouvré, pp. 171-181 The alliance between the two countries was founded on two treaties. The first one, concluded on 13 January 1608 and renewed on 17 June 1609, valid for the duration of the Truce, promised that France would send 10,000 soldiers to help the States General in case of war; the Republic 5000 to help France. The two countries promised not to make treaties that would harm the interests of the other. The second treaty of 22 June 1609 promised two French regiments (4100 men in total) and two companies of light horse for service in the Dutch States Army, with an annual subsidy of 600,000 livres. The Queen confirmed this arrangement in 1611. These French troops would later play an important part.Ouvré, p.190 Villeroy had selected Aubery in preference to several other candidates, because he was a moderate protestant with undoubted loyalty to the crown. The new ambassador needed to be a protestant, because a catholic would be distrusted in the protestant Republic, but he should not be a partisan of the huguenot fanatics in France.Ouvré, p. 198 The salary for the ambassador to the States General of the Dutch Republic was 12,000 livres, supplemented with 24,000 livres for the post of intendant of the French finances in Holland.Ouvré, p. 200 Aubery took up the post on 20 May 1613.Ouvré, p. 202 The first, somewhat disagreeable, task for Aubery was to engineer the recall of the Dutch ambassador in France, Francis van Aarssens (son of the secretary of the States General Cornelis van Aarsens), who was seen as "too pushy" by the French court. Discreet overtures to Oldenbarnevelt did not prove sufficient, as van Aarssens put up a spirited defense before the States General. So Aubery had to openly disavow van Aarssens, which did the trick, but earned him and Oldenbarnevelt the undying enmity of the politician, who was influential with stadtholder Maurice.Ouvré, pp. 202-212 Next Aubery had to defend the interests of France when the Republic intervened in the War of the Jülich Succession, when despite the Truce it almost came to blows with Spain, which Aubery and de Refuge (who had become French envoy in Brussels) helped avoid through mediation. Meanwhile events in France herself took a turn for the worse with the repeated revolts of the princes of the blood against the regency of Queen Marie. This led to attempts of both sides to get the French regiments in Dutch service to return to France, which Aubery managed to thwart. This did not endear him to the princes.Ouvré, pp. 214-250 Meanwhile, on 3 September 1615 Queen Marie had appointed Aubery conseiller d'État; this was confirmed by the new king Louis XIII of France on 31 SeptemberOuvré, p. 245, 250 thumb|left|250px|Polemical allegory of Arminianism as a five-headed monster, referring to the five articles of the 1610 Remonstrance Aubery of necessity played an important role in the religious and political crisis in the Dutch Republic that developed between 1614 and 1619 and that has become known in Dutch historiography as the Bestandstwisten (Truce Quarrels). This started with a quarrel between two professors of theology at Leiden University, Franciscus Gomarus and Jacobus Arminius, about the interpretation of the dogma of the Predestination. Soon other ministers of the public church, the Dutch Reformed Church took sides, and with them their flocks in the local congregations of that church. As the Dutch authorities felt a duty to keep the peace in the church, so as to avoid a schism, the States of Holland and West Friesland got involved when the followers of Arminius in 1610 presented a remonstrance (petition) to them, that was soon followed by a counter-remonstrance from the other side. The States were reluctant to take sides in the doctrinal quarrel, but when the quarrel flowed over into the public sphere, and ministers of either side refused to recognize the qualifications of the others to administer the Lord's Supper and congregations split into warring parties, they felt constraint to issue the so-called "For the Peace of the Church" Resolution in January 1614 (drafted by the Rotterdam pensionary Hugo Grotius), which prohibited preaching about the quarrel from the pulpit on pain of losing their livings for the preachers.Though the Resolution did not prescribe one or the other standpoint in the doctrinal debate and did not prohibit discussions within the confines of the university, or in learned treatises written in Latin Unfortunately, this only proved to pour fuel on the fire. Violence of especially Counter- Remonstrant mobs directed against Remonstrant regenten and city magistrates, while the local schutterijen refused to offer protection and the federal troops also refused to intervene, caused the States of Holland to issue a further so-called Sharp Resolution in 1617. This authorized city governments to recruit their own mercenary forces, called waardgelders, to keep the peace. This was seen by the stadtholder as a dangerous potential threat, because the waardgelders might come into armed conflict with the federal States Army, which he commanded as Captain general. Maurice then chose the side of the Counter-Remonstrants and started a slow-moving coup d'état that took the form of his undermining the regime of Oldenbarnevelt by "turning around" by intimidation the city governments that supported the latter in the States, and so engineering a majority of the States General opposing Holland. This majority also forced through the convening of a National Synod of the Reformed Church, over the opposition of Oldenbarnevelt and his allies, with the object of deciding the doctrinal controversy.Ouvré, pp. 251-305 In this conflict Aubery did not stay neutral, but he chose the side of the Oldenbarnevelt regime on the orders of the French court (that, as catholics, preferred the perceived "least calvinist" Arminians). He advised the States General against convening a National Synod in October 1617. But in vain, the majority of four provinces voted in November of 1617 to convene such a Synod in Dordrecht in 1618 and to invite foreign theologians (also from FranceThe French court objected to this idea; Cf. Ouvré, p. 269). Aubery then approached the States of Holland to advise them to try to solve the matter with a provincial synod, which was also the point of view of Oldenbarnevelt. But things got out of hand when Maurice started to force matters in January 1618 with a coup in Nijmegen. The matter of the synod went to the background temporarily. Aubery tried repeatedly to mediate between Maurice and Oldenbarnevelt, but in his dispatches to the French government he vented his suspicion that Maurice was bent on replacing the people who had brought about the Truce and to replace them with members of the Dutch war partyOuvré, p. 277 The States General decided to send a deputation to king Louis to invite him to send three or four French protestant theologians to the planned National Synod, but the French government prevented this by sending Jean de Thumery, sieur de Boississe (a seasoned diplomat. who had been ambassador to England in 1601) as a special envoy to The Hague to help mediate in the quarrel around the Synod. De Boissise arrived in early August 1618, just after the political events had reached crisis mode with the forced disbandment of the waardgelders of the city of Utrecht by a mission of the States General, led by stadtholder Maurice at the end of July. Maurice proceeded by changing the composition of the States of Utrecht, robbing Holland of its only ally in the States General. When de Boissise made his maiden address to the States General in mid August, he therefore could do little to alter the state of affairs. He made things worse by complaining about a libelous pamphlet van Aarssen had published about the alleged sinister designs of king Louis in cahoots with Spain. Van Aarssens himself wrote the polite rejection of this diplomatic note by the States General. Meanwhile, on 29 August 1618 Maurice had arrested Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and two other leaders of the majority in the States of Holland, thereby consolidating his coup.Ouvré, pp. 284-286 On 17 September 1618 Aubery and Boissise visited Maurice to protest the arrests. Maurice told them that the arrests were necessary because Oldenbarnevelt had conspired with Spain to bring the Republic back under the "Spanish yoke". This also made it necessary to change the composition of the governments of the cities in Holland that had supported Oldenbarnevelt, he said. The two ambassadors replied that France was a guarantor of the old constitution of the Republic and that these changes were illegal in their eyes. But they were powerless to do anything about it. In November the National Synod commenced, without French participation; it would become known as the Synod of DortOuvré, pp. 288-295 Meanwhile, the trial of Oldenbarnevelt had proceeded behind closed doors, without much being made public except for vague utterances by the likes of Aarssens that "the life of the prisoners was incompatible with the security of the state".Ouvré, p. 291 The French ambassadors addressed the States General on 12 December and expressed the hope that the trial would be brief and the prisoners be judged by their own court (i.e. the Hof van Holland), according to the established laws. They added that the king of France demanded clemency in view of the services Oldenbarnevelt had rendered, and the old friendship between the two countries. The response of the States General, drafted by Aarssens, on 17 December, feigned surprise about the reproach by the French king, and predicted that the king would think differently when he learned from the verdicts, which were expected soon, about the gravity of the conspiracy.Ouvré, p. 295 To the frustration of Aubery, his old enemy Aarssens was appointed by Maurice as a replacement of one of the purged members of the Holland ridderschap (College of NoblesWhich College had one vote in the States of Holland; the College had been one of the mainstays of the Oldenbarnevelt regime, but the appointment of new members changed its political makeup) on 19 January 1619, which was taken as a new insult to France. Still, the ridderschap made a last attempt to have the trial transferred to the regular court of Holland, but eventually consented to the installation of a court of 24 delegated judges of the States General, of whom half were to be nominated by the States of Holland. Nevertheless, the two ambassadors made a last attempt on 23 January to have the prisoners tried by the Holland court, evidently without success.Ouvré, pp. 295-297 Seeing that he could not do anything useful anymore, Boissise asked to be recalled on 12 February 1619, and Aubery did the same a few days later. But then events in France took a negative turn. Queen Marie, who had been a prisoner since the assassination of her counselor Concino Concini two years earlier, managed to escape from her prison in Blois on 22 February 1619, and France was once again thrown into civil war. This made it impossible for Aubery to leave his post. The States General felt little inclination to intervene in this French crisis, which gave Boissise occasion to remind them of their treaty obligations in his farewell address to the States General of 23 March 1619. Aubery remained alone in The Hague. He had received instructions to try and intercede in the trial, which he did with an address to the States General on 1 May 1613. This was received as an attack on the justice of the delegated judges. Aubery then pleaded with one of those judges, Cromhout (also president of the Hof van Holland) to transmit his plea to his colleaguesOuvré, pp. 299-300 The verdict against Oldenbarnevelt was taken on Saturday 11 May 1619. He would receive the death sentence, which was to be executed on Monday 13 May. This was kept secret, but word got out to Louise de Coligny, widow of William the Silent and stepmother of Maurice, a good friend of both Oldenbarnevelt and her countryman Aubery, in the night of 12 on 13 May 1619. She warned Aubery and went herself at 4 o'clock in the morning to Maurice to plead for mercy for OldenbarneveltAs stadtholder Maurice had the residual power of the pardon, though he was emphatically not the sovereign of the Republic. At the same time Aubery went to the States General, also in the Binnenhof government center, and demanded an audience, but because of the early hour the States General was not in session. Aubery therefore composed a letter on the spot, that read in part: But his intervention was met with evasions by a few delegates of the States General who met him at this early hour. "The power had been delegated to the judges" (but you still have the power of the sovereign, Aubery replied, and you can commute the sentence) and "the States General don't have a quorum right now" (to which Aubery replied that they could defer the execution until a quorum was established). The delegates promised to inform the full States General of his requests, but he did not hear back from them before the execution had taken place the next morning. Oldenbarnevelt was taken before the court and his verdict read to him. Immediately afterward, he was taken to the scaffold and beheaded. A few days later Aubery received an answer of sorts in the form of a letter to king Louis, drafted by Aarssens, in which it was stated that the king was badly informed by his ministers; the king was too just to appear to justify such a black treason before the eyes of the whole of Europe.Ouvré, p. 302 After this the relations between the Republic and France became icy for a number of years. Maurice and Aubery quarreled openly in their encounters.The exiled Arminian ministers were made welcome in France by king Louis, as well as Hugo Grotius, who escaped from his life imprisonment in Loevestein Castle in March 1621, and went into exile in Paris. When the States General outlawed him, king Louis put him under his protection and gave him a pension of 3000 livres. Grotius' Apology was printed freely in France in 1622 and smuggled to the Republic, where it was prohibited. His correspondence nevertheless entered the Republic in the French diplomatic mail.Ouvré, p. 312 But the French government at this time was divided between the partisans of Spain and her opponents. Queen Marie, who was again a power to be reckoned with, and who was now anti-Spain, succeeded in getting the annual subsidy of 600,000 livres to the Republic, that had been suspended since 1618, restored again with the Treaty of Compiègne in 1624, which was welcome, as the Republic had been at war with Spain since the Truce ended in 1621.Ouvré, p. 313-315 Aubery was no part of this, as he had fallen victim to the fall of Nicolas Brûlart de Sillery as foreign secretary, like many other ambassadors of France. He left The Hague on 12 April 1624 and arrived on 20 April at the court in Compiègne, where the king received him with honor and renewed his appointment as conseiller d'État, but let him retire from public service.Ouvré, pp. 315-316 ===Final years=== Aubery retired to his chateau du Maurier. He spent his retirement taking care of his agricultural estates, and in maintaining a correspondence with his wide circle of friends, such as François Auguste de Thou, Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, Daniel Heinsius, and of course Grotius, who composed an epitaph in Latin for his first wife.The correspondence with Grotius is available online in He himself wrote poetry in French and Latin and left for his children the manuscript of his Memoires that has been excerpted by Henri Ouvré and was edited by Claire Martin in 2010.Under the title .Ouvré, pp. 316-322 Aubery died after 31 July 1636 (when he received a last letter from Grotius) in the place where he was born. Grotius wrote the following distich on his picture: ==Notes and references== ===Notes=== ===References=== ==Sources== * * * Category:1566 births Category:1636 deaths Category:16th-century French nobility Category:17th- century French nobility Category:Ambassadors of France to the Netherlands Category:Eighty Years' War Category:1610s in the Dutch Republic
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PŠC Pezinok (full name Pezinský športový club Pezinok) is an amateur Slovak football club based at the Pezinok City Stadium and competes in the third Bratislava League, the highest regional competition in Bratislava Football Association. The nickname Green-and-Whites, together with the club colors green and white, are linked to the story of the club's founding from 1921, when it was inspired by the kits of the Hungarian club Ferencváros Budapest. The club currently has more than 380 players divided into two senior teams and 21 youth teams. Two of the teams are women teams (WU15, WU11) operating in the second league in Bratislava. Before the start of the 2020/21 season, the representatives of the PŠC Pezinok and GFC Grinava clubs agreed to join forces in favor of football in Pezinok. PŠC Pezinok „B“ is currently playing at the Grinava Stadium and is a participant in the fifth league in the ObFZ Bratislava-vidiek Football Association. The young and determined B-team, a newcomer to the competition, entered the premiere season with glorious success. After high 5–0 victory in the last round over Suchohrad, they became the champions of the 6th ObFZ Bratislava-vidiek league. == History == === Early years (1921 - 1923) === thumb|PŠC Pezinok and ŠK Veľké Leváre after one of the first matches of the PŠC with a victory of 2:1 (year 1923) The beginnings of football in Pezinok go back to 1913, when this world-famous game was brought by students from Bratislava. Firstly, the game was played with one goal, so-called “frajčula“ and the second goal was added later. The first official football match took place in Pezinok in 1919. It was organized by the crew of the Czechoslovak air unit stationed in the city. Its members played regularly at Rozálka field airport. Local enthusiasts, associated with Aladár Takács and Korineks brothers, all decided to establish a football club in 1921. After the initial preparatory steps (money collection for support, purchase of kits and balls), the Pezinský športový club (PŠC Pezinok) was founded on 29-th of August 29, 1921 at a meeting in the inn "U zeleného stromu". Ľudovít Korínek became its first chairman. In the green-and-white jerseys inspired by Budapest's Ferencváros - allegedly the former club of Aladár Takács, with the monogram of PŠC Pezinok, they played the first friendly matches, tournaments, and also participated in championship competitions, which the club entered in 1923 (other sources states it happened in 1927). The Green-and-whites won the competition of II. class in the first year and were gradually promoted to the I.B class. In 1923, the club formed an U19 team. Its members also included Eugen Suchoň, a famous native of Pezinok, a future composer and national artist. As a goalkeeper, he played for Pezinok until 1929. === Football in Pezinok during 1st Czechoslovakia (1927 – 1938) === The development of football in the city continued, even at the international level. In 1930, PŠC Pezinok played its first international match against the Austrian team SC Carnuntum Wiena with the score 1:3 in favour of the opponent. Pezinok did much better in the domestic competition. In the last round of the 1930/31 season, they defeated ŠK Bratislava after a result of 3:1 and were promoted to the I.A class. In 1931, another important moment in the history of the club took place - the Rapid Pezinok club, based in Pezinok and registered with the Hungarian Football Association, officially merged with the PŠC, while the club's name remained the PŠC Pezinok. In 1933, the Green-and- whites were promoted to the highest competition of the West Slovakian county - to the 1.A class (Pezinok remained in the county competition until liberation). In the same year, the club played its third international match, this time against the Hungarian BAK TK Budapest, with a loss of 0:3. Home matches took place on the so-called “Pažiť“. The strong support of the fans is evidenced by visits to home matches of approximately 1,000 spectators. Over time, the performance stagnated, the senior team went down to the district competitions and failed to follow up on the previous great performances. The club believed in an early change, but the start of World War II did not bode well for the near future of football. === The war years (1939 – 1945) === During the Second World War, not only Pezinok, but also Slovak football in general experienced a partial decline in quality. Many promising footballers had to perform military duties in the crew or even at the front. After the establishment of the Slovak state, there was also a radical reorganization of Slovak football. The Slovak League became the highest competition in Slovakia. The lower competitions were divided into counties: Bratislava, Žilina, Zvolen and Prešov, and subsequently to other levels. If lower competitions were played at the beginning of 1939, after the attack on Poland, they were definitely reduced, as the men left for the battlefield. At this time, PŠC Pezinok was in lower league competitions, because after the outbreak of war against Poland and subsequently against the USSR, many Pezinok footballers left at the front. After the war, the footballers returned. They had the desire and determination to achieve better results than in recent years. This is also indicated by the fact that the Green-and-whites became the autumn champions of the competition in the 1945/46 season. === Post-war years (1946 – 1961) === thumb|Six important Pezinok players on the old field (1959). From left: Milan Barták, Milan Mlynek, Marián Jokel, Rudolf Šefčík, Vojtech Bauer, Bozhin Laskov (player-coach) In the 1945/46 season, Pezinok was promoted to the West division of the Slovak Football Association, in today's world to the 3rd Slovak League. Already in the 1947/48 season, they became the autumn champions of the division, which aroused the interest of the fans from the whole city. In the late 1940s, PŠC fought its way into the SNL (Slovak National League). Its football base was so wide that they were able to produce quality players and even future representatives of the Czechoslovak Republic. In the early 1950s, after the departure of several quality players and the reorganization of competitions, football in Pezinok experienced a deep decline. The club struggled with many difficulties and was relegated to district competitions. In a short period, the club changed its name three times. Firstly, to the name of Sokol Tehelne Pezinok, in 1953 to Tatran Pezinok and finally in 1956, the club was named Slovan NV Pezinok. Under the new name, the Green-and-whites won the 1.A class in 1956 and were promoted to the regional competition. The coach of the team was Karol Šefčík. Since 1959, the player-coach role has been represented by national team player of two countries, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia, the legendary Bozhin Laskov. Together with Karol Šefčík, they both are the most famous personalities based in Pezinok in the post-war years. === Swing period (1962 – 1990) === In the 1960s and 1970s, the senior team, under the new name Lokomotíva Pezinok, was mainly in the competitions of the West Slovakian region, and after reorganizations in the divisional competition. At the beginning of 1961, Bozhin Laskov was replaced by old-new coach Karol Šefčík, who managed to stay with the team in the division until 1967. After that successful era, was replaced by relegations into regional competitions and a decade of futile attempts to return to the division. The club had two senior teams, but also an excellent stadium, which hosted several mutual matches between Pezinok and the Czechoslovak national football team. In 1979, the Green-and-whites, under the leadership of coach Vladimír Korček, managed to advance to the division (2nd Slovak National League). Time spent in the division was accompanied by alternating successes, as during the next few years until 1987, Pezinok was promoted a total of four times and relegated four times, as well. In addition, they were not successful even in lower competitions, as they were relegated to I.A class. In 1984, there was an organizational change in the form of separation from Lokomotíva and the subsequent establishment of Stavbár Pezinok. === At the turn of the millennium (1991 – 2005) === In 1991, a new committee led by František Slezák decided to return to the historical name of the club - PŠC Pezinok. Between 1991 and 2000, Pezinok was playing at the level of the third, fourth and fifth highest leagues. Initially, they played matches with opponents from “Záhorie“ (area located to the north from Malé Karpaty mountain) and “Žitný ostrov“ (area located in the south of Slovakia). Later, the competitions were reorganized within the Bratislava Football Association, and a new 4th league was created, in which PŠC Pezinok also operated. The Green-and-whites bet on a young team that was better season by season, which culminated in the promotion to the 3rd Bratislava League. Between 1994 and 1997, the team stabilized and played football, which was attended by about 800 spectators. At the beginning of the third millennium, the senior team alternated between better seasons and worse ones. The worse were identical in the bad autumn parts of season and excellent spring parts. The team saved the competition at the last minute. The better seasons were in the spirit of stable performances throughout the season with the final place in the middle of the table. === Promotions and relegations (2006 – 2016) === thumb|Squad of the PŠC Pezinok - Winner of III. League 2006/07 in the Bratislava Football Association After the reorganization of the football competitions, Pezinok was playing in the third league, but in the hierarchy, it represented the fourth highest competition. In the 2006/07 season, the well-composed squad and coach Peter Kučerka managed to win promotion to the 2nd Slovak league. Hard newcomer times culminated into decline and many coaching exchanges. The re-entry came in the 2009/10 season. This time, Pezinok managed to maintain the competition for the next two years. The successful period was also underlined by the Slovak Cup match against ŠK Slovan Bratislava in the autumn of 2011, in which the best club in Slovakia won only 0:1. In the following period, football in Pezinok declined greatly. As a result of non-football disputes, the club lost partners, supporters and the senior team was relegated to the 5th highest competition. At that moment, the attention was focused on talented teenagers, mostly with the year of birth 1995. The inexperienced, but determined team was taken over by coach Daniel Federl, who started a beautiful football story with the young offspring. In its first season, the team took 11th place, the following year 3rd place. The team also benefited from the reorganization of competitions, when the 4th league (5th highest) became the fourth highest competition. The quality performances of the offspring with a green-and-white heart resulted in absolute dominance in the 2014/15 season, when they deservedly became the champions of the 4th league. The return to the regional elite was also accompanied by the Slovak Cup duel against the then Slovak champion AS Trenčín, who were also active in the preliminary rounds of the UEFA Champions League at that time. Even a clear loss left no scars on the team and the players quickly switched to the league competition, in which they took 8th place. === New era (2017 – present) === thumb|Happy faces of Pezinok footballers after the goal scored (2020) The senior A-team managed to stabilize in the highest regional competition. Pezinok faced the most attractive opponent in September 2019, when they hosted the first league team FK Senica in the Slovak Cup. Although the Green-and-whites lost, they left a good impression and were bravely fighting against the favorite. The coach of the A-team is Daniel Federl, who has been in charge for 8 years with half-year breaks in 2017 and 2019. He can also rely on cooperation with the newly formed senior B-team, which was formed at the beginning of the 2020/21 season. The creation of the B-team is related to the joining of forces with the GFC Grinava football club. The "B" team became the champions of the 6th league in the premiere season and as a rookie immediately advanced to the higher competition. The new era of Pezinok football was marked by the coronavirus pandemic with restrictions in training process and matches. The 2019/20 and 2020/21 seasons did not go as planned and only half of the matches were played. In August 2021, the club celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding. PŠC Pezinok organized an exhibition of historical materials and published the first publication about the club's century-long history. Due to anti-pandemic restrictions, the club organized a sport and cultural event in 2022, which was an important milestone in the club's history. The 100th anniversary celebrations were the biggest football event in recent decades in Pezinok. The current coach of the A-team is Maroš Jakim, starting from the new season 2022/2023. === Historical names === From To Club's name 1921 1948 PŠC Pezinok 1948 1953 Sokol Tehelne Pezinok 1953 1956 Tatran Pezinok 1956 1961 Slovan NV Pezinok 1961 1984 Lokomotíva Pezinok 1984 1991 Stavbár Pezinok 1991 - PŠC Pezinok == Rivalries == The main rivals were mostly teams from Záhorie. In the 1980s, Pezinok was part of Western competitions, so its rivals were mainly Malacky, Jakubov and Jablonové. Matches against these clubs have always been harsh and were characterized by a fighting mentality, the so-called "kopanica". The most famous derby matches are against CFK Pezinok Cajla and ŠK Svätý Jur. The duels are not as harsh as against the teams from Záhorie. However, the matches always attract spectators from all over the Pezinok district and mostly have a friendly atmosphere. == Club badge and colors == The first club logo was spotted in the pre-match Bulletin of the Lokomotíva Pezinok, in 1961. Since then, there have been four changes, first in 1983 when the name of the club was renamed to Stavbár Pezinok, then in 1991 when the name of the club PŠC Pezinok was given back, then in 2006 during the first redesign and last in 2009, as the second redesign. thumb|Badge development of PŠC Pezinok from 1961 to the present The club colors are green and white, the choice of which is linked to the story of the club's founding. These colors in the club logo are complemented by a shade of black, which forms the middle vertical stripe. It is surrounded on both sides by green vertical stripes. In addition to the stripes, the logo consists of the name of the club, a ball and the text of the year the club was founded - 1921. The colors of the club from Pezinok were determined immediately upon its establishment. A group of enthusiasts, Aladar Takacs, brothers Korineks and others traveled to Budapest, where they bought the first sets of kits and balls. The kits of the first team were white with green transversal strips, following Ferencváros Budapest training kits. Since then, Pezinok have been faithful to their "green-white" color combination. == Grounds == === 1921–present: Pezinok City Stadium === left|thumb|Pezinok City Stadium Pezinok City Stadium was the first and only field on which PŠC Pezinok played its home matches. Initially, the matches were played on the territory of today's training field. In 1934, an approximately two-meter wooden fence was built around the pitch, which can be seen in several historical photographs. In 1959, the ground was moved from today's training field closer to Komenského Street. During the construction of the grandstand together with the changing rooms which started this year, the home matches were played here on the "new stadium". In 1961, the grandstand, which the Pezinok supporters built themselves, was officially opened. Between 2006 and 2010, a training field with lighting and irrigation was built, an artificial training field with lighting and half of the stadium's interior was renovated. In 2019, the second half of the interior was reconstructed, the so- called youth section. Nowadays, the sports area consists of the main field sports ground, training pitch and small pitch with artificial grass. Pezinok City Stadium is still home ground of PŠC Pezinok and with a capacity of 3,000, it is the largest club football stadium in Pezinok. At this level, this sports area is considered as one of the best in the league. In addition, the stadium also hosted many cultural events and concerts in the past. === 2020–present: Grinava Stadium === thumb|Grinava Stadium The home club playing in Grinava Stadium was the local GFC Grinava, almost since the founding of the club. The pitch was built in the 1930s and 1940s, when the surface on today's Myslenická Street was modified. Between 1954 and 1955, player cabins were also built. Before the start of the 2020/21 season, the representatives of the PŠC Pezinok and GFC Grinava clubs agreed to join forces in favor of football in city of Pezinok. Mutual cooperation concerned the management of clubs, men's teams, youth teams, as well as sports facilities. The youth teams, as well as the senior B-team, use the Grinava Stadium for the training process and matches. Nowadays, the stadium has two grandstands, both with seating possibility. == Players == Current squad: As of 20 December 2021 == Results == Notes: Pl - Played matches, W - Wins, D - Draws, L - Losses, GS - Goals Scored, GA - Goals Against, +/- - Score, P - points, Red highlight - relegation, Green highlight - promotion, Purple highlight - competition reorganized Czechoslovakia (1933 – 1993) Season League Level Pl W D L GS GA +/- P Position 1957/58 I. A trieda ZsFZ - sk. Jih 4 33 18 7 8 74 30 44 43 1. 1958/59 Divízia E 3 26 10 3 13 35 56 -21 23 11. 1959/60 Divízia E 3 26 13 6 7 46 41 5 32 3. 1960/61 Divízia E 3 26 8 7 11 28 40 -12 23 9. 1961/62 Divízia E 3 26 8 7 11 27 49 -22 23 10. 1962/63 Krajský přebor - sk. Západ 3 26 10 7 9 40 37 +3 27 4. 1963/64 Krajský přebor - sk. Západ 3 26 10 5 11 34 32 +2 25 8. 1964/65 Krajský přebor - sk. Západ 3 23 8 9 6 32 30 +2 25 7. 1965/66 Divízia E 3 28 9 6 13 27 48 -21 24 11. 1966/67 Divízia E 3 26 8 5 13 29 44 -15 21 13. 1967/68 Krajský přebor - sk. Západ 4 26 6 6 14 17 40 -23 18 14. 1968/69 I. A trieda - sk. Jih 5 26 9 6 11 30 31 -1 24 8. 1969/70 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 12 6 8 37 32 +5 30 4. 1970/71 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 18 3 5 57 20 +37 39 2. 1971/72 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 14 11 1 49 19 +30 39 2. 1972/73 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 12 3 11 48 43 +5 27 7. 1973/74 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 11 5 10 49 47 +2 27 3. 1974/75 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 10 2 14 40 48 -8 22 9. 1975/76 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 12 8 6 42 29 +13 32 2. 1976/77 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 8 5 13 49 50 -1 21 11. 1977/78 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 4 26 17 2 7 54 35 +19 36 3. 1978/79 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 4 26 18 6 2 55 13 +42 42 1. 1979/80 Divízia - sk. Západ 3 22 3 7 12 24 47 -23 13 12. 1980/81 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 4 26 18 6 2 55 19 +36 42 1. 1981/82 2. SNFL - sk. Západ 3 30 7 6 17 35 52 -17 20 16. 1982/83 Krajský přebor - sk. Bratislava 5 26 18 6 2 63 23 +40 42 1. 1983/84 2. SNFL - sk. Západ 3 30 12 7 11 37 35 +2 31 8. 1984/85 2. SNFL - sk. Západ 3 30 6 6 18 38 63 -25 18 15. 1985/86 Divízia - sk. Západ (Bratislava "B") 4 26 20 4 2 84 17 +67 44 1. 1986/87 2. SNFL - sk. Západ 3 30 9 9 12 32 41 -9 27 16. 1987/88 Divízia - sk. Západ 4 30 13 5 12 37 45 -8 31 8. 1988/89 Divízia - sk. Západ 4 30 11 7 12 28 45 -17 29 9. 1989/90 Divízia - sk. Západ 4 30 10 6 14 37 50 -13 26 15. 1990/91 I. A trieda - sk. Juhovýchod 5 30 13 3 14 39 52 -13 29 11. 1991/92 I. A trieda - sk. Juhovýchod 5 30 13 9 8 36 33 +3 35 6. 1992/93 I. A trieda 5 30 7 6 17 38 52 -14 20 14. Slovakia (1993 – ) Season League Level Pl W D L GS GA +/- P Position 1993/94 4\. liga 4 30 17 8 5 47 25 +22 42 3. 1994/95 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 28 6 10 12 21 46 -25 28 11. 1995/96 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 11 10 9 44 44 0 43 8. 1996/97 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 9 5 16 36 50 -14 32 13. 1997/98 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 34 12 7 15 42 59 -17 43 15. 1998/99 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 4 30 24 4 2 90 15 75 76 1. 1999/00 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 28 8 6 14 35 57 -22 30 12. 2000/01 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 12 5 13 39 55 -16 41 10. 2001/02 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 10 7 13 41 58 -17 37 11. 2002/03 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 13 6 11 35 40 -5 39 9. 2003/04 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 8 5 17 35 65 -30 29 13. 2004/05 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 8 6 16 38 63 -25 30 12. 2005/06 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 13 4 13 41 47 -6 43 9. 2006/07 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 26 18 6 2 57 18 39 60 1. 2007/08 2. liga - sk. Západ 3 30 5 11 14 25 50 -25 26 16. 2008/09 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 26 15 7 4 57 20 37 52 3. 2009/10 3. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 24 19 2 3 61 13 48 59 1. 2010/11 2. liga - sk. Západ 3 30 10 6 14 33 43 -10 36 12. 2011/12 3. liga - sk. Západ 3 28 9 7 12 23 34 -11 34 12. 2012/13 4. liga - sk. B 5 24 8 5 11 36 40 -4 29 11. 2013/14 4. liga - sk. B 5 24 11 6 7 42 26 +16 39 3. 2014/15 4\. liga - sk. B 4 26 17 6 3 57 15 +42 57 1. 2015/16 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 12 7 11 47 46 +1 43 8. 2016/17 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 9 7 14 35 65 -30 34 13. 2017/18 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 7 8 15 33 50 -17 26 13. 2018/19 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 10 8 12 37 51 -14 38 11. 2019/20 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 15 2 3 10 20 41 -21 9 15. 2020/21 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 15 6 3 6 32 30 2 21 9. 2021/22 3\. liga - sk. Bratislava 3 30 8 8 14 39 51 -12 32 10. 2022/23 IV. liga Bratislava 4 == Hall of Fame == Inductees in PŠC Pezinok Hall of Fame Year of induction Player Role at PŠC Years in role at PŠC 2019 Vojtech Bauer player 1942 - 1947, 1959 - 1961 Štefan Slezák coach, player 1953 - 1959, 1981 - 1983 Karol Šefčík coach, player 1957 - 1959, 1961 - 1967 Peter Poláček board member, coach, player 1966 - 1968, 1992 - 1995 Peter Michalec player 1966 - 1968, 1990 - 2000 Anton Pilka coach, player 1956 - 1964, 1977 - 1990 Milan Mlynek player 1953 - 1969 2020 Peter Slimák chairman, coach, player 1978 - 2018 Jozef Hotový player 1946 - 1963 2022 Ján Guštafík board member, team staff, grounds manager 1983 - 1999, 2016 - today Dušan Berzedi chairman, board member, coach 1982 - 2018 Daniel Kanka player 1969 - 1979, 1981 - 1992 == External links == * Club website * Club profile on futbalnet.sk == References == Category:Football clubs in Slovakia Category:Association football clubs established in 1921 Category:1921 establishments in Slovakia
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Steve Blakley (born Rochester, New York), also known by his alias Fury (formerly DJ Fury) is an American DJ, rave promoter, and former professional snowboarder based in Denver, Colorado. In the 1980s and 1990s he was sponsored by Barfoot and Division 23 as an athlete, traveling to international snowboarding expos and competing in contests such as the U.S. Snowboarding Open. He began DJing as DJ Fury in 1992, adopting the styles of hardcore techno, drum and bass, breakbeat, and jungle. In 2000 the publication Denver Westword called him "Denver's premier jungle DJ." He tours frequently to festivals such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Paradiso, and Electric Forest Festival, often in collaboration with MC Dino, and as of 2014 is a resident DJ for Reload Productions, Beta Nightclub & Bassrush. In the 1990s Blakley began promoting raves in Colorado and started LowerWorld Productions, co-founding rave series such as Skylab and Breakdown. He also co-founded the popular Rewind and Reload series, which are devoted to the drum and bass scene. According to Denver Westword, as of 2000 both events "pull in as many as 1,400 attendees... and have helped establish Denver and Boulder as the seat of one of the nation's most active rave cultures." Today regular Reload events continue in Denver, and Blakley continues to organize the weekly event series Bassic Fridays. Blakley is president of The Firm Graphics, a graphic design company that primarily caters to festival-style electronic music events. ==Early life== Stephen "Steve" Blakley was born and raised in Rochester, New York. At an early age he began learning piano, and after developing an interest in the city's straight-edge punk scene, particularly hardcore punk, convinced his mom to let him take up drumming. In his early teens Blakley began to take his snowboarding hobby seriously. Since he was too young at the time for official certification, at age fourteen he became an unofficial snowboard instructor at Swain Ski Area in upstate New York. Swain was one of the few places at the time that allowed snowboards on the trails. At the age of fourteen he also had his first athletics sponsorship, with the snowboard company Barfoot. Blakley spent the next several years competing in contests, among them the U.S. Snowboarding Open. At one point he competed in the slalom against Ross Rebagliati, who would later go on to win a gold in the 1998 Winter Olympics. Recollected Blakley, "He's like this 'racer guy,' all decked out in racing gear, and I'm in big ol' baggy pants with a shitty freestyle board. I'm like, 'I'm gonna beat your ass! I'm gonna whup you!' He was all serious, and I was joking about it. Well, he finished like thirty seconds ahead of me." In the late 1980s Blakley played drums for a punk band named Betrayed, based in Rochester, New York. The band wasn't strictly straight- edge, though Blakley personally adopted the ethos early on. According to Denver Westword, with "Blakley essentially running the band, Betrayed became part of the vibrant, local straight-edge scene and achieved minor success in New York." The band shared stages with punk groups such as Snapcase and Burn. Betrayed also released one recording, a seven-inch vinyl record on Torrid Records. Though the record was sold in various punk record stores in the United States, according to Blakley the band never saw any money from the label. Just before the release of the vinyl, a seventeen-year-old Blakley moved to Colorado, with the band dissolving as a result. ==Career== ===1990-92: Snowboarding, early DJing=== While living in Colorado in the early 1990s Blakley worked as a professional snowboarder. According to Blakley, "When I first moved out here, there weren't many people making much money off snowboarding. Barfoot was paying me $300 a month, and that was cool back then." The year he moved to Colorado the company Division-23 Snowboards was started by a former Barfoot executive, and Blakley switched his sponsorship to the new company. He was given his first pro-model snowboard, and within two years was supporting himself entirely through snowboarding. Blakley has been involved with film as well, and in 1993 he both co-edited and produced the snowboarding documentary Seventh Year. While snowboarding Blakley traveled worldwide, including Australia, New Zealand, Europe and Canada. In 1991 he attended his first rave while on a trip to Vancouver, British Columbia, and afterwards began attending every rave he could around Denver, Colorado. According to Blakley, he had first developed an interest in the rave scene after friends in New York told him about DJ Frankie Bones's Storm raves in Brooklyn. He quickly developed an interest in deejaying himself, buying his first turntables and learning to mix hardcore techno. He also bought a crate of records at a record store in Los Angeles, recollecting that "I didn't even know what the hell I was buying. I have a stack of shitty old house records because I didn't know what they were. All I wanted was the hard techno stuff, breakbeat techno, and I picked up anything that looked cool." "As hardcore techno gradually evolved into jungle (with faster breakbeats and deeper, harder bass), Blakley became the first real jungle DJ in Denver." — Denver Westword While continuing to snowboard to support himself, in 1992 Blakley adopted the alias DJ Fury and began performing in the hardcore techno and U.K. breakbeat scene around Denver. His very first live performance was at a small venue on Santa Fe street in Denver. The event was one of the few times that DJ Derrick Daisey, or Vitamin D, played in the city. Daisey and Blakley formed a "casual partnership," and together they went on to release a couple of mix tapes together, as well as the DJ mix CD Vitamin D vs. Fury. By 1993 hardcore techno began evolving into the genre jungle, with Blakley adopting the style. ===1993-99: Rave promotions=== Using funds he'd collected from snowboarding, in the early 1990s Blakley began working as a rave promoter in Denver and Boulder, Colorado. He founded LowerWorld Productions, his own production company, and soon began working with both Jason Bills and Come Together Productions on rave events. The team had a number of successful event series, notably the Skylab series. They also put on the 1994 Sands of Time event, which was broken up early by the Denver Police Department. According to Blakley about the event, "I had just gotten my board royalties, a check from Division-23 for $9,000, and I lost it all that night. It took me years to recover." Despite the setback, he continued to work with Jason Bills and they kept the Skylab events running consistently in Denver for years, with the series growing to become one of the largest regular raves in the city. He also started working with Eric Kozak, also known as DJ D.ecco, and began putting on the successful Rewind and Reload drum and bass raves in Colorado. Blakley co- founded the Rewind series of events in 1995. Catering only to jungle music and operated by Blakley's LowerWorld, Rewind helped Blakley gain national exposure as a DJ. He soon began to focus less on snowboarding, and after moving his sponsorship from the now defunct Division-23 to Ignition Snowboards, began devoting himself entirely to music and music promotion. He soon had resident DJ positions with Together and LowerWorld in Denver, and was traveling to gigs around the country. During his touring he continued operating monthly events (now called Reload) in Denver. ===2000s: Breakdown series=== Rewind and Reload led to Blakley and Eric Kozak being recruited in the summer of 1998 to found and operate Breakdown, a drum-and-bass-themed Thursday club night at The Snake Pit. As well as local DJs, Kozak and Blakley brought in well-known artists such as Andy C, Ed Rush and Dieselboy. "In the eight years he's been spinning, Blakley has gradually become the most in-demand DJ in and around Denver - a scene that five years ago was meager at best. His series of Rewind and Reload jungle events, which [as of 2000] pull in as many as 1,400 attendees with each installment, are known to jungle enthusiasts all over the world and have helped establish Denver and Boulder as the seat of one of the nation's most active rave cultures." — Denver Westword in 2000 According to Denver Westword, "Breakdown became the first 21-and-over all-drum-and-bass night in Denver. What began as just another weekly theme night soon morphed into a mecca for drum-and-bass culture in the States... soon it became known as the premier drum-and-bass night in the nation, with upwards of 300 people in attendance week after week." According to Blakley, "If you go back and look at the peak, probably 2000 to 2002, we were consistently pulling more people than anyone else in the country. It was cool, because everyone wanted to play Breakdown so bad that we'd get DJs who'd normally get like a million dollars to come and play for us for a lot less." Among the ravers that came to Breakdown on a regular basis was Sean Sabo, also known as DJ Sabotage. Sabo began guesting from time to time when Kozak and Blakley were mixing at the club. Blakley and Kozak decided to end Breakdown in 2004 after a consistent six-year run, with Blakley explaining at the time that "The night has run its course. We want to end it while it's still a good night rather than watch it fade away, like most other nights do." The last event in July 2004 featured Ed Rush and Optical, as well as many of the local DJs who had played at the series in the past. After Breakdown ended, D.ecco, Sabotage and Blakely moved in August 2004 from the Snake Pit to the basement of the Church in Denver, starting a Thursday night drum and bass event. ===2010-14: Touring=== Using both the aliases DJ Fury and Fury he has toured frequently since the 1990s, performing on both the east and west coasts of the United States into the 2000s and 2010s. Cities he has performed at regularly include Los Angeles, Washington D.C., Seattle, and San Francisco, among others. Blakley often performs in his home city of Denver as well. In July 2014 Blakley played at the Global Dance Festival, which he has played regularly along with festivals such as EDC Las Vegas, Paradiso, and Nocturnal Wonderland. thumb|right|250px|Fury in 2012 On tour Blakely is usually accompanied by MC Dino, a lyricist who has been emceeing in Colorado since 1997. MC Dino is also a seven-year resident of Breakdown Thursdays, a drum and bass club night operated by Blakley and held at the Snake Pit in Denver. Blakley and MC Dino have performed together at festivals such as the Electric Daisy Carnival in 2011 and Bassrush Massive, a week-long event held in Las Vegas in June 2013. Others include the 2014 Paradiso event and the June 2014 Electric Forest Festival held in Rothbury, Michigan. According to Travel Hymns, Blakley and MC Dino "deliver a natural pairing of hip hop tendencies with explosive drum and bass. With MC Dino serving as somewhat a hype man, the duo delivers kinetic live performances." ===2014: Recent projects=== As of 2014 Blakley is a resident DJ for Reload, Beta Nightclub & Bassrush, the drum & bass division of Insomniac. Today regular Reload events continue in Denver, and Blakley continues to organize and co-host the weekly event at Beta Nightclub, entitled Bassic Fridays. ==The Firm Graphics== In 1997 Blakley's father bought him a Macintosh computer and Blakley began teaching himself graphic design. He soon teamed up with Brandon Kindred, also known as DJ Beekay, and they started publishing Static, a rave-oriented zine. The zine lasted three issues only, but it led to the Denver company Together hiring Blakley to design all of their rave fliers, which on average had 20,000 printings each. Afterwards Blakley was hired by other companies as well, designing for rave promoters and local hip-hop artists such as Dez and B-Rock. He named his new graphic design company The Firm, hiring two employees and setting up in office space in the downtown Denver neighborhood of LoDo. Currently named The Firm Graphics, Blakley continues to serve as president. The company frequently does designs for large festival-style electronic music events, and clients have included Insomniac Events (who organize Electric Daisy Carnival and Beyond Wonderland), V2 Presents, USC Events and Beta Nightclub. ==Filmography== Production credits for Steve Blakley Year Release title Artist(s)/Studio Notes, role 1993 Seventh Year (documentary) Torrid Productions Producer, co-editor ==Discography== ===With Betrayed=== ===Mixtapes=== The following is an incomplete list of mixtapes self-released by Fury: *Vitamin D Vs. Fury (with Vitamin D) *2010: Reload2010 *2011: Rewind3 *2011: Flasbhack99 *2012: Lowerworld Triple Pack *2012: Triple Pack 2000 *2013: Late *2013: Get The Fuck Out of the House *2013: Old School *2013: Breakdown *2013: Loaded *2013: Bassic Mix *2013: Birth of the Denver Massive *2013: Late *2013: Ragga Jungle *2013: GoodCop Temp *2013: One Seventy Six ===Singles=== Incomplete list of songs by Fury Year Title Album Label 2001 "Corrupted" (with DJ Ecco ft. Sabotage) Single Only Terraformat Records (TFFM005, US), 12" "Corrupted (Red One Remix)" (with DJ Ecco feat. Sabotage) ==Further reading== * ==See also== *Drum and bass ==References== ==External links== * *Reload Productions on Facebook *Fury on Facebook *Fury on Twitter *Fury on YouTube *Fury on SoundCloud Category:Living people Category:American drum and bass musicians Category:American DJs Category:Remixers Category:Musicians from New York City Category:Electronic dance music DJs Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
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Historically, suicide terminology has been rife with issues of nomenclature, connotation, and outcomes,Archives of Suicide Research, 1997, vol. 3, pp. 139–151O'Carroll et al. (1996). Beyond the Tower of Babel: A nomenclature for suicidology. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 26(3), 237–252. and terminology describing suicide has often been defined differently depending on the purpose of the definition (e.g., medical, legal, administrative). A lack of agreed-upon nomenclature and operational definitions has complicated understanding. In 2007, attempts were made to reach some consensus.Silverman MM, Berman AL, Sanddal ND, et al. Rebuilding the Tower of Babel: a revised nomenclature for the study of suicide and suicidal behaviors. Part 1: background, rationale, and methodology. Suicide Life Threat Behav 2007; 37:248–63.Silverman MM, Berman AL, Sanddal ND, et al. Rebuilding the Tower of Babel: a revised nomenclature for the study of suicide and suicidal behaviors. Part 2: suicide-related ideations, communications, and behaviors. Suicide Life Threat Behav 2007; 37:264–77.Posner K, Oquendo MA, Gould M, et al. Columbia Classification Algorithm of Suicide Assessment (C-CASA): classification of suicidal events in the FDA's pediatric suicidal risk analysis of antidepressants" Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164:1035–43. There is also opposition to the phrase "to commit suicide" as implying negative moral judgment and association with criminal or sinful activity. In 2020, research demonstrated that stigmatizing and other verbiage commonly used in regard to suicide, such as reporting or sharing the method of suicide leads to a 13% increase in the national suicide rate following highly publicized (celebrity) suicides as well as a 30% increase in suicides using the same method as the public figure. == Suicide-related ideations == Suicidal ideation is any self-reported thoughts of engaging in suicide-related behavior. Subtypes of suicide-related ideations depend on the presence or absence of suicidal intent. To have suicidal intent is to have suicide or deliberate self-killing as one's purpose.Leenars, A. A. (2004). Psychotherapy with suicidal people. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Intent refers to the aim, purpose, or goal of the behavior rather than the behavior itself. The term connotes a conscious desire or wish to leave or escape from life, and also connotes a resolve to act. This is contrasted with suicidal motivation, or the driving force behind ideation or intent, which need not be conscious. === With no suicidal intention === Suicide-related ideation with no suicidal intention is when an individual has thoughts of engaging in suicide-related behavior but has no intention to do so. === With undetermined degree of suicidal intent === When an individual is unable to clarify whether suicidal intent was present or not, the term undetermined degree of suicidal intent is used. === With some suicidal intent === Suicide- related ideation with some suicidal intent is when an individual has thoughts of engaging in suicide-related behavior and possesses suicidal intent. == Suicide-related communications == Suicide-related communications are any interpersonal act of imparting, conveying, or transmitting thoughts, wishes, desires, or intent for which there is evidence (either explicit or implicit) that the act of communication is not itself a self-inflicted behavior or self- injurious. This broad definition includes two subsets. A suicide threat is any interpersonal action, verbal or nonverbal, without a direct self-injurious component, that a reasonable person would interpret as communicating or suggesting that suicidal behavior might occur in the near future. A suicide plan is a proposed method of carrying out a design that will lead to a potentially self-injurious outcome; a systematic formulation of a program of action that has the potential for resulting in self-injury. ===With No Suicidal Intent=== ====Suicide Threat, Type I==== Suicide Threat, Type I is a suicide threat with no associated suicidal intent. The threat may be verbal or nonverbal, passive or active. ====Suicide Plan, Type I==== Suicide Plan, Type I is the expression of a definite plan to end one's life but with no suicidal intent. === With Undetermined Degree of Suicide Intent === ====Suicide Threat, Type II==== Suicide Threat, Type II is a suicide threat with an undetermined level of suicidal intent. The threat may be verbal or nonverbal, passive or covert. ====Suicide Plan, Type II==== Suicide Plan, Type II is a proposed method of achieving a potentially self-injurious outcome with an undetermined level of intent. ===With Some Degree of Suicidal Intent=== ====Suicide Threat, Type III==== Suicide Threat, Type III is a suicide threat with some degree of suicidal intent. The threat may be verbal or nonverbal, passive or covert. ====Suicide Plan, Type III==== Suicide Plan, Type III is a proposed method of achieving a potentially self-injurious outcome with some suicidal intent. == Suicide-related behaviors == Suicide related behavior is a self-inflicted, potentially injurious behavior for which there is evidence (either explicit or implicit) either that: (a) the person wished to use the appearance of intending to kill themselves in order to attain some other end; or (b) the person intended at some undetermined or some known degree to kill themselves. Suicide-related behaviors can result in no injuries, injuries, or death. Suicide-related behaviors comprise self-harm, self-inflicted unintentional death, undetermined suicide-related behaviors, self-inflicted death with undetermined intent, suicide attempt, and suicide. Self-harm is self- inflicted, potentially injurious behavior for which there is evidence (either implicit or explicit) that the person did not intend to kill himself/herself (i.e., had no intent to die). Persons engage in self-harm behaviors for its own sake (e.g., to use pain as a focusing stimulant, or due to a condition like trichotillomania), or when they wish to use the appearance of intending to kill themselves in order to attain some other end (e.g., to seek help, to punish themselves or others, to receive attention, or to regulate negative moods). Self-harm may result in no injuries, injuries, or death. Suicidal gestures are suicide-related behaviors that are carried out without suicidal intent. It is considered a controversial term. These behaviors may be labeled as Self Harm, Type I (no injury) or Self-Harm, Type II (with injury), because the purpose of the behaviors is to alter one's life circumstances (interpersonal or intrapersonal) in a manner without suicidal intent but involving self-inflicted behaviors (whether or not it resulted in injuries). If there is an undetermined degree of suicidal intent, it is labeled as Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type I (no injury), or Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type II (with injury). ===With No Suicidal Intent=== ====Self-Harm, Type I==== Self-Harm, Type I is self-harm that has not resulted in injury. ====Self-Harm, Type II==== Self-Harm, Type II is self-harm that has resulted in nonfatal injury. ====Self-Inflicted Unintentional Death==== Self- Inflicted Unintentional Death, often called accidental suicide, is self-harm that has resulted in death. It is defined as from self-inflicted injury, poisoning, or suffocation where there is evidence (either explicit or implicit) that there was no intent to die. This category includes those injuries or poisonings described as unintended or accidental. ===With Undetermined Degree of Suicide Intent=== Suicide-related Behavior With Undetermined Degree of Suicide Intent is self-inflicted, potentially injurious behavior where intent is unknown. ====Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type I==== Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type I is self-injurious behavior that has not resulted in injuries and for which the person is unable to admit positively to the intent to die or is reluctant to admit positively to the intent to die due to other psychological states. ====Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type II==== Undetermined Suicide-Related Behavior, Type II is self-injurious behavior that has resulted in injuries and for which the person is unable to admit positively to the intent to die or is reluctant to admit positively to the intent to die due to other psychological states. ====Self-Inflicted Death with Undetermined Intent==== Self-Inflicted Death with Undetermined Intent is self-injurious behavior that has resulted in fatal injury and for which intent is either equivocal or unknown. ===With Some Degree of Suicidal Intent=== A suicide attempt is defined as a self-inflicted, potentially injurious behavior with a nonfatal outcome for which there is evidence (either explicit or implicit) of intent to die. A suicide attempt may result in no injuries, injuries, or death. ====Suicide Attempt, Type I==== Suicide Attempt, Type I is a suicide attempt with some degree of suicidal intent and no resultant injuries, regardless of the degree of injury or lethality of method. ====Suicide Attempt, Type II==== Suicide Attempt, Type II is a suicide attempt with some degree of suicidal intent and resultant injuries. ====Suicide==== A suicide is a self-inflicted death with evidence (either explicit or implicit) of intent to die. The term completed suicide has also been used synonymously, but is generally believed to be redundant and potentially pejorative, and, as such, is not recommended. Example: "John’s death was a suicide." "John completed suicide." ==Opposition to the term "commit" suicide== According to Fairbairn in his philosophical study of suicide published in 1995, "The most common way of speaking about suicide is to talk of its being 'committed'." An article published in 2011 stated that, although "committed suicide" or similar descriptions continued to be the norm in the English language, the phrase "committed" associates death by suicide, or more accurately, death by mental illness, with criminal or sinful actions. Research has pointed out that this phrasing has become so entrenched in English vocabulary that it has gained "a naturalness which implies a deceptive harmlessness." Per reportingonsuicide.org, > Certain phrases and words can further stigmatize suicide, spread myths, and > undermine suicide prevention objectives such as "committed suicide" or > referring to suicide as "successful," "unsuccessful" or a "failed attempt." > Instead use, "died by suicide" or "killed him/herself." While common, Lebacqz & Englehardt argue that referring to suicide as an act "committed" is hazardous to ethical clarity. Others have also argued in favour of alternative language regarding suicide, both in the interest of moral and ethical precision, as well as scientific and clinical clarity. A United States Navy report urges against the use of the term "committed suicide" on similar grounds, asserting that "suicide is better understood when framed objectively within the context of behavioral health." The lack of clarity in English suicide terminology has been attributed to the connotations of crime, dishonour, and sin that suicide may carry. The German term Selbstmord begehen is similar, denoting an act of commission. Common language has been described as "[portraying] suicide as a 'crime' to be 'committed' as is, for example, murder." This is despite the fact that suicide is largely no longer a crime, and that, as noted suicidologist Samuel Wallace wrote, "all suicide is neither abhorrent nor not; insane or not; selfish or not; rational or not; justifiable or not." Canadian suicide prevention activist, P. Bonny Ball, commented that the alleged criminal implications of suicide are a carryover from the Middle Ages when suicide was considered "both illegal and sinful by the laws and religions of the time." Sommer-Rotenberg had similarly argued that "the act of self-killing was considered criminal because it was perceived as transgressing the moral authority of God and the righteous feelings of humankind." Since "committing suicide" was akin to committing murder or rape, it has been argued that they continue to be linked in some languages. However, this common English expression is not universal: "By contrast the French se suicider and the Italian uccidersi are reflexive. Likewise in Hebrew: l'hit'abbed, 'to self-destroy,' is something one does to oneself, with no implication of criminality" and translates in meaning most closesly to "suicided". Various alternatives have been proposed to alter the language regarding the act of suicide from a variety of sectors – including government, journalism, community mental health advocates, and the scientific community. Terms such as "death by suicide" have been suggested to be more objective. The World Health Organization has agreed that these terms "are more accurate and less open to misinterpretation." As it applies to a direct clinical context, the widely cited Beck Classification of Suicidal Behaviour exclusively uses the terminology of "complete suicide". This classification was revisited in a number of notable documents (such as the Operational Classification for Determination of Suicide, the 'Tower of Babel' nomenclature, the WHO/EURO definitions, the Columbia University suicidality classification, the CDC self- directed violence surveillance system, and the Denver VA VISN 19 MIRECC self- directed violence classification system). Advocacy groups have suggested a variety of guidelines for suicide terminology. As it concerns media reporting of suicide, a key indicator of guideline influence on language as it is practiced in that context reports including one by the Annenberg School for Communication's Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania suggests that there is "evidence of a change in reporting practices following the release of the new media guidelines". == References == terminology Category:Medical terminology
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The Jealous Sound was an American band based in Los Angeles that, as of August 2012, consisted of vocalist and guitarist Blair Shehan (formerly of Knapsack), guitarist Michael Richardson, bassist Jeremy Tappero, and drummer Bob Penn. In 2012, Richardson (formerly of the American three-piece rock band, The New Trust) replaced original member, Pedro Benito (formerly of Sunday's Best) on lead guitar. Benito has moved into film and television score composition. Categorized as an indie rock band, the Jealous Sound released its second and last full-length album, A Gentle Reminder, on January 31, 2012. As of December 2016, the band was signed to Rise Records. ==History== ===Formation (2000)=== The band originally formed from multiple American, 1990s "indie" bands, with each member a former part of one of these groups. Shehan (Knapsack) led the band on vocals and guitar, with Benito (Sunday's Best) on lead guitar. They were joined by bassist John McGinnis (Neither Trumpets Nor Drums) and Tony Palermo (Pulley) on drums. Adam Wade, of the then-recently disbanded Jawbox and Shudder to Think, later replaced Palermo on drums. Shehan provided a summary in January 2013 interview: > Me and the drummer from Knapsack, my friend Colby [Mancasola], went to high > school together ... We went to college together and when we got to college > at UC-Davis, we formed Knapsack ... I hung out in the area after we > graduated and ended up moving to L.A. Colby decided to take a full-time job > with eMusic and [bassist] Sergie Loobkoff was splitting time with his band > Samiam, which had kicked back into gear, so his time was divided. Colby > wanted to move on and we did one last tour with At the Drive-In and that was > that. In L.A., I started moving forward with The Jealous Sound in 1999 and > 2000. Shehan further explained that the eventual formation ("morphing") of the Jealous Sound was inevitable, as the band is not dissimilar to Knapsack, asserting, "This is the direction I had wanted to go and was going and would continue to go." ===Self-titled EP and Kill Them With Kindness (2000–2003)=== The band's self-titled debut EP The Jealous Sound was released in 2000 on the Better Looking Records label. The debut album, Kill Them With Kindness, recorded with producer Tim O'Heir and also released on Better Looking Records, ranked No. 39 on Spin magazine's "40 Best Albums of 2003" list; the magazine's review in June 2003, by Andy Greenwald, rated the album as "9 of 10". Following the album's success, the band received major label attention and subsequently signed with Mojo Records. ===Got Friends EP (2005–2008)=== In 2003, the band was set to release an album on Mojo Records, but soon after the signing, Mojo was sold to Jive Records. However, the latter did not display a keen interest in the band (Shehan stated that "They were interested, but they didn't want to do one thing or another."). The band pressured the label to release it from its contractual obligations, and Jive eventually paid the band to depart from its roster. The band then signed with The Militia Group for their second album, and used the money from Jive to release the Got Friends EP. Shehan eventually clarified the situation in January 2013, explaining, "It was a funny situation. Things are so different now than they were back then. There was some chatter about it [the major label contract] being the reason why the band broke up. That had nothing to do with it." The band's official website was not updated for the remainder of 2005, and a rumor spread that Shehan had left the band. However, on June 1, 2006, the band posted on its MySpace page that work on the next album was progressing. On August 24, 2005, a Militia Group staff member publicly stated, "I have heard the new songs myself. They're still putting out material." After a long silence, leading to more rumors of the band's demise, on August 15, 2008, the band posted on their MySpace page confirming the title of their new release, Got Friends. The post said the album would be out "real soon" and to stay tuned. On September 4, 2008, the band posted the following on their MySpace page: "Got Friends available on iTunes 10/14/2008". The Got Friends EP was released in October 2008. The rumors of the band's demise were confounded when, according to a blog post on The Village Voices website posted on October 14, 2008, the Jealous Sound broke up in 2005, and the songs on the Got Friends EP were "the last shreds of material recorded [for a new album] before Shehan went crazy and more or less disappeared." Shehan later revealed that he relocated to Las Vegas, US, where he had secured employment; Shehan explained in an interview: > There's a sense that I flipped out and left; people thought I went crazy. > But what's crazy? Staying in a band at my age with no stability? Ignoring > the normal parts of becoming an adult? People don't necessarily understand > what we do, and the commitment it takes to do what we do. Following two years in Las Vegas, Shehan briefly moved to Florida before resuming work on the Jealous Sound. In January 2013, he further clarified, "Personally, I was out of gas. It was a strange time. We had started a record but didn’t finish and I ended up leaving and we didn’t do it. I feel bad about that. That was a failure on my part. I came back and life’s funny. It’s all okay and those are just the things that happened." ===End of hiatus=== Shehan's return to Los Angeles signified the end of the band's hiatus. On February 13, 2009, the band published a blog post titled "There is hope for us...." on their Myspace page, with a short message promising more from the band soon. "Thank you all for standing by our side.... We will post something with a little more detail soon. Promise. Love, The Jealous Sound." Another post confirmed on June 24, 2009, that the band would accompany Sunny Day Real Estate on their 2009 reunion tour. ===A Gentle Reminder (2009-onwards)=== The band's public status markedly increased following the announcement of a new album. A sporadically updated blog featured updates on the recording sessions, including an announcement that friends of the band, Nate Mendel (Foo Fighters) and Bob Penn (the CoCo B's) were due to play bass and drums, respectively, on the new album. Mendel's involvement secured the band a year's worth of recording and writing time in a studio owned by the Foo Fighters. In October 2011, Shehan announced that the new album would be called A Gentle Reminder and was scheduled for a January 2012 release; this was also officially posted on the band's Facebook page. The band completed a small promotion tour in December 2011, with a full tour planned for 2012. A Gentle Reminder was released on January 31, 2012. A song from new album, "Your Eyes Were Shining", was uploaded onto the Jealous Sound's SoundCloud website in June 2012. Following the album's release, Benito parted ways with the band and was replaced by Richardson in mid-2012. In conjunction with a late-2012 American tour in support of A Gentle Reminder, The Jealous Sound released a split 7-inch recording (each band contributes material to one side of the vinyl record) with tour-mates Daytrader. ====Rise records==== In December 2012, the band announced that it had signed a deal with US-based label Rise Records. The Alternative Press (magazine) wrote, "They (Rise Records) will re-release their latest album, A Gentle Reminder, on February 5th, 2013. The new deluxe version will feature 4 bonus tracks including a new song and the 2008 Got Friends EP. The double vinyl LP version will include those as well as 2 remixes of the song “Got Friends” including one by Jimmy Tamborello of The Postal Service." The band also stated that it was planning to release its next full-length record in 2014. ====Reflections from 2012==== Shehan provided an update of Benito's progress in the area of score composition on the band's Facebook fan page, stating, "Pedro wrote on the new record but left to pursue a career in film/tv music. He's doing really well in the field and keeps tabs on us though. He'll be stoked that people are checking up on him..." On December 31, 2012, Shehan stated in a brief interview published by the Swimmingly website (an Internet resource identified by the tagline "A generation raised on the ideals of independent music is pioneering a new era in food culture."): > Quite a good chunk of 2012 was spent traveling America with three other > grown men in a 15 passenger van. My dining choices at home in LA are spent > at my usual spots, so when I"m on tour I enjoy heading out on my own for > some quiet time and hopefully a great meal. It grounds me out and helps me > reset from the daily grind of touring. ====A Gentle Reminder reissue==== The band's website revealed that the reissue of the second album, with Rise Records, consisted of "four previously unreleased songs, five new mixes, and a complete remaster." The release date for the reissued edition was February 5, 2013. The Rise Records website indicated the availability of a vinyl version of the reissued album, with 500 white and 1000 blue discs produced. A music video of the title track from the second album was released on the same date as the release date of the Rise reissue, and was published on the Rise Records YouTube channel. The video features the band in a woodland setting. New guitarist Richardson plays lead guitar in the video. ===Third album=== In January 2013, Shehan provided his perspective on the follow-up album to A Gentle Reminder: > It's time to get started. I realize that I have to plan for the future. I’m > looking forward to making another record. Every record is an evolution but > you try new things and you have new tools in your toolbox. If you’re > inspired and you can match your new tools with inspiration, then that's > great. There's nothing more depressing than making a bad record or listening > to an uninspired record. And you can tell. It's pretty immediate. I don't > want to make a record that feels that way ever. When inspiration meets > artistic growth, it's great. I’m excited to see what that's like. On March 28, 2017, the band announced that they were officially concluded and Blair Shehan and Bob Pen are forming a new band called Racquet Club with Sergie Loobkoff (Samiam, Knapsack) on guitar and Ian Smith on bass. ==Recognition== Andy Greenwald, of the Grantland Quarterlys podcast, Hollywood Prospectus, selected A Gentle Reminder for his "Best of 2012" list, while the Daytrotter live recording website selected the band's performance of "Hope For Us" in its 50 "Best Songs of 2012" list, at number six. ==Touring== According to the Songkick.com website, the Jealous Sound has completed 46 live performances since the band's inception; these shows have taken place in the United States. The Jealous Sound announced a 19-date tour of the US in mid-2012 that would occur that September and October. Previous to this, the band had toured (again, only in the US) in late 2011 and in 2012. In early August 2012, a Montreal, Canada show was announced; his was the only Canadian show that the band would undertake as part of its North American tour with support band Daytrader. In November 2012, the band was announced as one of the two support acts on the "Winter Headline Tour 2013" of American band Balance and Composure, with Daylight as the other support act. The domestic American tour was to span from January 2013 to February 2013, with cities such as Pembroke Pines, Florida; Hamden, Connecticut; and Cleveland, Ohio selected as performance locations. On March 28, 2017, The band announced that they were officially finished, with Blair Shehan and Bob Penn forming a new band called Racquet Club. ===In-studio concert performances=== The band recorded two in- studio concert performances following the release of A Gentle Reminder — one for the Daytrotter company, in April 2012, and one for the Audiotree company, in February 2013. Both companies are based in the American state of Illinois, with Daytrotter in Rock Island and Audiotree in Chicago. Sean Moeller, writing for the Daytrotter website, provided an accompanying article to the Jealous Sound's session: > Shehan finds his pain riveting and it's easy to see why. None of the pain > that he lends to his Los Angeles-based band is one-dimensional. It's all > things to all different people. It's agony and it's euphoria. He howls > directly at the anguish, as if he were howling directly at the moon, looking > for any way to deaden it, or lessen it, to pry away its grip, just a little > bit. ==Management== The band is managed by Tom Ackerman (formerly of Sunday's Best) of Street Smart Management. ==Discography== *The Jealous Sound EP (2000, Better Looking Records) *Kill Them With Kindness LP (2003, Better Looking Records) *Got Friends EP (2008, The Militia Group) *A Gentle Reminder LP (2012, Music Is Subjective / INgrooves, *The Jealous Sound / Daytrader split 7-inch (released by Rise, the recording coincided with a joint tour by the two bands) ==Videography== *"Bitter Strings": From The Jealous Sound (EP) (2001) *"The Fold Out": From Kill Them With Kindness (2003), directed by Nate Weaver *"A Gentle Reminder": From A Gentle Reminder (2013), directed by Nate Weaver ==See also== *Independent music *Post-punk *Music of California *Music of the United States ==References== ==External links== *Official website *The Jealous Sound on MySpace *Better Looking Records *The Militia Group *Music Is Subjective *INgrooves Fontana *Rise Records *Lazy-i Interview: May 2004 *Whopperjaw interview: January 2013 Category:Emo musical groups from California Category:Indie rock musical groups from California Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles Category:Musical groups established in 2000
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is a Japanese anime television series based on Makoto Yukimura's manga of the same name. The first season was produced by Wit Studio in 2019 and the second one by MAPPA in 2023. They follow the life of a child named Thorfinn who becomes involved with Vikings following his father's death. The first season follows his exploits as a revenge-driven Viking, while in the second season, the story shifts to his life as a stoic slave who finds no reason to live. Despite the two seasons being developed by two different studios, director Shūhei Yabuta and writer Hiroshi Seko worked together in both parts. They aimed to bring the adaptation more original content in order to further develop the characters like Thorfinn's transformation into a Viking, his nightmares that haunt him, and Einar's life before turning into a slave. The series were streamed by Amazon Prime and Netflix for a worldwide release. Critical response to the series was positive for the handling of the Vikings' violence and fight sequences. The second season earned similar responses but for focusing on slavery and Thorfinn's mental state as he instead does mundane works rather than fights. == Series overview == === Season 1 (2019) === Thorfinn is a young Iceland villager who aims to participate in wars like his retired father, Thors. One day, mercenaries are hired to kill Thors for abandoning the forces and Thorfinn sneaks in his ship to accompany him. During the journey, the group is attacked by Askeladd's forces. Fearing his men and son's deaths, Thors offers his life for them and is killed. Enraged, Thorfinn starts training and working as a mercenary for the Vikings for several jobs during his growth as a teenager in order to get his proper revenge over Askeladd for killing father. === Season 2 (2023) === Einar is a farmer whose family is killed by Vikings. Despite surviving, he is taken and bought as a slave in southern Denmark by a man named Ketil. Upon his arrival, Einar meets another slave, Thorfinn, who was exiled after the events of the first season. As time passes, Einar learns of Thorfinn's crimes but end up befriending as they work together to earn their freedom. == Production and release == === Season 1 === Yabuta had been working as 3D CGI animator with Wit Studio CEO Tetsuya Nakatake several times including in the anime series Attack on Titan and Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress. These works granted him more responsibilities with later works involving directing and scriptwriting. Upon being offered the charge of directing Vinland Saga by a producer, Yabuta started working on the series because the proudcer's ideas resonated with him. Yabuta was a fan of the manga and was honored with this work. He believed that while the first episode primarily focus on Vikings to the point of researching them, the biggest appeal the series has is the handling of characters. Since he found the artwork of the anime too detailed, he noted designer Takahiko Abiru was put through some challenges to replicate. Art director Yūsuke Takeda was requested by Yabuta was giving both backgrounds and designs strong presences. The Viking ships were also found challenging as the team had to 3D CGI animation. Ever since reading the manga's first chapter, Seko was impressed by Yukimura's storytelling to the point of considering one of his three favorites. Nevertheless, Seko mentioned the anime would make its own take when premiering; Yukimura's take on Thorfinn's growth is different from the one of the anime version as the manga stars as a flashback while the anime's take is direct. Yabuta wanted to focus more on Thorfinn's upbringing in Iceland rather than the Vikings to show more his origins. With the need of animating several fight scenes, the team used 3D CG with the action and camerawork as a set, leaving to the rest animators animate it. Yabuta put a "slight spin" on the methods he had used previously as a 3D director and tried applying them to the action scene. In retrospect, the fight scenes were difficult to animate as Yabuta got tired of making several storyboards. In episode six, the staff revealed the process of how Thorfinn gained the ability to fight as well as his internal feelings in East Anglia. The staff thought the scene showed him truly stepping into the world of battle as part of Askeladd's band, showing his transformation into a warrior. Writer Hiroshi Seko enjoyed the first fight between Thorfinn and Thorkell as a result due to how action packed it was. When the anime finale aired in Japan, director Shuhei Yabuta wrote, "This big incident changed everything for Thorfinn, but his story will continue!". === Season 2 === Director Shūhei Yabuta and writer Hiroshi Seko had a strong impression of Einar when first reading the manga and had no idea where did his strength come from. Upon discussing, they decided to change the way in which Einar becomes Thorfinn's friend. They found it the key factor for the appeal of the anime's second season which led to several hours of planning. Yukimura kept reading the script as a result of their pressure from their work and looked forward to their portrayal. Despite several changes, Yabuta insisted that Einar was the same character featured in the manga. New scenes were added to explore more their friendship. Yabuta described Einar as softspoken, kind and strong but even in the cruel setting of the series, he retains his kindness. Yabuta kept talking with Yukimura about how they should write Einar which led him to find the character realistic. Yukimura was surprised when talking with Yabuta about Einar's character to the point he realized that he might be superhuman-like. Yabuta found this level of strength in Einar upon seeing how he is able to live as a slave and befriend Thorfinn without problems. The anime's second season added more content about Thorfinn's sins in the form of nightmares where his past persona committes murders and as soon as he enters into a house of his victims; He is replaced by his slave persona who is in shock upon seeing it due to the realization of his sins which was praised by Yukimura for how well did Mappa understand Thorfinn's mind. There was a need to properly animate Thorfinn's facial expressions in his life as a slave. The setting was animated based on Yabuta imput who had become more experienced ever since animating the first season and improve the animation. Producer Naokado Fujiyama said the main theme involves the handling of psychology most notably in Thorfinn's, Einar's and Ketil. In contrast to Thorfinn and Einar who become friendlier and active across the story, Ketil displays instead a darker tone in the last episodes of the season due to the themes of violence. Thorfinn's growth when becoming wiser was one of the season's highlights when animating it. === Release === The anime television series adaptation of Vinland Saga was announced in March 2018. Produced by Twin Engine, Production I.G, Wit Studio and Kodansha, the series is animated by Wit Studio and directed by Shūhei Yabuta, with Hiroshi Seko handling series composition, Takahiko Abiru designing the characters, and Yutaka Yamada composing the music. The series ran for 24 episodes on NHK General TV. The series premiered on July 7, 2019 with the first three episodes. Due to the pending arrival of Typhoon Faxai on September 8, 2019, episode 10 was delayed due to broadcasting news, and instead premiered the following week. Due to the airing of the World Para Athletics Championships sports tournament on NHK, episode 18 was delayed and resumed on November 17 of the same year. The series finished on December 29, 2019. Amazon streams the series worldwide on their Prime Video service. Sentai Filmworks released the series on home video on August 31, 2021, with both a new translation and English dub. A different English dub, produced by VSI Los Angeles, previously launched on Netflix in Japan. MVM Entertainment licensed the series in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It began streaming on Netflix globally on July 7, 2022, as well as Crunchyroll and HiDive on select territories on the same day. On July 7, 2021, Twin Engine announced that a second season was in production. Shūhei Yabuta returned as director, and Takahiko Abiru returned as character designer. The second season is animated by MAPPA, and premiered on Tokyo MX, BS11, and GBS on January 10, 2023, running for 24 episodes. The second season is being simulcasted globally on both Netflix and Crunchyroll, excluding China, South Korea and Japan. === Music === thumb|right|Cover for the Vinland Saga official soundtrack. The soundtrack of the series was composed by Yutaka Yamada while Sound Effect Director was Shoji Hata. Inspired after reading the manga, Yamada wanted the music to represent the psychological states of Thorfinn and other characters. Yabuta and Hata often had discussion in regards to what kind of music should they use. In testing, Yamada got back to Yabuta with a demo of 26 songs. Each of these themes were made in order to represent what type of emotion a character was displaying and amplify the emotional weight. Yabuta was impressed with Yamada's works, giving for example the first season finale where the audio demostrates the mental breakdown Thorfinn suffers after Askeladd dies. While Hata helped Yamada in the first season, for the second season he worked all alone. Yamada's favorite theme was the piano theme he put in the first episode due to how it fit with the story and visuals. This led to the next season having more piano tracks with this time the aim being to fit dialogues. The official soundtrack contains 42 tracks. The first opening theme is "Mukanjyo" by Survive Said the Prophet, while the first ending theme is "Torches" by Aimer. Yosh from Survive Said the Prophet said he the band found the theme comfortable to play thanks to their relationship with Yabuta while Aimer instead wanted to portray the emotions Thorfinn and Thors share in the early episodes in a attempt to "pass the torch". The second opening theme is "Dark Crow" by Man with a Mission, and the second ending theme is "Drown" by Milet. "Dark Crow" is meant to fit into the theme of the Viking themes while Milet said that "Torch" is meant to immerse into Thorfinn's new world as a Viking with the music overlapping with the traits within herself and throw several emotions. For the second season, the first opening theme is "River" by Anonymouz, while the first ending theme is "Without Love" by LMYK. Anonymouz wanted to portray through her songs the weakened Thorfinn and what new emotions the protagonist could obtain as a slave. LYMMK expressed similar desires but in a more tragic nature as the song is meant to show the hopelesness and regrets the character suffered. The second opening theme is ""Paradox." by Survive Said the Prophet, and the second ending theme is "Ember" by haju:harmonics. Yosh was inspired to write more sytlish lyrics with far more hopes. haju:harmonics meanwhile wanted to portray courage and hope with her song. ==Reception== ===Critical response=== IGN listed Vinland Saga among the best anime series of the 2010s. In a poll conducted by Kadokawa Game Linkage of the most satisfying series of 2019, Vinland Saga ranked in ninth place. Several writers from Anime News Network also listed the series as one of the best ones from 2019; with James Beckett listing Askeladd as best character. "MUKANJYO" was also listed as one of the best songs of 2019 by Anime News Network not only due to the musics but also with how lyrics focusing on Thorfinn's quest for revenge and its failure. Rafael Motamayor of Polygon praised the anime series and compared it to Vikings. Motamayor commended the character development shown in its first three episodes and ultimately called it an epic story that shows "the horrors of being a Viking at the turn of the 11th century, while also serving as a coming-of-age tale set against the background of a bloody and thrilling war". Gerald Rathkolb of Otaku USA called Vinland Saga a "story of a long, brilliantly written slow- burn revenge story" and named it one of the best anime series of 2019. Rathkolb wrote: "[It] is one of those rare anime that could have appeal outside of the anime sphere because of its setting and focus on complex characters and the excellent political intrigue ever-present in the show. It comes with my highest recommendation". Nick Creamer from Anime News Network also delivered a positive review, praising the themes, action scenes and characters, stating "No one has any enemies, is one of Vinland Saga's principal lessons, a prayer of social goodwill that Thors complements with his dream of a distant, shimmering Vinland, a land free of strife and suffering. But Vinland Saga is not a sentimental work, and its conflicts stay mired in the blood and dirt of a country at war. Thors' idealistic prayer is quickly supplemented by a new moral, courtesy of the raider and mercenary lord Askeladd: "everyone is a slave, even if they can't see the chains." It's a story suffused with a thematic ambition and sharpness of perspective that raises it high above its genre peers. Populated with rich, sympathetic characters and adorned by breathtaking action highlights, it is a rich and rewarding adventure that might just inspire you to challenge the conditions of your own life. Beautiful, brutal, and fiercely intelligent. Succeeds effortlessly as a propulsive action vehicle, while also offering sharp commentary on human nature, remarkably characters, and a harsh yet beautifully realized world. Vinland Saga is one of the best anime of 2019". Yukimura praised the adaptation, believing that it smoothed out pacing issues present in the original manga, and that anime's staff understood the story better than he did. He further recommended that people watch the anime before picking up the manga. Hajime Isayama, the creator of Attack on Titan, was surprised by Askeladd's death, most specifically by how Wit Studio animated it in the season finale. The second season's premiere earned praised by several writers from Anime News Network for the focus on Einar's backstory for violent it is, fitting with the elements of violent displayed in the first season. According to Escapist Magazine, Einar is part of the cycle of violence and revenge the series portrays as a theme due to how the anime further shows the downfall of his family at the hands of Vikings and starts hating warriors. While this initially causes his anger towards Thorfinn for being a former warriors, his avoidance from attacking him marks a departure of the theme in the series and, most notably, in Thorfinn. Both Anime News Network and Fandom Post acclaimed the episode where Thorfinn realizes mistakes of his life as a Viking and makes an oath to never use violence again with the former site calling it the "defining episode of the entire series" due to the impact it has on the protagonist. The Daily Star agreed and found that Thorfinn's mundane life as a slave brings intriguing stories about "redemption and self-discovery" even if it was imperfect. Anime News Network found the early depiction of Einar as relatable due to his desire to earn freedom which causes him to contrast Thorfinn who barely expresses care about his status as a slave. ===Awards and nominations=== Year Award Category Recipient Result 2020 6th Anime Trending Awards Anime of the Year Vinland Saga Best Sceneries and Visuals Vinland Saga Best Action & Adventure Anime Vinland Saga 4th Crunchyroll Anime Awards Best Drama Vinland Saga Anime of the Year Vinland Saga Best Antagonist Askeladd Best Opening Sequence "Mukanjyo" Best Ending Sequence "Torches" Best Director Shuhei Yabuta Best Animation Vinland Saga Best Character Design Takahiko Abiru, Makoto Yukimura Best Fight Scene Thorfinn vs. Thorkell == Notes == == References == == External links == * * * Category:Adventure anime and manga Category:Anime series based on manga Category:Coming-of-age anime and manga Category:Crunchyroll Anime Awards winners Category:Epic anime and manga Category:Historical anime and manga Category:MAPPA Category:NHK original programming Category:Sentai Filmworks Category:Television series set in the 11th century Category:Television series set in the Viking Age Category:Television shows set in Denmark Category:Television shows set in England Category:Television shows set in Norway Category:Tokyo MX original programming Category:Vinland Category:Wit Studio
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Stefan Konstantin (; c. 1283–1322) was the King of Serbia from 29 October 1321 to the spring of 1322. The younger son of King Stefan Milutin (1282–1321), he initially held the appanage of Zeta (with Zahumlje and Travunia), and was the heir to the Serbian throne after his father had exiled his elder brother Stefan. After his father's death, a throne struggle broke out between Konstantin, Stefan and their cousin Vladislav II, evolving into the two years long civil war. He was killed in the battle fighting his brother, who went on to defeat Vladislav, too, and gained the Serbian throne as Stefan Uroš III, better known as Stefan Dečanski. Life of Konstantin, who may even be canonized in Middle Ages, was obscured even in medieval chronicles while today is almost completely forgotten. Nearly all data on him are approximate and has to be extrapolated from other biographies. Apparently not much valued by his contemporaries, even by his own father who appointed him a successor only when had no other options, he met a cruel death by the hand of his own brother, losing the throne to which he lawfully succeeded. == Early life == Regarding Konstantin's personal data, the only confirmed information is that he was the son of king Milutin. His mother, birth date or even the birth sequence between him and his brother and sisters are unknown. This is the result of the missing timetable for a string of five marriages king Milutin had, which is among the largest problems in the Serbian medieval biographical research, as Serbian medieval chronologies and genealogies make no mention neither of Milutin's wives nor his daughters. By traditional historiography, Milutin married five times: 1) Jelena, Serbian noblewoman; 2) Helena, Greek noblewoman; 3) Elizabeth, Hungarian princess; 4) Anna, Bulgarian princess; 5) Simonida, Byzantine princess. Aleksa Ivić placed Konstantin as the youngest child of Milutin, while giving birth date of c. 1274 for his brother Stefan Dečanski. This is in line with Stefan Dečanski's marriage date of 1299, or 1296 by the Bulgarian sources, to Bulgarian princess Teodora. Especially taking into the account that some sources claim he was already married previously to an unnamed woman, but the union was childless. Vladimir Ćorović claimed that Konstantin was the older son, while he considered Stefan Dečanski a child of Milutin's fourth wife Anna, who married the king in 1284. As she was only 5 years old when married to Milutin, and was expelled by Milutin in 1299 when she was 19 or 20 years old, it is unlikely that she had (two) children with him, especially considering the dates from Stefan Dečanski's later life. According to the Serbian redaction of the Troitsky Manuscript, Milutin, Anna and "their children" were mentioned, however, in the original writings she is mentioned as the stepmother to Milutin's children. Bulgarian historian and cleric from the 14th and 15th century, Gregory Tsamblak, was adamant that the royal couple had no children. This leaves Konstantin as the younger son of Milutin. Ćorović also claims that Konstantin was Milutin's son from his first marriage, but as one of the reason why people sided with Stefan Dečanski during the war, he cited Stefan's fully Slavic origin, referring to his Bulgarian mother. However, Milutin's first wife, Jelena, was not only of Slavic, but of Serbian origin. This leaves Milutin's two foreign wives, Greek Helena and Hungarian Elizabeth, as possible mothers of Konstantin. Sometime in 1282 Milutin expelled his first wife Jelena and married Helena. He then expelled Helena, too, at the end of 1283, and married Elizabeth, who was expelled also, before August 1284. Given these dates, Konstatin may be born in 1283 by Helena. Based on his appearance on the fresco in the Gračanica Monastery, which was built from 1315 to 1321, historian Dejan Ječmenica concluded that Konstantin may be born in the final years of the 13th century, since he appears to be "some twenty years old" on the painting. This contradicts Konstantin's 1303 appointment as the administrator of Nevesinje. However it is in line with some modern historians who partially reversed the timetable of Milutin's marriages and corresponding, assigned motherhood of his children, which makes possible for Elizabeth to be Konstantin's mother, but also moves her marriage to the 1290s and prolongs it for years. == Heir == As a prince, Konstantin held the župa (county) of Nevesinje from 1303 to 1306. As this area was part of Hum (or Zahumlje), he was also called the regent of Hum. As it was common in Serbia at the time for older son and presumable heir ("Young King") to be given the administration over Zeta (modern Montenegro), with the accompanying style of the King of Zeta, Milutin gave the position to Stefan Dečanski. However, Stefan was unsatisfied with his prospects of inheriting the crown since the marriage with his mother was annulled, making him an illegitimate child. Also pushed by the local nobility, Stefan started the rebellion against his father in 1314 which was quickly quashed with Milutin personally heading the army. Stefan fled across the Bojana river but Milutin offered negotiations. Stefan accepted, but Milutin shackled him instead and ordered for Stefan to be blinded (which wasn't conducted properly due to the bribery) and expelled to Constantinople. Milutin then appointed Konstantin to administer Zeta. Konstantin was declared King of Zeta and minted his own money in Shkodër. Silver coins represented Konstantin sitting on the throne had inscriptions "Dominus rex Constantinus" and "Sanctus Stefanus Scutari" on the obverse and reverse, respectively. He was also sent by his father in diplomatic missions. In October 1321, when Milutin died, Konstantin was in Constantinople, hiring additional military forces for the warfare with the Hungarians. However, neither the historians, nor Milutin himself, apparently held no high regard for Konstantin. Though his father gave him Zeta to rule, he didn't declare him heir apparent right away. He seemingly had no better opinion on his other son, Stefan, as even during the time when both of his sons were in Serbia, Milutin was prospecting to appoint one of the Byzantine princes as his heir. His last mother-in-law, Byzantine empress consort Irene, mother of Milutin's another child bride Simonis, sent in time two of her sons to Milutin. Younger prince Demetrios refused the post as he disliked Serbia, and the attempt with the older prince, Theodore, also failed. On 12 March 1316, Milutin's older brother, king Stefan Dragutin, died. As per the power-sharing 1282 Deževa Agreement between the brothers, Dragutin's heir, Vladislav II, was to become the paramount king of Serbia and not only of the northern Realm of Stefan Dragutin, while Milutin will accept the vassal position to his nephew. Milutin had no intention of following the agreement. Not only that he didn't accept the kingship of Vladislav, he attacked new king's domain in the north and captured him. Only after all this, when he was left without other possibilities (blind and expelled Stefan, failed attempts with brothers-in-law, possible pretenders from Dragutin's line), Milutin named Konstantin as his heir, and began to prepare him for succession. Naming happened sometime in 1317 or after, as Milutin mentions Konstantin as his heir in his endowment to the Bari Cathedral which included a silver altar with Konstantin's inscribed name. In his father's major endowment, the Gračanica Monastery, which was built in this period, Konstantin was portrayed twice. On the fresco which represents family tree of the dynasty, he was placed on his father's right side. He is also present on the fresco with his father and grandparents, Stefan Uroš I and Helen of Anjou. His brother Stefan is absent from the paintings. After 7 years, under the influence of clergy and especially of Serbian archbishop Nikodim I, Milutin allowed Stefan Dečanski to return to Serbia from Constantinople in 1321. He gave him to administer the župa of Budimlja, but kept Stefan's oldest son, future emperor Stefan Dušan at his court. Stefan Dečanski's return didn't change anything in Konstantin's designation as the heir. Milutin was already old and ill and certain groups again influenced Stefan to rebel and overthrow his father, but this time Stefan refused. However, he used his father's illness to prepare for the time after Milutin's death, organizing a strong party of followers. == Kingship == King Milutin died on 29 October 1321. Untrustworthy towards anyone, he didn't arrange the proper transition. Though naming Konstantin as his heir in public at least since 1319, he never actually issued any official decree confirming that or declared him as such in the state assembly, which prompted some historians to refer to Konstantin as the alleged heir. Danilo II, Serbian archbishop and one of the main medieval chroniclers, was the staunch supporter of Stefan Dečanski and wrote that Milutin left no official successor as he lost ability to speak due to his illness. At the time of Milutin's death, Konstantin was in Constantinople, drafting the army of mercenaries. Stefan Dečanski, who was in Serbia, upon hearing the news of his father's death, took down the bandages from his eyes (which he kept for years, pretending to be blind) and declared that Saint Nicholas miraculously restored his sight. As blindness was one of the reasons he was excluded from the succession, Stefan now reclaimed his right to the throne. Using commotion which followed after the death of Milutin, his imprisoned nephew Vladislav fled and also restored his claim to the throne. Konstantin returned from Constantinople and continued to mint coins, use the title of king and oppose other two claimants. Venetian chronicles from this period refer to him as "king" (rex). Stefan was more popular. He prepared himself well, he was a favorite of the church, his life was seen as an ordeal and martyrdom by the population who believed his miraculous healing, and he was of fully Slavic origin. Konstantin apparently failed to grasp and prevent both the Stefan's popularity and high regard he had in Serbian society. By the next year, the highest ranked members of the clergy officially turned back on Konstantin and archbishop Nikodim II crowned Stefan Dečanski on the Epiphany, 6 January 1322, in the Žiča monastery. === Civil war === With Vladislav II, claiming the title since 12 March 1316, and Konstantin, succeeding to Milutin on 29 October 1321, Serbia now had three proclaimed kings, which was a situation that couldn't last for long. The first skirmishes began after Stefan's coronation. Stefan offered Konstantin the power-sharing agreement where Konstantin would "accept another dignified realm, as the second son". Though some historians use just the term "power share", it was obvious that what Stefan offered was not an equal, co-ruling status for Konstantin. Konstantin declined Stefan's offer. He considered himself a rightful heir and seems that he didn't believe Stefan regained his vision, as he stated that "it doesn't suite for blind man to rule". Also, Konstantin thought he would prevail due to the army of foreign mercenaries he organized on his father's orders, starting with his visit to Constantinople in 1321. Some sources point to the possibility that Stefan offered to share the power cause he may be initially reluctant to use force, as they report that Konstantin actually "forced out" the warfare. The war was described as "lasting long and fought severely". From the outside, Stefan was supported by the Byzantines, as during his exile in Constantinople he was sheltered by the emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos and later, after he secured Serbian throne, he married Andronik's great-niece Maria. Vladislav was supported by the gentry in northern Serbia and by the king Charles I of Hungary. According to Serbian epic poetry, in simplified form, Konstantin was supported by the Bulgarians, Vladislav was a Hungarian candidate while Stefan Dečanski was supported by the Byzantines, but there is no evidence that Bulgarians held Konstantin's side. Actually, they indirectly helped Vladislav, which is why bishop Danilo (II), was sent to Veliko Tarnovo in Bulgaria to negotiate peace. The final battle between the armies of Konstantin and Stefan occurred below the Zvečan fortress, in the Mitrovica field (Dmitrovačko Polje or Mitrovičko Polje), sometime in the spring of 1322. Stefan Dečanski bribed part of Konstantin's army, so some troops switched sides during the battle, abandoning Konstantin. All available sources agree that Konstantin was heavily defeated in the battle, not surviving it. After defeating Konstantine, Stefan Dečanski was now able to focus on the northern throne contender, Vladislav II. Having much larger support than Konstantin (rulers of Hungary and Bosnia, local nobility), Vladislav proved out to be also a tougher opponent. The war continued for two more years, until the spring of 1324, when Vladislav was finally defeated. He fled to Hungary, while Stefan Dečanski became the sole ruler Serbia. === Death === Exact date and circumstances of Konstantin's death are not known, just as those of his birth. Gregory Tsamblak and Serbian 17th-century Pejatović Chronicle claim he was killed in the battlefield. Other sources claim he was either captured or killed during the retreat of the remains of his army. That way, Konstantin was the first Nemanjić killed in battle since the Battle of Pantina, dated sometime in 1166–1168, when Tihomir Zavidović perished in fighting. Coincidentally, both battles were fought between two Nemanjić brothers and both took place at Zvečan. A 1332 work, variously attributed to the Dominican Pseudo-Brocard, or to the Roman Catholic cleric Guillaume Adam, depicts Konstantin's more gruesome ending. Allegedly, Stefan ordered for captured Konstantin to be laid on the plank of wood, with his arms and thighs nailed to the wood. He was then sawed in half. Modern historians disregard such account of events, preferring the Camblak's account as more believable. Also, the entire chronicle has strong anti-Stefan sentiment while Adam was notorious for his negative attitude towards Serbs, calling them the "snake batch". This manner of death resembles the Biblical tale of the Crucifixion of Jesus, and as Stefan had no reason to make a martyr out of Konstantin, it is believed that Adam fabricated the story altogether. However, several other variants of Konstantin's grisly death survived. Ragusan chronicler Mavro Orbini adopted Adam's account in his 1601 Kingdom of the Slavs, but makes a point that it was actually Vladislav who captured and tortured Konstantin. According to the folk poetry, recorded by Vuk Karadžić, the mercenaries bribed by Stefan Dečanski were those who nailed him to the plank and sawed him in half, throwing the remains into the river (Ibar ?). Folk myths tell stories of Stefan beheading Konstantin, silver plating his skull into the cup and drinking wine from it. Resting place of Konstantin is also unknown for sure. Old Serbian chronicles claim he was buried in Zvečan. There were two churches, dedicated to Saint Nicholas and Saint George. Archaeological surveys in the Church of Saint George showed that not only Konstantin, but no one was buried there. Close to Zvečan is the Banjska Monastery, the endowment and planned burial church of his father, king Milutin, so it is believed that Konstantin was buried there. In four of the chronicles, "holy relics" of Konstantin were mentioned, which indicated that, at some point, he was canonized and declared a saint. == Assessment and legacy == Despite Milutin's final intention to groom Konstantin as his heir, and his willingness for military confrontation against Stefan Dečanski to keep the throne, historians described him as a "little known", "apparently an heir" and an anti-king even though he was a designated successor. He has also been labeled as not having any special treats and values, being a weak man and a person who didn't excel in anything. Danilo's Disciple and Continuators, scholars who continued chronological work of Danilo II, completely ignored the civil war and turmoil after Milutin's death. Konstantin was mentioned in several Serbian medieval chronologies and genealogies (rodoslov): Koporinjski, Studenički, Cetinjski, Vrhobreznički, Senički. His name remains preserved at the altar in Bari, Italy, and his image remained on the frescoes in the Gračanica Monastery. However, in the large Nemanjić family tree fresco in the monastery of Visoki Dečani, built by his brother Stefan who defeated him, Konstantin is not present. Modern writings dealing with Konstantin include works Comes Constantinus ["Count Konstantin"] by Mihailo Dinić (1961), Konstantin, sin kralja Milutina ["Konstantin, son of king Milutin"] by Marica Malović-Đukić (1985), and Nemanjići drugog reda ["Members of the Nemanjić dynasty of the second order"] by Dejan Ječmenica (2018). A ring from the Banjska Monastery, originating from the early 14th century, is kept in the National Museum in Belgrade. Until recently, it was thought the ring belonged to Stefan Dečanski's first wife, Teodora. Modern historians assigned the ring to Konstantin. Konstantin provided long lists of Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian monarchs from the 11th century onward, as his father had done before him. The Vasojevići, one of the Serbian Highland tribes of Montenegro, and their progenitor Vaso, were mentioned for the first time in a document found in an Ragusan archive, dated to 1444. According to the Vasojevići folklore, Vaso was a great-grandson of Stefan Konstantin. The family myth claims that Konstantin had a son, Stefan Vasoje, who in turn, had a son Stefan Konstantin I, also called Stevo Vasojević in folk epic poetry, who was killed on 15 June 1389 in the Battle of Kosovo. Stefan Konstantin I had five sons – Oto, Kraso, Ozro, Pipo and Vaso, founder of the clan. Given the importance of the Vasojevići, especially of their diaspora, and following the myth of their origin which exists only in oral tradition though, the historic and modern descendants of Stefan Konstantin would be rebellion leader Karađorđe, brothers footballers and co-founders of Galatasaray Milija and Pavle Bakić, politician Slobodan Milošević, model and actress Milla Jovovich or tennis player Jelena Janković. == References == == Sources == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:14th- century Serbian monarchs Category:Nemanjić dynasty Category:14th-century Serbian writers Category:Murdered Serbian royalty Category:Zeta (crown land) Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:1282 births Category:1321 deaths Category:Burials at Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches
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Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul (; 13 May 1754 – 14 February 1807) was a French cavalry general of the Napoleonic Wars. He came from an old noble family of France whose military tradition extended for several centuries. Efforts by the French Revolutionary government to remove him from his command failed when his soldiers refused to give him up. A big, loud-voiced man, he led from the front of his troops. Although the failure of his cavalry to deploy at the Battle of Stockach (1799) resulted in a court martial, he was exonerated and went on to serve in the Swiss campaign in 1799, at the Second Battle of Stockach, the Battle of Biberach, and later at Battle of Hohenlinden. He served under Michel Ney and Joachim Murat; he was killed in Murat's massive cavalry charge of the Battle of Eylau in 1807. ==Early life== Born in an ancient noble family from the Languedoc, he entered the French royal army as a volunteer in 1769. After having served in the Corsican legion, he transferred in 1771 to a Dragoon regiment. From 1777, he served as an officer in the Dragoon Regiment of the Languedoc.This regiment was created in 1676 as the Languedoc-Dragons, becoming the Chasseurs du Languedoc in 1788, and the 6e Régiment de Chasseurs in 1791. Terry J. Senior. The Top Twenty French Cavalry Commanders: #4 General Jean- Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. By 1792, he had become its colonel. Charles Mullie, Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850. Jean Joseph Hautpoul. Poignavant et Compagnie, 1851. In 1802, he married Alexandrine Daumy, and they had one child, born 29 May 1806, named Alexandre Joseph Napoléon.Jean Joseph d'Hautpoul . In: 7th Cuirassiers . Accessed 31 January 2010. His cousin, Alphonse Henri, comte d'Hautpoul, also served in the Napoleonic Wars, as a lieutenant in the Iberian peninsula, and was taken prisoner at the Battle of Salamanca. He later became the 28th prime minister of France, from 1849–1851.P. Caron. "Review of: Mémoires du géneral marquis Alphonse d'Hautpoul, pair de France (1789-1865) by Alphonse d'Hautpoul. Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine (1899-1914), Vol. 7, No. 7 (1905/1906), pp. 560–561, cited p. 560. ==Revolutionary Wars== By contemporary accounts, d'Hautpoul was a big man, possibly taller than Joachim Murat, who was nearly six feet tall. Endowed with broad shoulders and a big voice, he spoke the language of the common soldier, and led from the front.Robert B. Bruce, Iain Dickie, Kevin Kiley. Fighting techniques of the Age of Napoleon. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, 2008, p. 79; Philip J. Haythornthwaite. Napoleon's commanders. London: Osprey Military, 2001–2002, p. 27. Early in the French Revolution, commissioners visited the various regiments to weed out dangerous, and prospectively traitorous nobles; generally, the commissioners cowed the army into submission, but d'Hautpoul's cavalry regiment refused to be intimidated. When the commissioners came for their colonel, a scion of impoverished nobility, his soldiers refused to give him up: "No d'Hautpoul, no 6th Chasseurs."John Robert Elting. Swords around the Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée. New York: Da Capo Press, 1997, , p. 38. Thus, despite his noble birth, at the exhortations of his soldiers he remained in the French Revolutionary Army.Bruce, 79. d'Hautpoul served in the 1794–1799 campaigns against the armies of the First and Second Coalitions. In April 1794, d'Hautpoul was promoted in the field to general of brigade and he commanded the brigade under both Jacques Desjardin and his successor, François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers. After the battle of Fleurus, his unit was transferred to the division of François Joseph Lefebvre. In June 1795, his provisional rank of general of brigade was made permanent by the Committee of Public Safety. He distinguished himself in a fight at Blankenberge on 13 September 1795. In June 1796, d'Hautpoul was promoted to general of division and inspector of the cavalry. At Altenkirchen, he was wounded in the shoulder by a musket ball.Haythornthwaite, p. 27. After his recovery, d'Hautpoul was given command of the heavy cavalry of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse under General Paul Grenier. After Neuwied, he was transferred to the Army of England under command of Lazare Hoche. When the French Directory abandoned the idea of an invasion of England, he was again deployed on the German front, this time as part of the Army of the Danube. After the French loss at the Battle of Ostrach, his Cavalry reserve protected the French retreat from Pfullendorf. A few days later, after failing to lead a timely charge at the Battle of Stockach, he was suspended on orders of the Army commander, Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, who blamed d'Hautpoul for the defeat. Acquitted by a court-martial in Strasbourg, d'Hautpoul resumed his duties at the end of July 1799, having missed the critical actions at the First Battle of Zurich. In 1799, d'Hautpoul commanded cavalry brigades under Ney, Lecourbe and Baraguey d'Hilliers in the rest of the campaign in northeastern Switzerland. In the German campaign of 1800, he served under Moreau and distinguished himself at the battles of Biberach and Hohenlinden, during which his heavy cavalry was instrumental in disrupting the Austrian infantry defenses.Haythornthwaite, p. 28. ==Napoleonic wars== In July 1801, First Consul Bonaparte appointed d'Hautpoul as inspector- general of the cavalry and then awarded him command of the cavalry in the camps of Compiègne and Saint-Omer. In August 1805, d'Hautpoul was given command of the 2nd division of cuirassiers under Joachim Murat. At Austerlitz, d'Hautpoul distinguished himself by leading his heavy cavalry into the Russian center at the Pratzen heights, breaking the infantry squares. In 1804, Napoleon made him a grand officer (grand cordon) of the Légion d'honneur and a senator, which carried with it an annual income of 20,000 francs. In the War of the Fourth Coalition, d'Hautpoul served at Jena and in the capture of Lübeck. Transferred to the Corps of Marshal Bessières in December 1806, he again served under Murat in the maneuvers in East Prussia in the Winter of 1807.Tony Broughton, French Chasseur-à-Cheval Regiments and the Colonels Who Led Them 1791–1815: 6e Regiment de Chasseurs-à-Cheval. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. ===Battle of Eylau=== When military activity resumed in the winter of 1807, Napoleon hoped to overwhelm a Russian rearguard at Hof near Eylau, which was called "Preußisch Eylau" (and is now within the borders of the Russian Kaliningrad Oblast). He ordered his dragoons to take a bridge; they failed and suffered severe casualties. D'Hautpoul and his cuirassiers—heavy cavalry of big men on big horses—thundered over the bridge and scattered the Russian rearguard. As the retreating infantry fled, d'Hautpoul's cuirassiers captured four guns and two standards. Napoleon was so pleased with d'Hautpoul and his cuirassiers that he embraced the six-foot man in front of his division the next day. In his own turn, d'Hautpoul was so pleased that he announced first, to have such a compliment, he must be willing to die for his emperor, and second, to his troops: "The Emperor has embraced me on behalf of all of you. And I am so pleased with you that I kiss all your arses."Bruce, p. 77. The pursuit of the Russian troops continued. On 7 February 1807, the French arrived outside the village of Eylau, as night was falling. In some confusion, the Imperial coach rumbled into the village, although the Emperor was setting up his camp a few kilometers away. The Russian patrol in the village chased off the coach driver and his men and plundered the Emperor's belongings; in turn, the Imperial escort chased them off. More and more men were sent into the engagement, and in the end the French took the village when the Russians withdrew. Both sides lost 4,000 men in the contest for the village and the Emperor's nightshirt. Settling for the night, they prepared to engage the next day.Digby Smith. Charge: Great Cavalry Charges of the Napoleonic Wars. London: Greenhill, 2007, p. 66. The next morning, the two armies of unequal strength faced each other across frozen fields fissured by ice-covered streams and ponds, which were in turn covered by snow and drifts. The snow and gloom meant that neither side was aware of the inequalities of men and artillery. Napoleon opened the engagement by sending Soult's's corps, which successfully pushed the Russian right flank back, nearly turning the Russian force. To follow up on this success, he ordered Pierre Augereau's force to attack the left-center. No sooner had Augereau and VII Corps, plus St. Hilaire's division, sallied out when a sudden snow storm engulfed the battlefield. In white-out conditions, Augereau's entire corps disappeared in a flurry of whirling snow. When the snow cleared, friend and foe alike discovered that the first units onto the field had wandered off course. The line of march should have taken them directly to the Russian flank; have no point of reference, they had instead followed the terrain and led the entire corps parallel to the Russian line, along with a V-shaped formation in which the left and center merged, and directly into the face of the Russian 70–gun batteries.Smith, p. 70. The artillery, although shocked to find a French Corps advancing straight toward them, immediately opened fire, as did the Russian infantry on both sides of Augereau's corps. The result was devastating. Five thousand French soldiers fell in a matter of minutes and the entire engagement stood on the brink of disaster. Not only did they face the Russian fire, but the French artillery pounded them as well. Augereau's Corps melted under the withering fire, the bayonets of the Russians, and the onslaught of the cavalry; as they retreated to their own lines, Napoleon was nearly captured at the Eylau churchyard, where he had established a lookout post, but his escort cavalry chased the Russians away. ====Charge at Eylau==== thumb|left|upright=1.5|At the Battle of Eylau, Murat's 10,700-man cavalry charged the Russian lines. D'Hautpoul himself led three charges into the Russian infantry squares. To fill the breach left by Augereau's decimated corps, Napoleon ordered Murat's cavalry reserve, 80 squadrons of 10,700 cavalrymen, into action at 10:30 in the morning. They had to cover of snow-covered, obstacle-filled ground, which they could not do at a gallop. Murat's Reserve charged into the Russian squares in two columns: Grouchy's cavalry, d'Hautpoul's cuirassiers and General Louis Lepic's grenadiers—24 squadrons in total—were flank to flank when they hit the Russian center. This was the occasion of Lepic's famous comment, "Heads up, by God! those are bullets, not turds!"Smith, p. 71. Grouchy, Lepic, and d'Hautpoul's horse broke the center, wheeled, and charged a second time. On the second charge, they broke the second formation of squares; at this point, Grouchy's men were forced back, but d'Hautpoul's cuirassiers pounded forward, reaching the Russian reserve.Bruce, pp. 86–88; Terry J. Senior. The Top Twenty French Cavalry Commanders: #16 General Louis Lepic. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. At this point, the horses were nearly blown, but d'Hautpoul's cuirassiers charged the third line, which they also broke. The Russian Cossacks, assembled in the reserve, entered the melee, but their light horses were no match for the French mounts, big horses confiscated from the Prussians the previous year. The Russian infantry had started to reform their squares behind d'Hautpoul's men. During this charge, d'Hautpoul was struck by artillery grapeshot and badly wounded.Bruce, pp. 77–78. Several of his men managed to carry or drag him back to French lines. Jean Joseph d'Hautpoul . In: 7th Cuirassiers . Accessed 31 January 2010. Napoleon's valet recounted: : > ... I seem still to hear the brave d'Hautpoul saying to His Majesty, just as > he was galloping off to charge the enemy: "Sire, I am going to show you my > big heels; they will go into the enemies' squares as if they were made of > butter!" An hour later he was dead. One of his regiments while fighting in > an interval of the Russian army, was shot down and cut to pieces by the > Cossacks; only eighteen of them escaped. General d'Hautpoul, three times > forced to recoil with his division, thrice rallied them to the charge; the > third time, he again rushed on the enemy, crying in a loud voice: > "Cuirassiers, forward, in the name of God! [F]orward, my brave cuirassiers!" > But grapeshot had mowed down too many of these heroes. Very few of them were > in condition to follow their leader, who fell, covered with wounds, in the > middle of a Russian square into which he had flung himself almost > alone.Louis Constant Wairy. Memoirs of Constant, Vol. II. Chapter XIV. New > York, Century Co., 1895. Etext, unnumbered pages. thumb|Bust statue of General Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. The Emperor ordered the best surgeons to attend to d'Hautpoul, but they disagreed on the best method of treatment. Against the advice of the military surgeon, Larrey, d'Hautpoul refused to have his leg amputated and died not long afterwards.Terry J. Senior. The Top Twenty French Cavalry Commanders: #4 General Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham (editor in chief). 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. There is some disagreement in the records about his actual date of death: the original death record of the parish at Eylau indicates he died of wounds on 1 February 1807, but this was before the battle, and it is possible that the pastor simply left off a digit in his record, or, more likely, that the record was transcribed incorrectly. Other records suggest that he died the day after the battle (8 February), on 11 February, or on 14 February. Originally buried at Worienen, Ernst Wilhelm Gegner (Pfarrar). Sterbregister 1807 . Preus. Eylau. Full text: Den 1. Februar 1807 starb in dem Hofe Worienen an seinen Wunden, welche er in der Schlacht b. Pr. Eylau empfangen hatte, der französische General Hautpoult, und wurde in dem Worienschen Hofgarten begraben. His son, Alexandre Joseph Napoléon, brought his remains to France in 1840 to be buried in the family crypt at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. D'Hautpoul's heart is conserved in a vault in Les Invalides, and his name is inscribed on Column 16 of the Arc de Triomphe,List of the 660 names inscribed at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris among the first 384 names to be inscribed on it. ==See also== * Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, Eastern pillar, column 16 ==References== ===Notes and citations=== ===Bibliography=== * Broughton, Tony. French Chasseur-à- Cheval Regiments and the Colonels Who Led Them 1791–1815: 6e Regiment de Chasseurs-à-Cheval. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. * Bruce, Robert B. Iain Dickie, Kevin Kiley. Fighting techniques of the Age of Napoleon. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, 2008. . * Caron, P. "Review of: Mémoires du général marquis Alphonse d'Hautpoul, pair de France (1789–1865) by Alphonse d'Hautpoul. Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine (1899–1914), Vol. 7, No. 7 (1905/1906), pp. 560–561. * Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. * Elting, John Robert. Swords around the Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armée. New York: Da Capo Press, 1997, , * Gegner, Ernst Wilhelm, (Pfarrar). Sterbregister 1807. Preus. Eylau. * Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Napoleon's commanders. London: Osprey Military, 2001-2002. . * Senior, Terry J. The Top Twenty French Cavalry Commanders: #4 General Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. * Senior, Terry J. The Top Twenty French Cavalry Commanders: #16 General Louis Lepic. Napoleon Series. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. 2002. Accessed 30 January 2010. * Wairy, Louis Constant. Memoirs of Constant, Vol. II. Chapter XIV. New York, Century Co., 1895. Etext. * Jean Joseph d'Hautpoul. In: 7th Cuirassiers. Extracted from Général Charles Thoumas, Les Grands Cavaliers du Premier Empire, volume 3, Nancy: Berger-Levrault, 1890, and Charles Théodore Beauvais de Préau, Victoires conquêtes désastres revers et guerres civiles des français depuis 1792 Paris: Didot Frères, 1856. Accessed 31 January 2010. Category:1754 births Category:1807 deaths Category:People from Tarn (department) Category:Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:French military personnel killed in the Napoleonic Wars Category:French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Category:Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Category:Cavalry commanders
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Louviers () is a commune in the Eure department in Normandy in north-western France. Louviers is from Paris and from Rouen. ==Population== == History== ===Prehistory=== In the area around Louviers, cut stones from the Paleolithic era have been found. Some of these are in the town's museum, alongside fragments of a mammoth tusk found not far from the cemetery. Other evidence of human presence in the area at different periods of prehistory includes the menhir of Basse-Cremonville and the Neolithic tomb which was close to it. Various objects from these periods - weapons, vases, stone and bronze tools - have also been found in the area. ===Ancient Gaul and Roman Gaul=== A few elements dating from the period of Ancient Gaul have been found at Louviers: a Celtic grave found in 1863 against the wall of the Église Notre-Dame, and several Gallic coins. A hypothesis of a fortified Gallic village has been formulated, but not proven. The Louviers of Roman Gaul is, however, better known. It was not, however, unimportant, as judged by the fact that it appeared in neither the Antonine Itinerary nor the Tabula Peutingeriana. ===Middle ages=== Under the Merovingians, Louviers had at least two cemeteries, but it is only from the 9th Century that certain historical events can be dated. * On 10 February 856, King Charles II (Charles the Bald), father of the future Louis II (in French, Louis le Bègue), promised his son in marriage to a daughter of Erispoe, king of Brittany. In return, Erispoe gave to Charles the duchy of Mans. This arrangement greatly displeased the Breton vassals, and was perhaps one of the reasons for the plot which followed the death of the Breton king the following year. * In 965, Richard I, Duke of Normandy gave the churches of Louviers and Pinterville, the fisheries of the water-mills of Louviers, and forty sols of rent on these mills to the Abbey of Saint-Taurin, which he had just founded at Évreux. It is the first time, at the end of the period, that the name of Louviers appears in an official deed. * In 1026, this donation was confirmed by Richard II, Duke of Normandy. * In 1184, the "mills of the king" burnt down, and were rebuilt. * In 1195, Richard Lionheart confirmed the charter of his predecessors. * In 1196, Philip II of France and Richard Lionheart signed the Trêve de Louviers (written confirmation of the peace of Issoudun). * In 1197, Richard Lionheart gave Louviers to the archbishop of Rouen, Walter de Coutances, in return for which, Richard received Les Andelys and with it, the opportunity to build Château Gaillard. From this date up to the French Revolution, the archbishops of Rouen were counts of Louviers. * Starting from around the beginning of the 13th century, the church of Notre-Dame de Louviers, was built. By 1240, the principal parts were finished: the choir, the nave and the transept surmounted by a lantern tower. * The town continued to prosper up to the middle of the 14th century, thanks to its cloth industry, and it is possible that the population exceeded 10,000. Evidence of this wealth includes the construction of a buildings: a bishop's manor, houses of wood and of wattle and daub, and stone dwellings for the master drapers and the rich merchants. * In 1346 and again in 1356, the town was again captured and sacked. It was occupied for four years up to 1360. On 16 May of that year, Edward the Black Prince, solemnly pronounced, in the name of his father, Edward III of England, the ratification of the treaty which, in exchange for one quarter of the kingdom of France, set at liberty John II of France (French: Jean le Bon), who had been a prisoner in Poitiers. * In 1364, the people of Louviers asked Charles V of France for authorisation to fortify the town's ramparts. * From 1379 to 1385, the church was repaired: the vaults of the nave were raised and a spire 50 metres high was built on top of the bell-tower. * On 12 July 1380, the constable of the garrison, inspecting the walls towards midnight, found a sentinel asleep. The constable angrily threw him, head first, at a wooden sentry box, and killed him. * In 1409, the townspeople started work again on the fortifications, which had been neglected after the victories of Bertrand du Guesclin against the English. They undertook to build on the side of their church a bell-tower in a style more military than religious. * In 1418, the English laid siege to the town. The battle was fierce and the victors pitiless. The town was taken after 26 hours (15 according to English sources): 120 townspeople were killed at sword-point, while the others were spared only by paying a large ransom (15,000 ecus). The occupation that followed lasted 11 years. * In December 1429, Étienne de Vignolles, also called La Hire, companion of Joan of Arc, retook the town. The English, not able to accept this fact, besieged the town in May 1431 with 12,000 men. The new siege lasted nearly six months. The town capitulated on 22 October after it had lost most of its defenders. The English promised honourable conditions to the survivors, but razed the town. * In 1440, the town was again liberated and its inhabitants were able to rebuild it. The English tried one last time to take the town in 1441. In that year, Charles VII of France exempted the people of Louviers in perpetuity from paying most royal taxes, and in particular, the heaviest tax, the taille. The town received, incorporated in its coast of arms, the motto "Loviers le Franc" (Louviers the loyal), and the inhabitants received the right to bear the letter L in embroidery, goldsmithery or wherever else they pleased. * In the 15th century, Louvier's cloth industry kept its royal protection under the king Louis XI, as was the case with other towns of Normandy. ===Renaissance=== * Between 1496 and 1510 the southern façade of the church of Notre-Dame was expanded in the flamboyant gothic style. At about the same time, the lantern tower was also renovated. * In 1562, Rouen fell into the hands of the Protestants. On the orders of Charles IX of France, the Parliament of Normandy was transferred to Louviers, where it sat from 5 August to 28 October.Amable Floquet, Histoire du parlement de Normandie, Volume 2, Rouen, Édouard Frère, 1840, pages 410-445 * In 1591, Charles de Gontaut, Marshal de Biron (1562 – 1602), the lieutenant of Henri IV, presented himself in front of Louviers on 6 June and seized the town, after a brief but violent fight; this allowed the king to enter. ===17th and 18th centuries=== * In the 17th century, several epidemics of plague struck the town (1619, 1620, 1624, 1648, 1694), with many victims. * In 1620, the franchises granted by Charles VII were abolished by Louis XIII. * In 1681, the royal administration installed in Louviers a cloth factory specialising in products of very high quality. Managed for more than 50 years by Francois Le Camus, it brought some prosperity to the town. But regulations brought in by minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert facilitated competition from the town of Elbeuf. * In the 18th century, many natural disasters hit the town: terrible winters (1709, 1740, 1776, 1784); a hurricane (1705); floods (1740, 1776, 1784); and major fires (1782, 1783). * In 1709, a rabid wolf entered the town and bit 15 people, killing five. * In 1785, Louviers got its first factory with mechanical machinery. It spun cotton using the new English methods. ===1789–1945=== During the French Revolution, Louviers' citizens were moderate in their cahiers de doléances (grievances presented to the king), and followed the currents of thought and action of the rest of the country. This moderation was shown by constitutional royalists at the time of the first two revolutionary assemblies; by Girondists at the start of the National Convention, and by the Thermidorian Reaction after the execution of Robespierre. Food shortages under the Revolution and the fact that they became worse under the French Directory favoured support of a strong government, and the consular constitution was accepted unanimously by the voters. The first consul (Napoleon) visited Louviers on 30 October 1802. He returned on 1 June 1810 with his wife Marie-Louise and they visited the town's factories. The town was occupied by the Prussians in 1815. The regulations of Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) had led the manufacturers of Louviers to specialise in extremely fine cloth. But the Revolution did not favour luxury fabrics, leading to a severe downturn in manufacturing in the town. With the introduction of new manufacturing methods, however, the quality was maintained while lowering the price. With this, the town enjoyed a new prosperity that lasted up to the middle of the twentieth century. This prosperity was reflected in some important civic projects: * Under the Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830), the old ramparts were demolished and replaced by boulevards. * Under the July Monarchy (1830–1848) a library, a savings bank, and the first true public school for boys were built, and Notre-Dame was restored. * Under the Second Empire (1852–1870), streets were opened and paved, schools, the port, bridges and lighting were improved; important works were done to l'Hotel de ville and a new railway station was opened. The revolutions of 1830 (the July Revolution) and 1848 passed almost unnoticed in Louviers. In 1870, the war against Prussia caused 16 deaths, 13 wounded and 23 prisoners. The town was evacuated at the beginning of March 1871, then life resumed as normal under the Third Republic. In 1855 the école primaire supérieure was established – it subsequently became a college then a lycée. In 1899, Louviers' streets were lit with electricity. Before World War I, a municipal theatre, a museum and a range of organisations – scholarly, sporting, musical, cooperative – flourished. In June 1940, Louviers suffered greatly under the bombardments of the Battle of France. Members of several of the Resistance groups in the town were arrested and deported. On 25 August 1944, the Americans, then the British, liberated the town after several bombardments. On 8 October 1944, Louviers was visited by General de Gaulle, and on 26 June 1949, the town was awarded the Croix de Guerre. ===Recent history=== After the Second World War, the town was reconstructed, and several new quarters were created: Saint-Lubin, Saint-Germain, la Roquette, la Côte de Paris, Saint- Jean. In the second half of the twentieth century, Louviers' political history has a left-wing tilt. From 1953 to 1958, the mayor was Pierre Mendès France (1907–1982), a member of the left-wing Radical Party. From 1965 to 1969, the mayor was Ernest Martin of the DVG (Miscellaneous left). The candidates on the list that he headed were left-wing and anti-authoritarian; their party allegiances went from the Parti Socialiste Unifié (PSU) to the anarchists. They sought self governance (autogestion), and the events of May 1968 led in Louviers to the establishment of self-managing bodies – neighbourhood committees, avant-garde cultural policies, and so on. The right won the municipal elections in 1969. For eight years, town hall debates were stormy, but then in 1977, Henri Fromentin was elected mayor on a platform of implementing Ernest Martin's revolutionary programme. ==Sights== Its church, Notre-Dame, has parts which date from the thirteenth century. The 16th century porch on the south side is an example of Late Gothic Flamboyant architecture. ==Personalities== It is also well known for its Musée des décors de Théâtre, d'Opéra et de Cinéma (Fondation Wakhévitch), after Georges Wakhévitch (1907–1984) who lived nearby. The composer Maurice Duruflé (b. in Louviers 1906 - d. in Louveciennes 1986) was born in Louviers. Other famous persons include: *Jacques Ovyn (16th-century French playwright). *Jean Nicolle (Louviers 1604- Louviers 1650), painter. *Pierre Mendès-France, mayor of Louviers in 1954. *Olivier Besancenot, politician. *Susan Loomis. Author 1998–present. MAURICE DURUFLÉ organiste ==International relations== Louviers is twinned with: *Weymouth and Portland, England *Holzwickede, Germany *San Vito dei Normanni, Italy ==See also== *Communes of the Eure department *Treaty of Louviers ==References== * Surprising history and 16th century sculpture in the church of Notre Dame, Louviers - info and photos ==External links== *Official Web site Category:Communes of Eure Category:Eure communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
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The Landtag of Saxony (), also known in English as the Saxon State Parliament, is the legislature of the Free State of Saxony, one of Germany's sixteen states. It is responsible for legislation, control of the government, and electing some state officials. The Landtag has existed in various forms since 1831, but the current body was established during German reunification in 1990. The Landtag is directly elected and has a term of five years. ==Powers== As the legislative body of the Free State of Saxony, the Landtag is responsible for drafting and passing laws, including the state budget, as well as overseeing the activities of the state government and electing the Minister-President, the head of government. Draft laws may be introduced to the Landtag in various ways: by the proposal of at least six members, by any parliamentary group, by the state government, or by public petition. Draft laws are first sent by the President of the Landtag to a relevant committee, which considers the draft law and makes any amendments it considers necessary. The committee then submits a report to the Landtag recommending either its adoption or its rejection. The Landtag then debates and votes on the law. If it is adopted, it is submitted to the Minister-President and the relevant state minister for countersigning. It is then promulgated by the state government and enters into force. As Saxony has a parliamentary system, the state government is reliant on the confidence of the Landtag in order to serve. The Landtag is thus responsible for oversight of the government. The state constitution declares that the Landtag has a comprehensive right to question the government, who must respond to inquiries from parliamentary groups or individual Landtag members. Parliamentary groups may request debates on issues of relevance in the plenary, at which the state government is obliged to speak. Standing committees may also demand the presence of members of the state government to give statements. The first responsibility of the Landtag during each legislative period is the election of its presiding officer, the President of the Landtag, as well as the Vice-Presidents of the Landtag. The Landtag also elects the head of the state government, the Minister-President. The Minister-President must win an absolute majority of votes to be elected in the first round of voting; if no candidate achieves this, a simple majority suffices in further rounds. The Minister-President is then responsible for the appointment of the state cabinet. The Landtag also elects a number of other state offices, including the Commissioner for Data Protection, the Commissioner for Coming to Terms with the SED Dictatorship (), the Commissioner for Foreigners, the President of the Saxon Court of Auditors, and the members of the Saxon Constitutional Court. ==History== Some form of an assembly has existed in the state's predecessors since the Saxon House of Wettin was enfeoffed with the Margraviate of Meissen in 1089. The local ministeriales regularly met with the Wettin margraves, consulting but also defending the interests of their own region. By the time Meissen was elevated to the Electorate of Saxony by the Golden Bull of 1356, the noble representatives of the estates formed a permanent advisory board. With the deputies of the Saxon cities, these Landstände councils gradually obtained a considerable voice until the 15th century: mainly in fiscal and military policies, later also in religious matters concerning the Protestant Reformation. ===Kingdom of Saxony=== A modern-style bicameral constitutionally-based legislature was introduced in the Kingdom of Saxony in September 1831. In the wake of the tumultuous 1848 revolutions, Saxony's Landtag extended voting rights (though still maintaining property requirements) and abolished poll taxes. In 1871, Saxony was incorporated into the German Empire, and more voting rights were gradually extended. Upon the introduction of universal male suffrage in 1909, the number of eligible voters almost tripled – from 264,000 in 1907 to 773,000 – and turnout increased dramatically (from 48% to 82%). The influx of previously disenfranchised working-class voters allowed the Social Democratic Party (SPD) to win substantial representation for the first time since the 1890s, splitting the hitherto stable National Liberal/Conservative party system. ===Free State=== After the First World War and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Saxony was re-established as a republic, adopting its modern title of "Free State". During the Weimar Republic period, Saxon politics were dominated by the Social Democratic Party (SPD), with the German National People's Party (DNVP), the Communist Party (KPD), the German People's Party (DVP), and later the Wirtschaftspartei (WP) maintaining a significant presence. From 1926 onward, a series of right-wing coalition governments were led successively by the small Old Social Democratic Party (ASPD), the DVP, and the DNVP. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, the government passed the "Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich" (30 January 1934) that abolished all the state Landtage. The Landtag was de facto re-established in the Soviet occupation zone in 1946, later becoming part of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). It functioned until its abolition in 1952, during which time it was dominated by the Socialist Unity Party (SED). The Landtag was formally re-established again upon Germany's legal reunification on 3 October 1990. It was elected on 14 October, and its inaugural sitting took place on 27 October. Since 1990, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) has always been the largest party; it held an absolute majority of seats until 2004. ==Electoral system== thumb|400px|Map of constituencies used in the 2014 Landtag election Elections to the Landtag are conducted via mixed-member proportional representation using closed party lists. Voters have two votes: a "first vote" for a directly-elected representative from one of a number of single-member constituencies, and a "second vote" for a party list. In order to qualify for representation, a party must either gain 5% of the statewide list vote or win at least two constituencies. First-past-the-post voting is used for single-member constituencies, and the overall seat distribution is determined using the D'Hondt method. In the case of overhang seats, the total number of seats in the Landtag is increased from the standard 120 (60 constituency seats and 60 party list seats) until no overhang seats remain, i.e. the number of leveling seats added is equal to the original number of overhang seats. There is also a provision ensuring that, if a party wins an absolute majority of party votes but does not win an absolute majority of seats, an extra seat is awarded to that party at the expense of the other parties. ==Current composition== === 2019 state election === AfD received its highest share of the vote in any state or federal election, while the CDU and The Left both fell to record lows in Saxony. Under normal circumstances AfD should have received 39 seats in the Landtag; however, due to positions 31–61 in their party list being ruled invalid and removed from the list, they had no candidates to fill the final seat. Thus, it remains vacant and there are only 119 members of the Landtag, one fewer than the standard minimum size. The CDU formed a government coalition with the Greens and the SPD. | colspan=13 align=center| 350px |- ! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Party ! colspan=4| Constituency ! colspan=4| Party list ! rowspan=2| Total seats ! rowspan=2| +/- ! rowspan=2| Seats % |- ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | 703,006 | 32.5 | 7.2 | 41 | 695,560 | 32.1 | 7.3 | 4 | 45 | 14 | 37.8 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD) | 613,585 | 28.4 | 22.0 | 15 | 595,671 | 27.5 | 17.7 | 23 | 38 | 24 | 31.9 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| The Left (Die Linke) | 265,871 | 12.3 | 8.7 | 1 | 224,354 | 10.4 | 8.5 | 13 | 14 | 13 | 11.8 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | 192,489 | 8.9 | 2.6 | 3 | 187,015 | 8.6 | 2.9 | 9 | 12 | 4 | 10.1 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD) | 166,920 | 7.7 | 5.5 | 0 | 167,289 | 7.7 | 4.6 | 10 | 10 | 8 | 8.4 |- ! colspan=13| |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP) | 100,639 | 4.7 | 0.6 | 0 | 97,438 | 4.5 | 0.7 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Free Voters (FW) | 98,353 | 4.6 | 2.6 | 0 | 72,897 | 3.4 | 1.8 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI) | 12,557 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0 | 33,618 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Human Environment Animal Protection (Tierschutz) | – | – | 0.0 | – | 33,476 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD) | – | – | 0.0 | – | 12,947 | 0.6 | 4.3 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=black| | align=left| Partei für Gesundheitsforschung | – | – | New | – | 11,652 | 0.5 | New | 0 | 0 | New | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Blaue #TeamPetry Thüringen | 1,508 | 0.1 | New | 0 | 7,806 | 0.4 | New | 0 | 0 | New | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) | – | – | 1.6 | – | 6,632 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP) | – | – | | – | 6,000 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=#110077| | align=left| Party of Humanists (Humanisten) | – | – | New | – | 4,305 | 0.2 | New | 0 | 0 | New | 0 |- | | align=left| Dawn of German Patriots – Middle Germany (ADPM) | – | – | New | – | 3,948 | 0.2 | New | 0 | 0 | New | 0 |- | bgcolor=#005488| | align=left| Party of Reason (PDV) | – | – | | – | 2,268 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=#FF0000| | align=left| Communist Party of Germany (KPD) | – | – | | – | 1,951 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | | align=left| Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität (BüSo) | – | – | 0.4 | – | 1,630 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- | bgcolor=| | align=left| Other | 2,732 | 0.1 | | 0 | – | – | – | – | 0 | ±0 | 0 |- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 2,159,850 ! 98.7 ! ! ! 2,166,457 ! 99.0 ! ! ! ! ! |- ! colspan=2| Blank and invalid votes ! 28,636 ! 1.3 ! ! ! 22,029 ! 1.0 ! ! ! ! ! |- ! colspan=2| Total ! 2,188,486 ! 100.0 ! ! 60 ! 2,188,486 ! 100.0 ! ! 59 ! 119 ! 7 ! |- ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 3,288,643 ! 66.5 ! 17.4 ! ! 3,288,643 ! 66.5 ! 17.4 ! ! ! ! |- | colspan=13| Source: Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen |} ==Historical composition== SN Landtagswahl 1990.svg|1st Landtag SN Landtagswahl 1994.svg|2nd Landtag SN Landtagswahl 1999.svg|3rd Landtag SN Landtagswahl 2004.svg|4th Landtag SN Landtagswahl 2009.svg|5th Landtag SN Landtagswahl 2014.svg|6th Landtag SN Landtagswahl 2019.svg|7th Landtag === Members of the state government === Government office Picture Name Party State Secretary Party Minister President center|frameless|120px Michael Kretschmer CDU First Deputy of the Minister President center|frameless|120px Wolfram Günther B'90/Die Grünen Saxon State Ministry for Energy, Climate protection, Environment und Agriculture (SMEKUL) Gerd Lippold Gisela Reetz B'90/Die Grünen Second Deputy of the Minister President center|frameless|120px Martin Dulig SPD Saxon State Ministry for Economic Affairs, Labour and Transport (SMWA) Hartmut Mangold Ines Fröhlich SPD Saxon State Ministry of the Interior (SMI) center|frameless|142x142px Roland Wöller CDU Thomas Rechentin Head of office CDU Saxon State Ministry of Finance (SMF) Hartmut Vorjohann CDU Dirk Diedrichs Head of office non-party Saxon State Ministry of Justice and for Democracy, European Affairs and Equality (SMJ) center|frameless|120px Katja Meier B'90/Die Grünen Mathias Weilandt Gesine Märtens B'90/Die Grünen Saxon State Ministry of Education (SMK) center|frameless|120px Christian Piwarz CDU Herbert Wolff CDU Saxon State Ministry of Science (SMWK) center|frameless|120px Sebastian Gemkow CDU Andrea Franke CDU Saxon State Ministry of Culture and Tourism (SMWK) center|frameless|120px Barbara Klepsch CDU Saxon State Ministry of Social Affairs (SMS) center|frameless|120px Petra Köpping SPD Uwe Gaul (until July 5, 2021) Sebastian Vogel (since July 6, 2021) Dagmar Neukirch SPD Saxon State Ministry of Regional Development (SMR) center|frameless|120px Thomas Schmidt CDU Frank Pfeil non-party Head of the Saxon State Chancellery and State Minister of Federal matters and Media Oliver Schenk CDU Thomas Popp Digital Administration and Administrative modernization (Member of the state government) Conrad Clemens Authorized representative of the free state Saxony to the federal government of Germany CDU ==See also== *List of presidents of the Landtag of Saxony ==References== Saxony Category:Politics of Saxony
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Tomáš Verner (; born 3 June 1986) is a former Czech figure skater. He is the 2008 European champion, a medalist at two other European Championships (2007 silver, 2011 bronze), and a ten-time (2002–2004, 2006–2008, 2011–2014) Czech national champion. He has won six senior Grand Prix medals, including the 2010 Cup of Russia title. == Personal life == Tomáš Verner was born on 3 June 1986 in Písek, Czech Republic. He moved to the capital, Prague, when he was 12 years old. His father is a doctor. He has an older brother, Miroslav, who formerly competed internationally in junior pair skating, and a younger sister, Kateřina, who is a gymnast. He was in relationship for four years with figure skater Nathalie Péchalat. In March 2020, he married Thai figure skater . They are expecting their son in September 2020. Verner studied physical education and sports at Charles University in Prague, and earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 2010. He then studied sports marketing and management at the University of Prague. He speaks Czech, German, and English and also knows some Russian. == Career == === Early career=== Verner started skating at the age of five. He also did athletics and played football before choosing to focus on skating. At the age of 12, he moved from Písek, where he was born, to Prague where his talent was spotted by coach Vlasta Kopřivová. He won his first national title in the 2001–02 season, and later that year represented the Czech Republic at the European Championships, where he finished 14th, and at the World Championships, where he failed to qualify for the free skate. Over the next four years, Verner finished as high as 10th place at Europeans and 13th at Worlds. He missed much of the 2004–05 season after he twisted his ankle and tore part of the muscle from the bone. He trained in Prague and also traveled regularly to Oberstdorf, Germany to train with Michael Huth. During summers, he would also spend a few weeks training in Leppävirta, Finland. === 2006–2007 season === In 2007, Verner improved significantly upon his previous results. At the European Championships in Warsaw, he led after the short program before finishing with the silver medal behind Brian Joubert. He was the first Czech male single skater to medal at the European Championships since 1992. At the 2007 World Championships in Japan, he finished fourth overall. Having popped a triple axel and made an error on a spin, he was in ninth place after the short but moved up to fourth after the long program, landing a quadruple toe loop-triple toe loop combination and a further quadruple toe loop. === 2007–2009 seasons === In 2008, Verner became the first Czech male to win Europeans since Petr Barna's victory for Czechoslovakia in 1992. He was fourth after the short program at the 2008 World Championships but finished 15th after popping several jumps in his long program. Verner's 2008–09 Grand Prix assignments were the Cup of China and the Cup of Russia. He finished third and second, respectively, qualifying for the Grand Prix Final where he finished 4th. At the 2009 Europeans, Verner scored a personal best in the short program and was in second place, but made several mistakes in his long program which dropped him to 6th place overall. He finished fourth at the 2009 World Championships. === 2009–2010 season === Verner began the 2009–10 season with a silver medal at the 2009 Trophée Eric Bompard. He finished fifth at the 2010 Skate America. While at Skate America, he became ill with H1N1 flu, from which he was unable to fully recover during the rest of the season. Verner was first alternate for the Grand Prix Final, and eventually filled the slot left open by the injured Brian Joubert; he came in sixth. He was second to Michal Březina at the Czech Championships, dropped to 10th at Europeans and struggled at the Olympics, finishing 19th. Verner decided not to compete at the World Championships because he felt unprepared for the event. === 2010–2011 season === Before the start of the 2010–11 season, Verner changed coaches, and began training with Robert Emerson in Richmond Hill, near Toronto. Whereas in Europe, he typically trained his program in parts, with full run-throughs only before a competition, his new coach requires complete run-throughs in everyday training. Verner won the bronze at 2010 Cup of China, his first Grand Prix event of the year. At the 2010 Cup of Russia, Verner set a new personal best in the long program and beat Patrick Chan and Jeremy Abbott to win his first senior Grand Prix title. He was the only person to beat Patrick Chan in international competition during the 2010–2011 season. He qualified for the 2010–2011 Grand Prix Final, where he finished fifth in the short program and fourth in the free skate for fifth place overall. His next event was the Czech national championships, which he won for the first time in three years. Verner was fifth in the short program at the 2011 Europeans following a fall on his triple Axel, but finished second in the free skate to move up to third overall. The bronze medal was his first podium finish at the Europeans since winning the event in 2008. Following the European Championships, Verner and a number of other elite skaters performed in a show in North Korea, an event which was sanctioned by the Czech skating association and the ISU but resulted in some criticism in the Czech Republic. Verner finished 12th at the 2011 World Championships. === 2011–2014 === Verner withdrew from the 2011 Nebelhorn Trophy due to a back injury. He was not fully recovered by the Grand Prix series. He finished 5th at the 2011 NHK Trophy and withdrew from his second assignment, the 2011 Rostelecom Cup. At the Czech Championships, Verner was second behind Michal Březina after the short program but won the free skate and took his eighth national title. He finished 5th at the 2012 European Championships and 16th at the 2012 World Championships. Verner was 11th at the 2013 European Championships and 21st at the World Championships. In June and July 2013, he trained at the IceDome camp in Oberstdorf, working with Vlasta Kopřivová, Michael Huth, and Rostislav Sinicyn. He received no Grand Prix assignments for the 2013–2014 season. In August 2013, Verner announced that he would return to Oberstdorf full-time to work with Michael Huth as his coach. In October, he won gold at the 2013 Ondrej Nepela Memorial after placing second in the short program and first in the free skate. Verner went on to compete at the Cup of Nice, which he also won. In December, Verner competed at the Czech Championships where he won his tenth title, twenty-eight points ahead of second-place finisher, Michal Březina, securing himself a spot at his third Olympics. He finished 11th at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Although he initially intended to retire in February 2014, Verner decided to compete at the 2014 World Championships in Saitama, Japan, and finished tenth at the event. He then retired from competition. == Programs == right|thumb|180px|Verner at the 2009 Grand Prix Final right|thumb|180px|Verner at 2010 Europeans Season Short program Free skating Exhibition 2013–2014 * Dueling Banjos (from Deliverance) by Arthur Smith Tango medley: * Oblivion * Adiós Nonino * Libertango by Astor Piazolla * La cumparsita by Matos Rodriguez 2012–2013 * Dracula * It Don't Mean a Thing by Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong * La Vie en rose performed by Louis Armstrong * Sing, Sing, Sing 2011–2012 * Carmina Burana (hiphop version) by Carl Orff * Sing, Sing, Sing (from Swing Kids * La Vie en rose performed by Louis Armstrong * Sexy And I Know It by LMFAO 2010–2011 * Singin' in the Rain * Michael Jackson medley * Always Look on the Bright Side of Life by Monty Python 2009–2010 * Zorba the Greek soundtrack by Mikis Theodorakis * The Godfather soundtrack by Nino Rota, Carmine Coppola * Always Look on the Bright Side of Life by Monty Python \---- * Michael Jackson medley 2008–2009 * Melodie en Crépuscule * Gypsy Swing by Django Reinhardt Tango medley: * Oblivion * Adiós Nonino * Libertango by Astor Piazolla * La cumparsita by Matos Rodriguez * Michael Jackson medley 2007–2008 * Melodie en Crépuscule * Gypsy Swing by Django Reinhardt * Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon by Tan Dun * Volare by the Gipsy Kings 2006–2007 * Toccata & Fugue by Johann Sebastian Bach performed by Vanessa-Mae * Fundamentum, Lesium by Lesiëm * The Pink Panther 2005–2006 * Blues * Fundamentum, Lesium by Lesiëm * Rockaria! 2004–2005 * Lorelei, Noche de Mi Amor by Raúl di Blasio * PS1491 by John Tesh 2003–2004 * New classical melody performed by Boston Symphony Orchestra * Lorelei, Noche de Mi Amor by Raúl di Blasio * PS1491 by John Tesh 2002–2003 * One Man's Dream (from Yanni Live at the Acropolis) * Victory by Yanni 2001–2002 * Victory by Bond * One Man's Dream (from Yanni Live at the Acropolis) 2000–2001 * Song and Dance by Andrew Lloyd Webber * The Terminator == Competitive highlights == International International International International International International International International International International International International International International International International International Event 99–00 00–01 01–02 02–03 03–04 04–05 05–06 06–07 07–08 08–09 09–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 Olympics 18th 19th 11th Worlds 26th 22nd 19th 16th QR 13th 4th 15th 4th 12th 16th 21st 10th Europeans 14th WD 10th 10th 2nd 1st 6th 10th 3rd 5th 11th 7th Grand Prix Final 4th 6th 5th GP Bompard 6th 2nd 8th GP Cup of China 3rd 3rd GP Cup of Russia 4th 2nd 1st WD GP NHK Trophy 2nd 5th GP Skate America 5th 8th GP Skate Canada 5th Bofrost Cup 6th Cup of Nice 1st Finlandia 6th 1st Ice Challenge 1st Karl Schäfer 9th 11th 1st 2nd 3rd Nebelhorn 15th 11th 3rd 1st 3rd 4th 6th Ondrej Nepela 3rd 3rd 1st International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior Junior Worlds 17th 14th JGP Final 7th 6th JGP Bulgaria 2nd JGP Croatia 14th JGP Czech Rep. 17th 15th 10th 1st JGP Germany 2nd JGP Italy 5th JGP Netherlands 4th JGP Poland 11th Paekdusan Prize 4th National National National National National National National National National National National National National National National National National Czech Champ. 2nd J. 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Team events Japan Open 1st T (4th P) GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round GP = Grand Prix; JGP = Junior Grand Prix J. = Junior level; WD = Withdrew; QR = Qualifying round == References == == External links == * Official site * * Tomas Verner at sport-folio.net Category:1986 births Category:Living people Category:Czech male single skaters Category:Olympic figure skaters for the Czech Republic Category:Figure skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 2010 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 2014 Winter Olympics Category:European Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:Season-end world number one figure skaters Category:Sportspeople from Písek Category:Charles University alumni
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This is a list of notable individuals and organizations who have voiced their endorsement of Joe Biden's campaign for the Democratic Party's nomination for the 2020 U.S. presidential election before he became the presumptive nominee on April 8. == Federal legislative officials == == Former federal officials == === Cabinet-level officials === * Madeleine Albright, U.S. Secretary of State (1997–2001), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (1993–1997) * Erskine Bowles, President of the University of North Carolina System (2005–2010), 2004 and 2002 nominee for Senate, Administrator of the Small Business Administration (1993–1994), White House Chief of Staff (1997–1998), White House Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations (1994–1996) * Henry Cisneros, U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (1993–1997), Mayor of San Antonio, TX (1981–1989) (previously endorsed Julian Castro) * James Clapper, Director of National Intelligence (2010–2017), Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence (2007–2010), Director of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (2001–2006), Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency (1991–1995) * Tom Donilon, National Security Advisor (2010–2013), Deputy National Security Advisor (2009–2010) * Mike Espy, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture (1993–1994), 2020 and 2018 nominee for Senate, U.S. Representative from MS-02 (1987–1993) * Anthony Foxx, U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2013–2017), Mayor of Charlotte, NC (2009–2013) * Michael Froman, U.S. Trade Representative (2013–2017) * Chuck Hagel, U.S. Secretary of Defense (2013–2015), U.S. Senator from Nebraska (1997–2009) (Republican) * John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State (2013–2017), U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1985–2013), Chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (2009–2013), Chair (2007–2009, 2001–2003) and Ranking Member (2003–2007) of the Senate Small Business Committee, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (1983–1985), 2004 nominee for president * Ray LaHood, U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2009–2013), U.S. Representative from IL–18 (1995–2009) (Republican) * Jack Lew, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury (2013–2017), White House Chief of Staff (2012–2013), Director of the Office of Management and Budget (2010–2012, 1998–2001) * Gary Locke, U.S. Ambassador to China (2011–2014), U.S. Secretary of Commerce (2009–2011), Governor of Washington (1997–2005) * Denis McDonough, White House Chief of Staff (2013–2017), Deputy National Security Advisor (2010–2013) * Norman Mineta, U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2001–2006), U.S. Secretary of Commerce (2000–2001), U.S. Representative from CA-15 (1993–1995) and CA-13 (1975–1993), Chair (1993–1995) and Ranking Member (1995) of the House Transportation Committee, Chair of the Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus (1994–1995) * Janet Napolitano, President of the University of California System (2013–present), U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security (2009–2013), Governor of Arizona (2003–2009), Chair of National Governors Association (2006–2007) * Leon Panetta, U.S. Secretary of Defense (2011–2013), CIA Director (2009–2011), White House Chief of Staff (1994–1997), OMB Director (1993–1994), U.S. Representative from CA-16 (1977–1993), Chair of the House Budget Committee (1989–1993) * Federico Peña, U.S. Secretary of Energy (1997–1998), U.S. Secretary of Transportation (1993–1997), Mayor of Denver, CO (1983–1991) * Samantha Power, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (2013–2017) * Penny Pritzker, U.S. Secretary of Commerce (2013–2017), National Finance Chair of the Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign (2007–2008) * Susan Rice, U.S. National Security Advisor (2013–2017), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (2009–2013), Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (1997–2001) * Richard Riley, U.S. Secretary of Education (1993–2001), Governor of South Carolina (1979–1987) * Ken Salazar, U.S. Secretary of the Interior (2009–2013), U.S. Senator from Colorado (2005–2009) * Kathleen Sebelius, U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (2009–2014), Governor of Kansas (2003–2009) * Donna Shalala, U.S. Representative from FL-27 (2019–present), President of the Clinton Foundation (2015–2017), President of the University of Miami (2001–2015), U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (1993–2001) * Hilda Solis, U.S. Secretary of Labor (2009–2013), U.S. Representative from CA-32 (2001–2009) * Tom Vilsack, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture (2009–2017), Governor of Iowa (1999–2007) * Andrew Young, Mayor of Atlanta, GA (1982–1990), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (1977–1979), U.S. Representative from GA-05 (1973–1977) ===White House officials === * Nelson Cunningham, Senior Advisor to the Special Envoy for the Americas * Avril Haines, Deputy National Security Advisor (2015–2017), Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (2013–2015) * Colin Kahl, National Security Advisor to the Vice President (2014–2017) * Chris Kojm, Chair of the National Intelligence Council (2009–2014) * Lisa Monaco, Homeland Security Advisor (2013–2017) * Steve Ricchetti, White House Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations (1998–2001) (National Chair) * Anthony Scaramucci, White House Communications Director (2017) (Republican) * Jake Sullivan, National Security Advisor to the Vice President (2013–2014) === State Department officials === * Tony Blinken, Deputy Secretary of State (2015–2017), Deputy National Security Advisor (2013–2015) * Reuben Brigety, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (2011–2013) * R. Nicholas Burns, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs (2005–2008) * Kurt M. Campbell, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (2009–2013) * Elinor Constable, Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (1993–1995), U.S. Ambassador to Kenya (1986–1989) * Evan Dobelle, Chief of Protocol (1977–1978) * Jeffrey D. Feltman, Under Secretary General of the United Nations for Political Affairs (2012–2018), Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs (2009–2012), U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon (2004–2008) * Jose W. Fernandez, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs (2009–2013) * Jon Finer, Director of Policy Planning (2016–2017) * Douglas Frantz, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs (2013–2015) * Robert S. Gelbard, U.S. Ambassador to Indonesia (1999–2001), Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics Matters (1993–1997), U.S. Ambassador to Bolivia (1988–1991) * Heather Higginbottom, Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources (2013–2017), Counselor of the Department of State (2013), Deputy Director of the Office of Management and Budget (2011–2013) * Christopher R. Hill, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs (2005–2009), U.S. Ambassador to Iraq (2009–2010), U.S. Ambassador to South Korea (2004–2005), U.S. Ambassador to Poland (2000–2004), U.S. Ambassador to Macedonia (1996–1999), U.S. Ambassador to Albania (1991) * Roberta S. Jacobson, Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs (2011–2016), U.S. Ambassador to Mexico (2016–2018) * Barbara Larkin, Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs (1996–2001) * Suzanne Nossel, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs (2009) * Victoria Nuland, Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs (2013–2017), Spokesperson for the Department of State (2011–2013), U.S. Ambassador to NATO (2005–2008) * Anne W. Patterson, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs (2013–2017), U.S. Ambassador to Egypt (2011–2013), U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan (2007–2010), Acting U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (2005), Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2005–2007), U.S. Ambassador to Colombia (2000–2003), U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador (1997–2000) * Peter A. Selfridge, Chief of Protocol (2014–2017) * Jay T. Snyder, Commissioner of the U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy * Linda Thomas-Greenfield, Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (2013–2017), Director General of the Foreign Service (2012–2013), U.S. Ambassador to Liberia (2008–2012) * Arturo Valenzuela, Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs (2009–2011) * Nicholas A. Veliotes, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs (1981–1983), U.S. Ambassador to Egypt (1984–1986), U.S. Ambassador to Jordan (1978–1981) * Richard Verma, Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs (2009–2011), U.S. Ambassador to Egypt (2015–2017) * Edward S. Walker Jr., Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs (2000–2001), U.S. Ambassador to Israel (1997–2000), U.S. Ambassador to Egypt (1994–1997), U.S. Ambassador to the United Arab Emirates (1989–1992) ==== U.S. Ambassadors ==== * Leslie M. Alexander, U.S. Ambassador to Ecuador (1996–1999), U.S. Ambassador to Mauritius and the Comoros (1994–1996), U.S. Ambassador to Haiti (1992–1993) * Robert L. Barry, U.S. Ambassador to Indonesia (1992–1995), U.S. Ambassador to Bulgaria (1981–1984) * Matthew Barzun, U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom (2013–2017), U.S. Ambassador to Sweden (2009–2011) * Denise Bauer, U.S. Ambassador to Belgium (2013–2017) * Jack R. Binns, U.S. Ambassador to Honduras (1980–1981) * Alan Blinken, U.S. Ambassador to Belgium (1993–1997) * Wally Brewster, U.S. Ambassador to the Dominican Republic (2013–2017) * Reuben Brigety, U.S. Ambassador to the African Union (2013–2015), Dean of the Elliott School of International Affairs (2015–present) * Tim Broas, U.S. Ambassador to the Netherlands (2014–2016) * Mark Brzezinski, U.S. Ambassador to Sweden (2011–2015) * Dwight L. Bush Sr., U.S. Ambassador to Morocco (2014–2017) * Mark B. Childress, U.S. Ambassador to Tanzania (2014–2016) * Isobel Coleman, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations for Management and Reform (2014–2017) * James Costos, U.S. Ambassador to Spain and Andorra (2013–2017) * Jeffrey DeLaurentis, U.S. Ambassador to Cuba (2014–2017), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations for Special Political Affairs (2011–2014) * Greg Delawie, U.S. Ambassador to Kosovo (2015–2018) * William Eacho, U.S. Ambassador to Austria (2009–2013) * Gerald Feierstein, U.S. Ambassador to Yemen (2010–2013) * Elizabeth Bagley, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1994–1997) * Anthony L. Gardner, U.S. Ambassador to the European Union (2014–2017) * Rufus Gifford, U.S. Ambassador to Denmark (2013–2017) * Marc Ginsberg, U.S. Ambassador to Morocco (1994–1998) * Mark Gitenstein, U.S. Ambassador to Romania (2009–2012) * Christopher E. Goldthwait, U.S. Ambassador to Chad (1999–2004) * Gary A. Grappo U.S. Ambassador to Oman (2006–2009) * Gabriel Guerra-Mondragón, U.S. Ambassador to Chile (1994–1998) * Nina Hachigian, U.S. Ambassador to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (2014–2017) * Jane D. Hartley, U.S. Ambassador to France and Monaco (2014–2017) * Karl W. Hofmann, U.S. Ambassador to Togo (2000–2002) * Thomas C. Hubbard, U.S. Ambassador to South Korea (2001–2004), U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines (1996–2000) * Vicki J. Huddleston, U.S. Ambassador to Mali (2000–2005), U.S. Ambassador to Madagascar (1995–1996) * Deborah K. Jones, U.S. Ambassador to Libya (2013–2015), U.S. Ambassador to Kuwait (2008–2011) * Richard Kauzlarich, U.S. Ambassador to Bosnia and Herzegovina (1997–1999), U.S. Ambassador to Azerbaijan (1994–1997) * Caroline Kennedy, U.S. Ambassador to Japan (2013–2017) * Lisa Kubiske. U.S. Ambassador to Honduras (2011–2014) * Mark P. Lagon, U.S. Ambassador-at-Large to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (2007–2009) * David Lambertson, U.S. Ambassador to Thailand (1991–1995) * Doug Lute, U.S. Ambassador to NATO (2013–2017) * R. Niels Marquardt, U.S. Ambassador to Madagascar and the Comoros (2007–2010), U.S. Ambassador to Equatorial Guinea (2004–2006), U.S. Ambassador to Cameroon (2001–2004) * Elizabeth McKune, U.S. Ambassador to Qatar (1998–2001) * Christopher McMullen, U.S. Ambassador to Angola (2010–2013) * Tom Miller, U.S. Ambassador to Greece (2001–2004), U.S. Ambassador to Bosnia and Herzegovina (1999–2001) * Richard Morningstar, U.S. Ambassador to Azerbaijan (2012–2015) * Lyndon Olson, U.S. Ambassador to Sweden (1998–2001) * Kevin O'Malley, U.S. Ambassador to Ireland (2014–2017) * Robert Orr, U.S. Ambassador to the Asian Development Bank (2010–2016), President of Boeing Japan (2002–2007) * June Carter Perry, U.S. Ambassador to Lesotho and to Sierra Leone (2004–2007) * Joan M. Plaisted, U.S. Ambassador to Kiribati and to the Marshall Islands (1995–2000), U.S. Ambassador to Morocco (1991–1994) * Michael C. Polt, U.S. Ambassador to Estonia (2009–2012), U.S. Ambassador to Serbia (2006–2007), U.S. Ambassador to Serbia and Montenegro (2004–2006), Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs (2001) * Azita Raji, U.S. Ambassador to Sweden (2016–2017) * Charles A. Ray, U.S. Ambassador to Zimbabwe (2009–2012), Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for POW and Missing Personnel Affairs (2006–2009), U.S. Ambassador to Cambodia (2002–2005) * Julissa Reynoso, U.S. Ambassador to Uruguay (2012–2014) * Thomas Robertson, U.S. Ambassador to Slovenia (2004–2008) * James Rosapepe, U.S. Ambassador to Romania (1998–2001) * Cathy Russell, U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women's Issues (2013–2017) * Tom Schieffer, U.S. Ambassador to Japan (2005–2009), U.S. Ambassador to Australia (2001–2005) * Dana Shell Smith, U.S. Ambassador to Qatar (2014–2017) * Bob Sherman, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (2014–2017) * Nancy Soderberg, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations for Special Political Affairs (1997–2001) * Daniel V. Speckhard, U.S. Ambassador to Greece (2007–2010), U.S. Ambassador to Belarus (1997–2000) * Charles Stith, U.S. Ambassador to Tanzania (1998–2001) * Charles H. Twining, U.S. Ambassador to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (1995–1998), U.S. Ambassador to Cambodia (1994–1995), U.S. Ambassador to Benin (1982–1983) * Marc M. Wall, U.S. Ambassador to Chad (2004–2007) * Mary Warlick, U.S. Ambassador to Serbia (2010–2012) * Joseph W. Westphal, U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (2014–2017), Under Secretary of the Army (2009–2014), Acting Secretary of the Army (2001) * Lee S. Wolosky, U.S. Special Envoy for the Closure of the Guantánamo Bay Detention Facility (2015–2017) * Mary Carlin Yates, U.S. Ambassador to Ghana (2002–2005), U.S. Ambassador to Burundi (1999–2002) === Defense Department officials === * Deborah P. Christie, Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Financial Management and Comptroller (1994–1998) * Richard Danzig, U.S. Secretary of the Navy (1998–2001), Under Secretary of the Navy (1993–1997) * John W. Douglass, Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1995–1998) * Frank Kendall III, Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (2011–2017) * Susan Koch * J. William Leonard, Director of the Information Security Oversight Office * George E. Little, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs (2012–2013) * James N. Miller, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy (2012–2014) * Robert B. Pirie Jr., Acting U.S. Secretary of the Navy (2001), Under Secretary of the Navy (2000–2001) * Francis D. Vavala, Adjutant General of the Delaware Army National Guard (1999–2017) * Andrew C. Weber, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Defense Programs (2009–2014) * Frank G. Wisner, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy (1993–1994), Under Secretary of State for International Security Affairs (1992–1993), U.S. Ambassador to India (1994–1997), U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines (1991–1992), U.S. Ambassador to Egypt (1986–1991), U.S. Ambassador to Zambia (1979–1982) === Justice Department officials === * John P. Carlin, Assistant Attorney General for the National Security Division (2014–2016) * James M. Cole, Deputy Attorney General (2010–2015) * James Comey, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2013–2017), Deputy Attorney General (2003–2005) (former Republican, Independent since 2016) * Sally Yates, Acting U.S. Attorney General (2017), U.S. Deputy Attorney General (2015–2017), U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Georgia (2010–2015) === Other Executive Branch officials === * Rand Beers, Acting U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security (2013), Acting U.S. Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security (2013), Under Secretary of Homeland Security for National Protection and Programs (2009–2013), Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (1998–2002) * Jake Braun, White House liaison to the Department of Homeland Security * Richard Cordray, Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2012–2017), 2018 nominee for Governor of Ohio * Stuart Eizenstat, Director of the White House Domestic Policy Council (1977–1981), Deputy Treasury Secretary (1999–2001), U.S. Ambassador to the European Union (1993–1996) * Alejandro Mayorkas, Deputy Homeland Security Secretary (2013–2016) * Thomas O. Melia, Assistant Administrator of USAID for Europe and Eurasia (2015–2017) * Elizabeth Sherwood-Randall, Deputy Secretary of Energy (2014–2017) * John D. Trasviña, Assistant Secretary for the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (2009–2014) == State and territorial executive officials == === Governors === ==== Current ==== * Muriel Bowser, Mayor of the District of Columbia (2015–present) (governor-equivalent, previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Kate Brown, Governor of Oregon (2015–present); Oregon Secretary of State (2009–2015) * John Carney, Governor of Delaware (2017–present), U.S. Representative from DE-AL (2011–2017) * Andrew Cuomo, Governor of New York (2011–present), U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (1997–2001) * Ned Lamont, Governor of Connecticut (2019–present), 2006 nominee for Senate * J. B. Pritzker, Governor of Illinois (2019–present) * Gina Raimondo, Governor of Rhode Island (2015–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Gretchen Whitmer, Governor of Michigan (2019–present) ==== Former ==== * Neil Abercrombie, Governor of Hawaii (2010–2014), U.S. Representative from HI-01 (1991–2010, 1986–1987) * George Ariyoshi, Governor of Hawaii (1973–1986), Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii (1970–1974) * Roy Barnes, Governor of Georgia (1999–2003) * James Blanchard, U.S. Ambassador to Canada (1993–1996), Governor of Michigan (1983–1991), U.S. Representative from MI-18 (1975–1983) * Ben Cayetano, Governor of Hawaii (1994–2002), Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii (1986–1994) * Richard J. Codey, Governor of New Jersey (2004–2006), President of the New Jersey Senate (2002–2010) * Chet Culver, Governor of Iowa (2007–2011), Secretary of State of Iowa (1999–2007) * Jim Doyle, Governor of Wisconsin (2003–2011) * James Florio, Governor of New Jersey (1990–1994), U.S. Representative from NJ-01 (1975–1990) * Alejandro García Padilla, Governor of Puerto Rico (2013–2017) * Jennifer Granholm, Governor of Michigan (2003–2011), Attorney General of Michigan (1999–2003) * Christine Gregoire, Governor of Washington (2005–2013), Chair of the National Governors Association (2010–2011), Attorney General of Washington (1993–2005) * Jim Hodges, Governor of South Carolina (1999–2003) * Bob Holden, Governor of Missouri (2001–2005), Treasurer of Missouri (1993–2001) * John Lynch, Governor of New Hampshire (2005–2013) * Ray Mabus, Secretary of the Navy (2009–2017), U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (1994–1996), Governor of Mississippi (1988–1992) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Jack Markell, Governor of Delaware (2009–2017), Chair of the National Governors Association (2012–2013) * Terry McAuliffe, Governor of Virginia (2014–2018), Chair of the National Governors Association (2016–2017), Chair of the Democratic National Committee (2001–2005) * Bob Miller, Governor of Nevada (1989–1999), Chair of the National Governors Association (1989–1999) * Jay Nixon, Governor of Missouri (2009–2017), 1998 and 1988 nominee for Senate (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Martin O'Malley, Governor of Maryland (2007–2015), 2016 candidate for president (previously endorsed Beto O'Rourke) * Deval Patrick, Governor of Massachusetts (2007–2015), 2020 candidate for president * Pat Quinn, Governor of Illinois (2009–2015), Lieutenant Governor of Illinois (2003–2009), Treasurer of Illinois (1991–1995) * Ed Rendell, Governor of Pennsylvania (2003–2011), Chair of the National Governors Association (2008–2009), General Chair of the Democratic National Committee (1999–2001) * Roy Romer, Governor of Colorado (1987–1999), General Chair of the Democratic National Committee (1997–1999), Chair of the National Governors Association (1992–1993), 1966 nominee for Senate * Peter Shumlin, Governor of Vermont (2011–2017) * Ted Strickland, Governor of Ohio (2007–2011), 2016 nominee for Senate, U.S. Representative from OH-6 (1997–2007, 1993–1995) (previously endorsed Jay Inslee) * John D. Waihe'e III, Governor of Hawaii (1986–1994), Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii (1982–1986) === Lieutenant Governors === ==== Current ==== * Susan Bysiewicz, Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (2019–present) * Garlin Gilchrist, Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (2019–present) * Kate Marshall, Lieutenant Governor of Nevada (2019–present) * Daniel McKee, Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island (2015–present) ==== Former ==== * Doug Chin, Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii (2018), Attorney General of Hawaii (2015–2018) * Barbara O'Brien, Lieutenant Governor of Colorado (2007–2011) * Thomas P. O'Neill III, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (1975–1983) * Shan Tsutsui, Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii (2012–2018) * Fran Ulmer, Lieutenant Governor of Alaska (1994–2002), 2002 nominee for Governor of Alaska, Mayor of Juneau (1983–1985) === Secretaries of State === ==== Current ==== * Alex Padilla, Secretary of State of California (2015–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Jesse White, Secretary of State of Illinois (1999–present) ==== Former ==== * Robin Carnahan, Secretary of State of Missouri (2005–2013), 2010 nominee for Senate * John P. McDonough, Secretary of State of Maryland (2008–2015) === Attorneys General === ==== Current ==== * Brian Frosh, Attorney General of Maryland (2015–present) * Kathy Jennings, Attorney General of Delaware (2019–present) * Tom Miller, Attorney General of Iowa (1995–present, 1979–1991) (previously endorsed Steve Bullock) * Kwame Raoul, Attorney General of Illinois (2019–present) * Josh Shapiro, Attorney General of Pennsylvania (2017–present) * Phil Weiser, Attorney General of Colorado (2019–present); 15th Dean of the University of Colorado Law School (2011–2016) ==== Former ==== * Bonnie Campbell, Attorney General of Iowa (1991–1995), 1994 nominee for Governor of Iowa * Rufus Edmisten, Attorney General of North Carolina (1974–1984), Secretary of State of North Carolina (1989–1996), 1984 nominee for Governor of North Carolina * Drew Edmondson, Attorney General of Oklahoma (1995–2011), 2018 nominee for Governor of Oklahoma === Other statewide officials === ====Current==== * Nikki Fried, Agriculture Commissioner of Florida (2019–present) * Nicole Galloway, 2020 candidate for Governor of Missouri, Auditor of Missouri (2015–present) * Fiona Ma, Treasurer of California (2019–present) * Susana Mendoza, Comptroller of Illinois (2016–present) * Joe Torsella, Treasurer of Pennsylvania (2016–present), U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations for Management and Reform (2011–2014) * Betty Yee, Controller of California (2015–present) ==== Former ==== * Inez Tenenbaum, South Carolina Superintendent of Education (1999–2007), 2004 nominee for Senate ==State and territorial legislative officials== == State judicial officials == === Former === * John T. Broderick Jr., Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court (1995–2004) * Robert C. Hunter, Justice on the North Carolina Court of Appeals (1998–2014), North Carolina State Representative from District 49 (1980–1998) == Municipal and local officials == === Mayors === ==== Current ==== * Steve Adler, Mayor of Austin, TX (2016–present) * Stephen K. Benjamin, Mayor of Columbia, SC (2010–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Andy Berke, Mayor of Chattanooga, TN (2013–present) * Ethan Berkowitz, Mayor of Anchorage, AK (2015–present), Member of Alaska House of Representatives from District 26 (2003–2007) and 13 (1997–2003), 2010 nominee for Governor of Alaska * Rosalynn Bliss, Mayor of Grand Rapids, MI (2016–present) * Keisha Lance Bottoms, Mayor of Atlanta, GA (2018–present) * London Breed, Mayor of San Francisco, CA (2018–present) and Acting Mayor (2017–2018) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris, then Michael Bloomberg * Luke Bronin, Mayor of Hartford, CT (2016–present) * Aja Brown, Mayor of Compton, CA (2013–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris, then Michael Bloomberg) * Mitch Colvin, Mayor of Fayetteville, NC (2017–present) * John Cranley, Mayor of Cincinnati, OH (2013–present) * Mike Duggan, Mayor of Detroit, MI (2014–present) * Jenny Durkan, Mayor of Seattle, WA (2017–present), U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Washington (2009–2014) * Buddy Dyer, Mayor of Orlando, FL (2003–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Greg Fischer, Mayor of Louisville, KY (2011–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Eric Garcetti, Mayor of Los Angeles, CA (2013–present) * Robert Garcia, Mayor of Long Beach, CA (2014–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Andrew Ginther, Mayor of Columbus, OH (2016–present) * Michael Hancock, Mayor of Denver, CO (2011–present) * Lee Harris, Mayor of Shelby County, TN (2018–present), Tennessee State Senator for District 17 (2015–2018) and Tennessee Senate Minority Leader (2015–2018) * Dan Horrigan, Mayor of Akron, OH (2016–present) (previously endorsed Tim Ryan, then Michael Bloomberg * Lyda Krewson, Mayor of St. Louis, MO (2017–present) * Sam Liccardo, Mayor of San Jose, CA (2014–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris, then Michael Bloomberg) * Lori Lightfoot, Mayor of Chicago, IL (2019–present) * María Meléndez, Mayor of Ponce, PR (2009–present) * Ken Miyagishima, Mayor of Las Cruces, NM (2007–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Andre Quintero, Mayor of El Monte, CA (2009–present) * José Román Abreu, Mayor of San Lorenzo, PR (2001–present) * Darrell Steinberg, Mayor of Sacramento, CA (2016–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Levar Stoney, Mayor of Richmond, VA (2017–present), Secretary of the Commonwealth (2014–2016) * Michael Taylor, Mayor of Sterling Heights, MI (2015–present) (Republican) * John Tecklenburg, Mayor of Charleston, SC (2016–present) * Nelson Torres Yordán, Mayor of Guayanilla, PR (2016–present) * Sylvester Turner, Mayor of Houston, TX (2016–present) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Victoria Woodards, Mayor of Tacoma, WA (2018–Present) * Randall Woodfin, Mayor of Birmingham, AL (2017–present) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Jack Young, Mayor of Baltimore, MD (2019–present) ==== Former ==== * Robert A. Baines, Mayor of Manchester, NH (2000–2006) * Ralph Becker, Mayor of Salt Lake City, UT (2008–2016) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Michael Bloomberg, Mayor of New York City, NY (2002–2013), 2020 candidate for president * Bob Buckhorn, Mayor of Tampa, FL (2011–2019) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg)' * Pete Buttigieg, Mayor of South Bend, IN (2012–2020), 2020 candidate for president * Michael Coleman, Mayor of Columbus, OH (2000–2016) (previously endorsed Kamala Harris, then Michael Bloomberg) * John Cook, Mayor of El Paso, TX (2005–2013) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Peter Corroon, Mayor of Salt Lake City, UT (2004–2013) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Karl Dean, Mayor of Nashville, TN (2007–2015), 2018 nominee for Governor of Tennessee (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Karen Freeman-Wilson, Mayor of Gary, IN (2012–2019) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Bill Gluba, Mayor of Davenport, IA (2008–2016) * Phil Gordon, Mayor of Phoenix, AZ (2004–2012) * Phil Hardberger, Mayor of San Antonio, TX (2005–2009) * Jan Laverty Jones, Mayor of Las Vegas, NV (1991–1999), 1998 nominee for Governor of Nevada * Mark Mallory, Mayor of Cincinnati, OH (2005–2013) * Douglas Palmer, Mayor of Trenton, NJ (1990–2010) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Mike Rawlings, Mayor of Dallas, TX (2011–2019), CEO of Pizza Hut (1997–2002) * Stephanie Rawlings-Blake, Mayor of Baltimore, MD (2010–2016) * Joseph P. Riley Jr., Mayor of Charleston, SC (1975–2016) * Michael Signer, Mayor of Charlottesville, VA (2016–2018) * Mark Stodola, Mayor of Little Rock, AR (2007–2018) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Kathy Taylor. Mayor of Tulsa, OK (2006–2009) (previously endorsed Michael Bloomberg) * Nelson Wolff, County Judge of Bexar County, TX (2001–present), Mayor of San Antonio, TX (1991–1995) (previously endorsed Julian Castro) ===Other municipal officials === ==== Current ==== * Jackie Lacey, District Attorney of Los Angeles County (2012–present) ===Local legislators=== ====Current==== * Frank Baker, Boston City Council (2011–present) * Paul Koretz, Los Angeles City Council (2009–present) ==Party officials== ===DNC members=== ====Current==== * Lindy Li, Women's Co-Chair and Mid-Atlantic Regional Chair at the Democratic National Committee * Bob Mulholland, member of the Democratic National Committee, senior advisor, California Democratic Party (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) * Henry R. Muñoz III, DNC member and Finance Chair of the Democratic National Committee (2017–2019) * Symone Sanders, member of the Democratic National Committee, political commentator, national press secretary for the Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign, and Senior Advisor for Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign ====Former==== * Mannie Rodriguez, DNC member ===State party chairs=== ====Former==== * Chip Forrester, Chair of the Tennessee Democratic Party (2009–2013) * Wayne Holland, Chair of the Utah Democratic Party (2005–2011), President of United Steelworkers District 12 (2019–present) * Steve Kerrigan, CEO of the DNC (2009–2012) * Bob Tuke, Chair of the Tennessee Democratic Party (2005–2007), 2008 nominee for Senate * David Young, Chair of the North Carolina Democratic Party (2009–2011) ==Other 2020 statewide candidates== * Mark Kelly, 2020 Arizona candidate (and eventual winner) for Senate, former astronaut * Amy McGrath, 2020 Kentucky candidate for Senate, 2018 nominee for KY-6 ==Notable individuals== ===Academics and scholars=== * Philip Bobbitt, Herbert Wechsler Professor of Jurisprudence at Columbia Law School * Daniel Byman, Senior Associate Dean at the Georgetown University Walsh School of Foreign Service * Oona A. Hathaway, Gerard C. and Bernice Latrobe Smith Professor of International Law at Yale Law School ===Activists and public figures=== * Jill Biden, educator, Second Lady of the United States (2009–2017), Biden's wife * George Conway, attorney, anti-Trump critic (former Republican before 2018, now Independent) * Chad Griffin, founder of American Foundation for Equal Rights, former President of Human Rights Campaign (2012–2019) * Fred Guttenberg, anti-gun violence activist and father of Jaime Guttenberg * Victoria Reggie Kennedy, attorney, widow of Senator Ted Kennedy * Khizr Khan, father of U.S. Army Captain Humayun Khan * Lilly Ledbetter, equal pay for equal work activist and lead plaintiff in the landmark employment discrimination Supreme Court case, Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.; namesake of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 * Jim Obergefell, lead plaintiff in landmark civil rights Supreme Court case Obergefell v. Hodges * Greg Schultz, Special Assistant to the President (2013–2017) and Senior Advisor to Biden's campaign * Mac Stipanovich, political activist and strategist (Republican) * Chesley "Sully" Sullenberger, former U.S. Air Force pilot and US Airways captain (former Republican) * Christie Vilsack, First Lady of Iowa (1999–2007), 2012 nominee for IA-4 ===Athletes and sports figures=== * Michelle Kwan, two-time Olympic medalist in figure skating * Brandon Lloyd, former NFL First Team All-Pro Wide Receiver (2003–2014) ===Business executives and leaders=== * Peter Chernin, Chairman and CEO of The Chernin Group * David L. Cohen, senior executive vice president of Comcast * Mark Gallogly, managing principal and founder of Centerbridge Partners * Jim Gianopulos, CEO of Paramount Pictures * Jonathan D. Gray, COO of The Blackstone Group, Chairman of Hilton Worldwide * Daniel J. Hilferty, CEO of Independence Blue Cross * Jeffrey Katzenberg, co-founder and CEO of DreamWorks Animation and DreamWorks Records * Michael Kempner, founder and CEO of MWWPR * Sherry Lansing, former CEO of Paramount Pictures * Jackie Norris, CEO of Goodwill of the Heartland * Amy Pascal, former Chair of Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group * Anna Wintour, journalist, editor-in-chief of Vogue * Andrew Yang, founder of Venture for America, 2020 candidate for president ===Entertainers and artists=== * Alec Baldwin, actor, producer, writer, comedian and political activist * Michael Bivins, singer, rapper, producer, and founding member of New Edition * Michael Ian Black, comedian, actor, writer, and director. * Dustin Lance Black, screenwriter, director, producer, and activist * Cher, singer and actress, nicknamed the Goddess of Pop * Leonardo DiCaprio, actor * Vivica A. Fox, actress, producer, television host * Tom Hanks, actor and filmmaker * Keegan-Michael Key, actor, comedian * Jay Leno, comedian, actor, writer, producer, and former host of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno * Jane Lynch, actress and comedienne * George R. R. Martin, author, screenwriter, and television producer, creator of A Song of Ice and Fire * Debra Messing, actress * Alyssa Milano, actress and singer * Rosie O'Donnell, comedienne, producer, actress, author, and television personality * Kaitlin Olson, actress, producer and comedian * Rob Reiner, actor, director, and writer * Barbra Streisand, singer, actress, and filmmaker * Sean Patrick Thomas, actor * Lynn Whitfield, actress, producer * Rita Wilson, actress, singer, songwriter, and producer ===Union leaders=== * Michael Mulgrew, President of the United Federation of Teachers (2009–present) ==Organizations== ===Activist groups=== * Brady Campaign * Everytown for Gun Safety * National Wildlife Federation ===Labor unions=== * Amalgamated Transit Union, representing 200,000 *American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees, representing 1.3 million * American Federation of Teachers, representing 1.7 million * International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers, representing 130,000 * International Association of Fire Fighters, representing 313,000 * International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, representing 570,000 * International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, representing 725,000 * International Longshoremen's Association, representing 65,000 * National Association of Government Employees, representing over 100,000 * National Education Association, representing 3 million * United Food and Commercial Workers Local 1776, representing 20,000 * United Food and Commercial Workers, representing 1.3 million ===Newspapers=== * Chicago Sun- Times * Detroit Free Press * The Detroit News * Las Vegas Sun (co-endorsement with Amy Klobuchar) * Las Vegas Weekly (co-endorsement with Amy Klobuchar) * The Palm Beach Post *The San Diego Union-Tribune (previously endorsed Pete Buttigieg) * Sioux City Journal * Sun Sentinel * Wisconsin State Journal ===Political organizations=== * BOLD PAC * Michigan Democratic Party Black Caucus (previously endorsed Kamala Harris) ==See also== * Endorsements in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries * News media endorsements in the 2020 United States presidential primaries * List of Bernie Sanders 2020 presidential campaign endorsements * List of Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign endorsements ==References== ==External links== * Official website Category:2020-related lists Biden Endorsements Biden, Joe
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Alabama has played a central role in the development of both blues and country music. Appalachian folk music, fiddle music, gospel, spirituals, and polka have had local scenes in parts of Alabama. The Tuskegee Institute's School of Music (established 1931), especially the Tuskegee Choir, is an internationally renowned institution. There are three major modern orchestras, the Mobile Symphony, the Alabama Symphony Orchestra and the Huntsville Symphony Orchestra; the last is the oldest continuously operating professional orchestra in the state, giving its first performance in 1955. ==State song== The state song of Alabama is entitled "Alabama". It was written by Julia Tutwiler and composed by Edna Gockel Gussen. It was adopted as the state song in 1931. A State Senate bill (SB-458) was passed 32–1 in 2000 to move "Alabama" to the status of State Anthem, with "Stars Fell On Alabama", a song written in 1933 whose most popular release was by Jimmy Buffett in 1972 becoming the new State Song, and "My Home's in Alabama" (1980) by the Country group Alabama would become the State Ballad, but the bill failed in the State House. Other grass roots efforts to make "Sweet Home Alabama" (1974) by Lynyrd Skynyrd the state song have also failed, but the song's potential official status made a comeback when the State Tourism Agency chose the song as the centerpiece of its 2008 marketing campaign. ==Recording studios== Muscle Shoals, Alabama is renowned worldwide as one of the epicenters of the music industry, having been the birthplace of a number of classic recordings. The studios of the Muscle Shoals area (Florence, Sheffield, Muscle Shoals, and Tuscumbia) figure prominently in the history of rock, country and R&B; through the 1960s, 70s & 80s. FAME Studios, Muscle Shoals Sound Studios, Wishbone Studios, Quinvy Studios, East Avalon Recorders/ClearDay Studio, and others have recorded local musicians and international superstars alike. Notable artists have included Aretha Franklin, Rolling Stones, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Otis Redding, Wilson Pickett, Bob Dylan, Paul Simon, Rod Stewart, Willie Nelson, Hank Williams Jr, Roy Orbison, and countless others have recorded there. The notable studio house bands include The Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, The Swampers, The Muscle Shoals Horns, and The Fame Gang. Though not as popular a recording center as before, Muscle Shoals continues to be an important contributor to American popular music and is home to a number of the world's most successful songwriters, musicians and producers. Single Lock Records currently operates a recording studio, record label, and performance venue in the area. The Hangout Music Festival (est. 2010) is an annual 3-day music festival held at the public beaches of Gulf Shores, Alabama. ==Halls of fame== thumb|The historic Carver Theatre today houses the Jazz Hall of Fame The Alabama Music Hall of Fame was created by the Alabama state legislature as a state agency in 1980. A 12,500 square foot (1,200 m²) exhibit hall opened in Tuscumbia in 1990. The Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame (AJHoF) is located in Birmingham, housed in the historic Carver Theatre. It was founded in 1978 and opened a museum in 1993. ==Styles of music== ===Indigenous music=== ===Soul/R&B;=== Many artists in the realms of rhythm and blues and soul music have emerged from Alabama over the past 50 years, including Wilson Pickett, Percy Sledge, Martha Reeves of Martha and the Vandellas. Rick Hall established FAME Studios. In 1966, Rick Hall helped license Percy Sledge's "When a Man Loves a Woman", produced by Quin Ivy, to Atlantic Records, which then led to a regular arrangement under which Atlantic would send musicians to Hall's Muscle Shoals studio to record. The studio produced further hit records for Wilson Pickett, James & Bobby Purify, Aretha Franklin, Clarence Carter, Arthur Conley, and Otis Redding enhancing Hall's reputation as a white Southern producer who could produce and engineer hits for black Southern soul singers. He produced many sessions using guitarist Duane Allman. Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham wrote "I'm Your Puppet" for James & Bobby Purify. Members of The Commodores are from Tuskegee. ===Rock/Pop=== Rock and pop musicians from Alabama are Southern rock/pop/R&B; band Wet Willie, the rock band Brother Cane, the power pop band Hotel of Birmingham, Bill McCorvey of the country band Pirates of the Mississippi, songwriter/producer Walt Aldridge, and Tommy Shaw of the rock band Styx. Dan Penn, from Alabama , worked with the Box Tops. The Birmingham area has had more than its fair share of American Idol contestants do well, including second season winner Ruben Studdard (who played football for Alabama A&M; University). ===Blues and Jazz=== thumbnail|left|A stamp commemorating W.C. Handy, considered by many the "father of the blues" WC Handy, often referred to as the "father of the blues", was born and raised in Florence, Alabama, which since 1982 holds an annual WC Handy Music Festival "to preserve, present, and promote the musical heritage of Northwest Alabama". The festival is usually held in the summer, and cake and other foods are typically served. Piedmont and country blues singer, guitarist, and songwriter Ed Bell was born near Fort Deposit. Though born in Frayser, a community in North Memphis, Tennessee, Johnny Shines, Blues singer and guitarist, moved to Holt, Alabama, in Tuscaloosa County, in 1969, where he lived until he died. Shines died on April 20, 1992, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.[1] He was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame later the same year. Alabama has a rich jazz heritage, being the birthplace of such greats as Lionel Hampton, Erskine Hawkins, Nat King Cole, Cleveland Eaton, James Reese Europe, Cootie Williams, William Manuel Johnson, Urbie Green, Ward Swingle, Cow Cow Davenport, members of Take 6 and many more. Tubist Howard Johnson of the Saturday Night Live band hails from Montgomery. The museum of the Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame honors many of these fine musicians. In the 1930s and 40s, college dance bands, such as the Alabama Cavaliers, the Auburn Knights and the Bama State Collegians played an important role in the history of jazz in the South. Birmingham, Alabama boasts several active big bands, including the SuperJazz Big Band, the Joe Giattina Orchestra, the Night Flight Big Band and the Magic City Jazz Orchestra, founded and directed by Ray Reach. In addition, there is a world-class horn section, the Tuscaloosa Horns, comprising some of Alabama's finest jazz/soul/funk instrumentalists. Also the newest/youngest break out big band in Alabama which incorporates everything from Duke Ellington to Bob Marley; the New South Jazz Orchestra which prominently features the Tuscaloosa Horns and the composing/arranging skills of members of the Tuscaloosa Horns. Ward Swingle, world-famous multiple Grammy Award-winning jazz vocal composer and pianist, hails from Mobile. Birmingham contributed prominently to the history of jazz in America. It is the hometown of numerous influential jazz musicians, including bassist Cleveland Eaton, pianist and vocalist Ray Reach, guitarist Johnny Smith, trumpeter and bandleader Erskine Hawkins, trumpeter and arranger Tommy Stewart, trumpeter Nelson Williams, composer Hugh Martin, arranger Sammy Lowe, bandleader Sun Ra, vibraphonist and bandleader Lionel Hampton, singer and guitarist Odetta, John Propst (pianist for Pete Fountain and Boots Randolph) and many more. Historical areas such as Tuxedo Junction and the Fourth Avenue Historic District played an important role in the evolution of jazz in Birmingham and the United States. ===Gospel=== Gospel music has an especially long tradition in the state, among both the white and black populations. Given the strongly religious coloring of Alabama's population historically, the genre is one example of many shared phenomena between the historically segregated cultures of the state. The two traditions are, however, distinct, and entail key distinctions, with Southern gospel incorporating elements of bluegrass and country music more strongly than "black" gospel. ===Celtic=== The state also has a Celtic music scene, which has produced bands like Henri's Notions, After Class, and the Birmingham-based harpist Cynthia Douglass, as well as a number of piping bands and promotional Celtic organizations. ===Sacred Harp=== Alabama is the leading state for Sacred Harp singing. More annual singings are held in Alabama than in any other state. The Sacred Harp: Revised Cooper Edition, a version of The Sacred Harp used across the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, is published by the Sacred Harp Book Company of Samson, Alabama. The Sacred Harp/Shape Note Music and Cultural Center is located in Bessemer, Alabama. ===Country, Bluegrass, and Old-time Music=== The State of Alabama has a rich history in country, bluegrass and old-time music. The influence of Mississippi Delta blues to the west and the ancient sounds of Appalachian Folk Music to the north blend with native Jazz sounds to form a brand of country music with a unique Alabama flavor. "Country music may be recorded in Nashville, but it was born in the Heart of Dixie." (Will Vincent, Tall Pines Bluegrass). North Alabama's contribution to bluegrass music over the years has been exceptional. From former "Bluegrass Boys" Rual Yarbrough and Jake Landers, mandolin virtuoso Hershel Sizemore, fiddling legend Al Lester and the incomparable Claire Lynch, to modern day country-star-turned-bluegrass artist Marty Raybon, the list goes on and on. Probably one of the most well-known musicians to ever hail from Alabama is Hank Williams Sr., born in Georgiana. Hank's hits include "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry", "Lost Highway" and "Jambalaya (On the Bayou)". Hank and his wife Audrey are both buried in Oakwood Cemetery in Montgomery where the Hank Williams Museum resides downtown. A section of Interstate 65 between Georgiana and Montgomery was commemorated the "Lost Highway" in memory of Williams in 1997. Other notable residents include Jimmy Buffett, though born in Pascagoula, Mississippi, grew up in the Mobile area. Country star Tammy Wynette was born on the Mississippi/Alabama line. The Louvin Brothers were pioneers of tight harmony country and bluegrass vocalizations. Vern Gosdin is another influential country music legend who came from the state of Alabama. Emmylou Harris was born in Birmingham. Shenandoah from Muscle Shoals became major stars. The group Alabama from Fort Payne is often credited with bringing country music groups (as opposed to solo vocalists) into the mainstream, paving the way for the success of today's top country groups. ==Musicians from Alabama== ===Members of the Alabama Music Hall of Fame=== *Alabama – country superstar band, based in Fort Payne *Arthur Alexander – country-soul songwriter and singer, born in Sheffield *Ernest Ashworth – country star and a member of the Grand Ole Opry for 44 years, known for his hit "Talk Back Trembling Lips", from Huntsville *Blind Boys of Alabama – gospel group, based in Talladega *Clarence Carter – blues and soul singer, musician, songwriter and record producer, born in Montgomery *Nat King Cole – jazz and R&B; musician/songwriter, born in Montgomery (d.1965) *The Commodores – soul/funk group formed in Tuskegee, had two number one Hot 100 hits, such as "Three Times a Lady" in 1978 *William Levi Dawson – composer, organizer of the Tuskegee School of Music, from Anniston *Delmore Brothers – from Elkmont *Cleveland Eaton – jazz bassist, veteran of the Count Basie Orchestra and the Ramsey Lewis Trio, from Birmingham *James Reese Europe – ragtime and early jazz bandleader, arranger, and composer, born in Mobile *Eddie Floyd – soul-R&B; singer and songwriter, born in Montgomery *Joe L. Frank – country music promoter from Mt. Rozell *Donna Jean Godchaux – singer, best known for having been a member of the Grateful Dead from 1972 until 1979, born in Florence *Rick Hall – record producer from Franklin County *W.C. Handy – father of the blues, born in Florence *Emmylou Harris – country singer/songwriter, born in Birmingham *Erskine Hawkins – big band leader *Jake Hess – gospel singer from Limestone County *Sonny James – early country star, born in Hacklebug *James Joiner – founder of Tune Recording Studio, songwriter, from Florence *Jamey Johnson – singer, songwriter, and ACM and CMA award winner from Enterprise *Buddy Killen – record producer and founder of Dial Records, executive at Tree Publishing *Louvin Brothers – influential close harmony group, from Section *Chuck Leavell – keyboardist, former member of the Allman Brothers Band, sideman for Eric Clapton and the Rolling Stones *Eddie Levert – founding member of The O'Jays, born in Bessemer *Rose Maddox – country singer-songwriter and fiddle player, who was the lead singer with the Maddox Brothers and Rose before a successful solo career, born in Boaz *Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section – renowned studio band, consisting of Jimmy Johnson, guitar, Roger Hawkins, drums, David Hood, bass, and Barry Beckett, keyboards *Jim Nabors – actor and singer of standards and gospel, born in Sylacauga, attended the University of Alabama *Odetta – singer, actress, guitarist, lyricist, and a civil and human rights activist, born in Birmingham *Spooner Oldham – songwriter & keyboardist, born in Centre *Dan Penn – singer, songwriter & record producer, from Vernon *Sam Phillips – founder of Sun Records, born in Florence *Wilson Pickett – R&B; star, born in Prattville *Curly Putman – songwriter from Princeton *Martha Reeves – Motown lead singer, born in Eufaula *Lionel Richie – singer/songwriter, see also Commodores, born in Tuskegee, had five number one Hot 100 hits, including "All Night Long (All Night)" in 1983 *Jimmie Rodgers – early country star, born in Geiger (d.1933) *Tommy Shaw – guitarist, singer, songwriter, rock bands Damn Yankees and Styx. Born in Prattville *Billy Sherrill – country producer, with 74 top 10 hits, born in Phil Campbell *Percy Sledge – 1960s soul star, born in Leighton *Candi Staton – singer-songwriter, born in Hanceville *Sun Ra – jazz musician and composer, born in Birmingham *The Temptations – four members: Eddie Kendricks (Union Springs), Paul Williams (Birmingham), Melvin Franklin (Montgomery), and Dennis Edwards (Fairfield) *Dinah Washington – jazz and blues singer, born in Tuscaloosa *Wet Willie – Southern rock band from Mobile *Jerry Wexler – New Yorker with Atlantic Records, responsible for the rise of Muscle Shoals *John T. "Fess" Whatley – music educator, worked with the Jazz Demons, the first jazz band in Birmingham *Hank Williams – country music pioneer, born in Georgiana (d. 1953), buried in Montgomery *Tammy Wynette – country singer, lived in Red Bay (d.1998) ===Other musicians from Alabama=== *Act of Congress – band from Helena *Alabama Shakes – band from Athens, had a number one Billboard 200 album Sound & Color in 2015 *Hank Ballard – R&B; performer and songwriter, wrote "The Twist", lived in Bessemer *The Band Perry – country trio from Mobile *Belle Adair – indie pop-rock band from Florence *Bo Bice – runner-up, American Idol Season 4 *Bibi Black – trumpeter from Huntsville *The Bridges – band from Oxford *Tony Brook – songwriter, from Luverne *Brother Cane – alternative band, based in Birmingham *Jimmy Buffett – popular singer/songwriter, from Mobile, attended Auburn University for a year *Oteil Burbridge – jazz bassist, member of the Allman Brothers Band, from Birmingham *Larry Byrom – rock guitarist, from Huntsville *Nell Carter – Broadway and TV, born in Birmingham *Course of Nature – alternative rock band from Enterprise *Seaborn McDaniel Denson – Sacred Harp teacher and composer *Thomas Jackson Denson – Sacred Harp teacher and composer *The Dirty Clergy – garage rock/pop band from Marion County *The Dexateens – rock band, originated out of Tuscaloosa *Doe B – rapper from Montgomery *Drive-By Truckers – alternative rock band of Shoals-area natives *Eddie Floyd – R&B; singer, born in Montgomery *Flo Milli - rapper from Mobile *William Lee Golden – baritone singer with the country & gospel group The Oakridge Boys, lives in Brewton *Gucci Mane – rapper from Bessemer *Lionel Hampton – jazz vibes pioneer, lived in Birmingham *Ty Herndon – country singer, lives in Butler *Taylor Hicks – winner, American Idol Season 5, had a number one Hot 100 hit with "Do I Make You Proud" in 2006 *Brent Hinds – singer/songwriter and guitarist, from Pelham, of heavy metal band Mastodon *Charlie Hodge – musician for Elvis Presley, member of the "Memphis Mafia", born in Decatur *Lonnie Holley, artist and musician from Birmingham, Dust-to-Digital Records *Adam Hood – singer/songwriter from Opelika *Hotel – pop-rock band from Birmingham from 1973–1982, recorded 2 albums with MCA Records, some chart success; very popular regional act in their day *The Immortal Lee County Killers – punk blues band from Auburn, 1999–2007 *Jason Isbell & the 400 Unit – an Americana band from Muscle Shoals, had a number four album on the Billboard 200 with The Nashville Sound in 2017 *Joe – from Opelika, had a number one Hot 100 hit with "Stutter" ft. Mystikal in 2001 *Jamey Johnson – Montgomery, AL *Merle Kilgore – country musician, lived in Cullman *Will Kimbrough – singer/songwriter, producer, guitarist, multi-instrumentalist, lived in Mobile *Frederick Knight – R&B; singer, songwriter and record producer, born in Birmingham *Nicolette Larson – 1970s songwriter, lived in Birmingham *Marty Lott, a.k.a. "The Phantom" – rockabilly, born in Prichard *Shelby Lynne – country music artist, singer-songwriter from St Stephens *Maddox Brothers and Rose – influential early country group, from Boaz *Man or Astro-man? – surf rock revivalists, Auburn *Maylene and the Sons of Disaster – Southern metal band based out of Birmingham *Brian McKnight – R&B; singer and producer, born in Huntsville *Allison Moorer – Academy Award nominated country folk musician from Frankville *Tommy Oliver – pedal steel guitarist, lives in Tuscumbia *Wayne Perkins – guitarist, singer, songwriter, Muscle Shoals studio musician, played on Rolling Stones album, from Birmingham *Susanna Phillips – soprano, winner of the Metropolitan Opera's 2010 Beverly Sills Artist Award, born in Huntsville *The Pierces – Catherine & Allison Pierce, singers from Birmingham *Shane Porter – founder of the New South Jazz Orchestra, published composer/arranger, free-lance trumpeter, pianist, member of the Tuscaloosa Horns, from Tuscaloosa *Mac Powell – founding member of Christian Rock band Third Day – born in Clanton *Ray Reach – jazz pianist, from Birmingham *Rich Boy – rapper, real name Maurice Richards, born 1985 in Mobile *Rush of Fools – alternative Christian band from Birmingham. *Sex Clark Five – strum and drum, alternative rock from Huntsville *St. Paul & the Broken Bones – soul band from Birmingham *State Line Mob – Southern rock, Country duo group, Florence & Muscle Shoals natives, 2008 Winners of 2 Muscle Shoals music awards for Best new artist & Best new country album of the year. *Tommy Stewart – composer, arranger, pianist and trumpeter based in Birmingham *Ruben Studdard – winner of American Idol, Born in Birmingham *Take 6 – contemporary gospel group, from Huntsville *Maria Taylor – singer from Birmingham *Toni Tennille – half of 1970s hitmakers Captain & Tennille, born in Montgomery *Willie Mae "Big Momma" Thornton – blues and R&B; artist, born in Ariton *Trust Company – rock band from Montgomery *Drake White – from Hokes Bluff *Waxahatchee – an indie music project by musician Katie Crutchfield from Birmingham *John Paul White – alt- folk musician, former member of The Civil Wars, resides in Florence, Alabama *Hank Williams Jr. – country music star, lived in Cullman, Alabama *Yelawolf – (Michael Wayne Atha) rapper and singer-songwriter from Gadsden ==See also== * List of songs about Alabama * List of songs about Birmingham, Alabama * WLAY (AM) ==References== ==External links== *Alabama Music Hall of Fame *Download traditional music *Alabama Symphony Orchestra *The Tuscaloosa Horns *Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame *Birmingham Live Music *New South Jazz Orchestra Category:Alabama culture Alabama Alabama
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Brendan Maher (born 5 January 1989) is an Irish hurler who plays for club side Borris–Ileigh and previously at inter-county level with the Tipperary senior hurling team. Regarded as one of the great talents of his generation, Maher enjoyed a 13-season career with the Tipperary senior hurling team, won three All-Stars and was a Hurler of the Year nominee in 2010. He won eight major trophies in his inter-county career, comprising three All-Ireland Championships, captaining the team in 2016, and five Munster Championships. A versatile player who switched between attacking and defensive positions, Maher made a combined 124 league and championship appearances. ==Playing career== ===St Joseph's College=== Maher first came to prominence as a hurler with St Joseph's College in Borrisoleigh. He played in every grade before eventually joining the senior hurling team and lined out in several Harty Cup campaigns. ===Mary Immaculate College=== Maher studied at Mary Immaculate College in Limerick between 2006 and 2009 and joined the senior hurling team in his second year. On 7 March 2009, he was named man of the match when Mary Immaculate College defeated the University of Ulster by 1–12 to 1–05 to win the Ryan Cup. ===Borris-Ileigh=== Maher joined the Borris–Ileigh club at a young age and played at all grades in juvenile and underage levels. He joined the club's senior team as a 16-year-old during the 2005 North Tipperary Championship. On 7 August 2005, Maher was selected on the bench when Borris–Ileigh faced Nenagh Éire Óg in the North Tipperary Championship final, however, in a late change he was drafted onto the starting fifteen. He ended the game with a winners' medal after a 1–12 to 0–13 victory. Maher lined out at right wing-forward when Borris–Ileigh renewed their rivalry with Nenagh Éire Óg in the North Tipperary Championship final on 9 September 2007. He scored a point from play and claimed a second winners' medal in three seasons following a 0–19 to 0–16 victory. On 2 September 2017, Maher lined out at centre-back when Borris–Ileigh faced Nenagh Éire Óg in the North Tipperary Championship final once again. He ended the game with a third winner's medal following the 2–19 to 0–18 victory. On 8 October 2017, Maher was selected at midfield but spent much of the game at centre-back when Borris–Ileigh faced Thurles Sarsfields in the Tipperary Senior Championship final. He top scored for the team with five points from frees in the 1–24 to 0–11 defeat. On 3 November 2019, Maher was at centre-back when Borris–Ileigh faced Kiladangan in the Tipperary Senior Championship final. He scored three points, including two long-range frees, and collected a winners' medal following the 1–15 to 1–12 victory. On 24 November 2019, Maher won a Munster Club Championship medal after giving a man of the match display in the 1–12 to 1–11 defeat of Ballygunner in the final. ===Tipperary=== ====Minor and under-21==== Maher first played for Tipperary as a member of the minor team during the 2005 Munster Championship. He was an unused substitute throughout before Tipperary exited the championship on 4 May 2005 following a 2–14 to 1–06 defeat by Limerick. On 5 April 2006, Maher made his first appearance for the team when he scored three points from midfield in a 2–13 to 1–08 defeat of Clare. He retained his position at midfield for the Munster final, however, he ended on the losing side following a 2–20 to 1–15 defeat by Cork. Maher was switched to left corner-back when Tipperary faced Galway in the All-Ireland final. He ended the game with a winners' medal following the 2–18 to 2–07 victory. Maher was again eligible for the minor grade for a third and final season in 2007 and was appointed captain of the team. On 8 July 2007, he was at left wing- forward when Tipperary won the Munster Championship following an 0–18 to 1–11 defeat of Cork. On 2 September 2007, Maher was switched to midfield for the All-Ireland final against Cork. He scored three points from play and claimed a second successive winners' medal following a 3–14 to 2–11 victory. Maher was drafted onto the Tipperary under-21 team in advance of the 2008 Munster Championship. He made his first appearance for the team on 17 July 2008 when he lined out at left corner-back in a 1–13 to 0–15 defeat of Limerick. On 30 July 2008, Maher won a Munster Championship medal after lining out at left wing-back in a controversial 1–16 to 2–12 defeat of Clare. He retained his position at left wing-back when Tipperary suffered a 2–13 to 0–15 defeat by Kilkenny in the All-Ireland final on 14 September 2008. On 28 July 2010, Maher won a second Munster Championship medal after lining out at left wing-back in Tipperary's 1–22 to 1–17 defeat of Clare in the final. He was switched to centre-back for the All-Ireland final against Galway on 11 September 2010. Maher ended the game with an All-Ireland medal following the 5–22 to 0–12 victory in what was his last game in the grade. ====Senior==== Maher joined the Tipperary senior team in advance of the 2009 National League. He made his first appearance for the team on 14 February 2009 when he played at right wing-back in a 2–15 to 0–09 defeat of Cork. On 3 May 2009, Maher came on as an 11th-minute substitute for Declan Fanning in a 2–26 to 4–17 extra-time defeat by Kilkenny in the National League final. On 31 May 2009, he made his Munster Championship debut when he came on as a 55th-minute substitute for Conor O'Mahony in a 1–19 to 0–19 defeat of Cork. On 12 July 2009, Maher started the Munster final on the bench but was introduced as a 34th-minute substitute for Paul Curran and ended the game with a winners' medal following the 4–14 to 2–16 defeat of Waterford. After making his first championship start in the All-Ireland semi-final defeat of Limerick, he was selected at left wing-back for the All-Ireland final against Kilkenny on 6 September 2009. Maher ended on the losing side following a 2–22 to 0–23 defeat. On 5 September 2010, Maher was selected at midfield when Tipperary qualified to play Kilkenny in a second successive All-Ireland final. He scored two points from play and was described as "outstanding" after claiming his first All-Ireland medal in the 4–17 to 1–18 victory. Maher ended the season by being included at midfield on the All- Star team while he was also named Young Hurler of the Year. A fractured fibula in March 2011 brought Maher's involvement in the latter stages of the National League to an end, while he also missed Tipperary's opening games of the Munster Championship. On 10 July 2011, he won a second Munster Championship medal after coming on as a 63rd-minute substitute for Pádraic Maher in a 7–19 to 0–19 defeat of Waterford in the Munster final. On 4 September 2011, Maher was selected on the bench when Tipperary faced Kilkenny in a third successive All-Ireland final. He was introduced as a 29th-minute substitute for John O'Keeffe but ended the game on the losing side following a 2–17 to 1–16 defeat. On 15 July 2012, Maher lined out at midfield when Tipperary qualified to play Waterford in a second successive Munster final. He ended the game with a third winners' medal in four seasons following a 2–17 to 0–16 victory. On 5 May 2013, Maher was selected at midfield when Tipperary faced Kilkenny in the National League final. He scored four points from play but ended on the losing side following a 2–17 to 0–20 defeat. Maher was appointed captain of the team for the 2014 season. On 4 May 2014, he captained Tipperary in a second successive National League final against Kilkenny. Maher ended the game on the losing side following a 2–25 to 1–27 defeat. On 7 September 2014, he captained the team to a 1–28 to 3–22 draw with Kilkenny in the All-Ireland final. Maher again captained the team from right wing-back for the replay on 27 September 2014, however, he ended the game on the losing side after a 2–17 to 2–14 defeat. He ended the season by receiving a second All-Star award. On 12 July 2015, Maher captained Tipperary to a Munster final appearance with Waterford. He was held scoreless from centre-forward but ended the game with a fourth winners' medal following the 0–21 to 0–16 victory. Maher retained the Tipperary captaincy for a third successive season in 2016. He claimed a fifth Munster Championship medal on 10 July 2016 after lining out at midfield in a 5–19 to 0–13 defeat of Waterford in the final. On 5 September 2016, Maher captained Tipperary to a second All-Ireland final meeting in three seasons against Kilkenny. He ended the game with a second All-Ireland medal while he also had the honour of lifting the Liam MacCarthy Cup following a 2–29 to 2–20 victory. Maher also became only the fifth player ever to captain both a minor and senior hurling team to All-Ireland victory. On 23 April 2017, Maher lined out in his fourth National League final. He scored a point from midfield but ended the game on the losing side following a 3–21 to 0–14 victory for Galway. Maher played in a second successive National League final – his fifth overall – on 8 April 2018. Lining out at midfield, he was held scoreless and ended the game on the losing side following a 2–23 to 2–17 defeat by Kilkenny. On 30 June 2019, Maher lined out at right wing-back when Tipperary suffered a 2–26 to 2–14 defeat by Limerick in the Munster final. On 18 August 2019, he was selected at centre-back when Tipperary faced Kilkenny in the All-Ireland final. Maher ended the game with a third All-Ireland winners' medal following the 3–25 to 0–20 victory. He ended the season by receiving an All-Star nomination. On 12 August 2021, Maher announced his retirement from inter- county hurling after 13 years with the team. ===Munster=== Maher was added to the Munster team in advance of the 2012 Railway Cup. He made his first appearance for the team on 19 February 2012 when he lined out at left wing- forward in a 3–14 to 1–16 defeat by Leinster. On 3 March 2013, Maher lined out at midfield when Munster qualified to play Connacht in the Railway Cup final. He ended the game with a Railway Cup medal following the 1–22 to 0–15 victory. Maher was appointed captain of Munster in his fourth successive season with the team in 2016. On 15 December 2016, he won a second Railway Cup medal after captaining the team from midfield in a 2–20 to 2–16 defeat of Leinster in the final. ===Ireland=== On 19 October 2011, Maher was named on the Ireland squad for the Shinty/Hurling International Series. On 29 October 2011, he lined out at centre-forward when Ireland defeated Scotland on an aggregate scoreline of 3–25 to 3–19 following a two-game series. Maher was selected for the Ireland team for the second time in his career on 22 October 2013. He claimed a second winners' medal from right wing-forward following Ireland's 5–27 to 2–26 aggregate defeat of Scotland on 2 November 2013. ==Coaching== In October 2022, Maher was announced as Offaly senior hurling team performance coach under the management of Johnny Kelly. ==Career statistics== Team Year National League Munster All-Ireland Total Division Apps Score Apps Score Apps Score Apps Score Tipperary 2009 Division 1 5 0-00 3 0-00 2 0-00 10 0-00 2010 7 0-02 1 0-01 5 0-06 13 0-09 2011 4 0-05 1 0-00 2 0-00 7 0-05 2012 Division 1A 6 0-06 3 0-02 1 0-00 10 0-08 2013 7 1-07 1 0-01 1 0-00 9 1–08 2014 8 0-02 1 0-00 6 0-01 15 0-03 2015 6 0-03 2 0-00 1 0-01 9 0-04 2016 6 0-04 3 0-01 2 0-01 11 0-06 2017 5 1-05 1 0-02 4 0-06 10 1–13 2018 7 0-06 4 0-01 — — 11 0-07 2019 1 0-01 5 0-04 3 0-00 9 0-05 2020 — 1 0-01 2 0-00 3 0-01 2021 4 0-03 2 0-00 1 0-00 7 0-03 Career total 66 2–44 28 0–13 30 0–15 124 2–72 ==Honours== ===Team=== ;Borris–Ileigh *Munster Senior Club Hurling Championship: 2019 *Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship: 2019 *North Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship: 2005, 2007, 2017 * All-Ireland Mini 7s Championship: 2015 ;Mary Immaculate College *Ryan Cup: 2009 ;Tipperary *All- Ireland Senior Hurling Championship: 2010, 2016 (c), 2019 *Munster Senior Hurling Championship: 2009, 2011, 2012, 2015 (c), 2016 (c) *All-Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship: 2010 *Munster Under-21 Hurling Championship: 2008, 2010 *All-Ireland Minor Hurling Championship: 2006, 2007 (c) *Munster Minor Hurling Championship: 2007 (c) ;Munster *Railway Cup: 2013 (c), 2016 (c) ;Ireland *Composite Rules Shinty–Hurling Series: 2011, 2013 ===Individual=== ;Awards *All-Stars Young Hurler of the Year: 2010 *GAA-GPA All-Stars Awards: 2010, 2014, 2019 *The Sunday Game Team of the Year: 2014, 2019 ==References== ==External links== *Brendan Maher profile at the Tipperary GAA website Category:1989 births Category:Living people Category:All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship winners Category:All Stars Awards winners (hurling) Category:Alumni of Mary Immaculate College, Limerick Category:Borris-Ileigh hurlers Category:Ireland international hurlers Category:Munster inter- provincial hurlers Category:Offaly county hurling team Category:Tipperary inter-county hurlers
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The South Wales Railway () was a main line railway which opened in stages from 1850, connecting the Great Western Railway from Gloucester to South Wales. It was constructed on the broad gauge. An original aspiration was to reach Fishguard to engender an Irish ferry transit and transatlantic trade, but the latter did not materialise for many years, and never became an important sector of the business. Neyland was the western terminus of the line until 1906. The company amalgamated with the Great Western Railway in 1863 and the track was converted to narrow (standard) gauge in 1873. In 1922–1923, most of the independent Welsh railways were constituents of the new enlarged Great Western Railway, enabling rationalisation and benefits of scale. Nearly all of the original main line of the South Wales Railway remains in use at present (2020). ==Proposals== thumb|The South Wales Railway system at amalgamation with the GWR in 1863The prospectus of the South Wales Railway was issued in the summer of 1844. It proposed a railway with capital of £2,500,000 to run from Standish, on the Cheltenham branch of the Great Western Railway where the Bristol and Gloucester line joins it. Over the River Severn at Hock Cliffe between Fretherne and Awre and then follow the coast to Chepstow, Newport, Cardiff, Bridgend, Aberavon, Neath, Swansea, Carmarthen and Fishguard, with a branch line from near Whitland to Pembroke Dock. The prospectus was published widely as a newspaper advertisement: > Surveys have been made of the line of country best adapted for accommodating > the extensive traffic of the great mineral basin of South Wales, and the > important agricultural interests of that country, as well as the intercourse > between the ports of Cork, Waterford, Wicklow, Limerick and Wexford, the > inland and manufacturing districts of England and the metropolis.E T > MacDermot, History of the Western Railway, volume I part II, published by > the Great Western Railway, London, 1927 The line was to pass "within an easy distance of Monmouth" and west of Carmarthen, it was proposed > "that the railway shall divide into two branches, one to the naval arsenal > of Pembroke and the harbour of Milford Haven Waterway, and the other to > Fishguard, whence a communication with the South of Ireland would be > effected within six hours."Prospectus in the Monmouthshire Merlin, 15 June > 1844, accessible at the British Newspaper Archive, subscription required Chief among the objectives of the line was communication with Ireland; the engineer was Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The project was sponsored by the Great Western Railway and in February 1845 the GWR announced that they had promised £500,000 towards the formation of the Company. It was to be "a great national undertaking to connect the South of Ireland as well as South Wales with the Metropolis". The people of Monmouth were disappointed that the line was not to pass through their town, and they urged a deviation to run through Gloucester, Monmouth and Usk to Caerleon, adding 18 miles to the route and involving considerably worse gradients. The Admiralty objected to the Severn bridge, and the result was that the line was authorised west of Chepstow only, with a branch to Monmouth. The line was to be broad gauge, although this was not explicitly defined in the 1845 Act. In the 1846 session of Parliament, and revised bridge crossing of the Severn at Fretherne was proposed, and alternatively a tunnel. Both options were rejected in Parliament, and the Company was obliged to concede the longer route through Gloucester, crossing the Severn there. A local railway thus became of strategic importance: the Gloucester and Dean Forest Railway had been authorised in 1845 to connect with the Monmouth and Hereford Railway near Grange Court. If the Gloucester and Dean Forest Railway extended southwards to Hagloe Farm, two miles south of Awre, the South Wales Railway could connect there. The arrangement was approved and both companies got their Act in 1846. Soon after the Royal Assent the GWR agreed with the G&DFR; that the former would take over the construction and build the line themselves.Rex Christiansen, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: Volume 13: Thames and Severn, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1981, The South Wales Railway Act of 1846 also authorised a branch from Landore to Swansea, as the original route had not been intended to enter the town centre,Swansea gained city status in 1969. and another from a point near the later Clarbeston Road station to Haverfordwest. Soon after the passing of the Act the Company agreed with the Gloucester and Dean Forest Railway that the SWR would build the southward extension itself, so that the northern limit of the SWR was to be at Grange Court, about 6 miles from Gloucester. Agreement was reached with the Great Western Railway that the GWR would lease the SWR on completion of the line to Fishguard, paying 5% on the capital plus half of surplus profits. ===The track gauge of the South Wales Railway=== A Gauge Commission had been established by Parliament to consider the desirability of a uniform track gauge for the railways of the United Kingdom, as the negative effect of the difference of gauge between contiguous railways was beginning to show. The Great Western Railway and companies friendly to it used the broad gauge, while the narrow gauge (later known as standard gauge) was in use on most other lines. Where two lines of different gauges connected, goods and minerals making a through transit had to be physically transshipped, and passengers had to change trains. The Commissioners declared that the break of gauge was "a serious evil" and they recommended that no further railway should be constructed on the broad gauge system, though they hoped that "some equitable means should be found of producing such entire uniformity of gauge or of adopting such other course as would admit of the Narrow Gauge carriages passing, without interruption or danger, along the Broad Gauge Lines."Gauge Commissioners' Report, quoted in MacDermot, volume I part I, page 235 If implemented, this finding seemed to mean that the South Wales Railway could not be built on the broad gauge, introducing a break of gauge with the parent GWR at Gloucester or Grange Court. The Lords of the Board of Trade considered the matter, and they modified the policy. It was their opinion that the SWR should be made on the broad gauge, and the resulting Gauge Act stated that the railways authorised > by an Act passed in the last session of Parliament, intituled An Act for > making a railway to be called "The South Wales Railway" [and a modifying > Act] intituled "An Act for completing the Line of the South Wales Railway", > and to authorize the Construction of an Extension and certain Alterations of > the said Railway, and certain Branch Railways in Connexion therewith... > shall be constructed on the Gauge of Seven Feet.An Act for Regulating the > Gauge of Railways (18th August 1846) Accordingly, the line was built on the broad gauge, with far-reaching consequences.D S M Barrie revised by Peter Baughan, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: volume 12: South Wales, David St John Thomas, Nairn, 1994, E T MacDermot, History of the Great Western Railway: volume I part 1: 1833–1863, published by the Great Western Railway, London, 1927 There were prodigious engineering works to be undertaken: the crossing of the River Wye at Chepstow, a large timber viaduct at Newport and a tunnel there, a further large timber viaduct at Landore, and crossings of the River Loughor and River Towy further west. The depressed state of the money market immediately made the raising of subscriptions difficult, and the company suffered a major loss when the timber viaduct at Newport, almost completed, was burnt down on 31 May 1848, being completely destroyed. It had cost £20,000. A key objective of the promoters of the line was to connect southern Ireland by ferry from Fishguard to a harbour near Wexford. It was hoped that the Post Office contract for the carriage of mails between London and Dublin could be secured for the Great Western Railway and its allies. In Ireland, the Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow and Dublin Railway Company was to handle the traffic. Brunel also hoped that a transatlantic shipping business using Fishguard might be developed. However, in 1845 there was a catastrophic failure of the potato crop on which a majority of Irish people depended for a living; this resulted in mass starvation and commercial depression, which deepened the following year. The catastrophe is known as the Great Famine of Ireland. The economy in Ireland worsened considerably, at the same time as the general economic climate throughout the United Kingdom declined sharply. On the Irish side the depression was so extreme that the railway partners considered that it was impossible to proceed with the construction of their railway. Fishguard at the time only had significance as a potential ferry port, and the building of the South Wales Railway to that point would obviously be wasted expenditure, so that the directors decided to cut it short. The GWR guarantee of 5% on capital was only to come into effect when Fishguard was reached by the SWR, so the latter's directors approached the GWR proposing that the guarantee should come into effect when the line reached Swansea instead. The GWR were not agreeable to this, leaving the South Wales Railway in a difficult position; certain persons who were directors of both companies saw that their positions were untenable, and resigned from the SWR, and the hitherto supportive relationship between the two companies now took a seriously unfriendly turn. It was stated that as the GWR had about a quarter of the SWR shareholding, they were being duplicitous in failing to support the abandonment of the Fishguard part of the line. A committee of shareholders reported their view of the situation: > We have now to report to the proprietors that it is our unanimous opinion... > that... any further expenditure on that part of your line to the westward of > Swansea, would... be wasteful and unwise in the extreme. Even if the Irish > railways, which were expected to bring traffic to the western extremity of > the South Wales line, had not been abandoned, we apprehend that... no > company, governed by ordinary prudence, would entertain the notion of > carrying a line between Swansea and Fishguard.Report of Committee of > Shareholders, August 1847 The Great Western Railway was accused of duplicity: > ... and if there were no guarantee in the case, the directors of the Great > Western Railway would, as holders of more than one-fourth of the paid-up > shares, be the first to urge upon the South Wales Company the abandonment of > this portion of the undertaking. That they do not openly adopt this wise > course, by meeting our advances to that end, is attributable, we believe, > partly to the erroneous supposition that the South Wales Company will break > down in the attempt to reach Fishguard, and thus be unable to bring the > guarantee into operation ... SWR directors who were also GWR directors had had an unhealthy influence on the affairs of the SWR: > We recommend the propriety of the retirement of those gentlemen from the > Board who represent interests no longer identical with those of the South > Wales line proper...Report to Shareholders dated 15 December 1849 reproduced > in the Monmouthshire Beacon of 22 December 1849, accessed at the British > Newspaper Archive, subscription required ==First sections of line opened== ===Chepstow to Swansea=== The first portion of the line was opened on 18 June 1850, from Chepstow to Swansea. It consisted of 75 miles of double track, on the broad gauge, using Brunel's longitudinal timber track. Engines and rolling stock were provided by the Great Western Railway; they arrived by coastal shipping, as the line was not connected to any other line. Soon after the opening a slip in the deep cutting slope took place at Llansamlet, between Neath and Swansea. To stabilise it, Brunel erected the so-called flying arches, loaded with slag, to resist the thrust. Brunel's most substantial timber work, not just on the SWR, but as far as his work was concerned for any railway company, was to be found in the vicinity of Swansea. Crossing the River Tawe and the Landore marshes, the Landore viaduct formed a continuous timber work, exactly one-third of a mile long, with thirty-seven spans ranging from 40 to 100 feet. Construction was of course proceeding on the section between Landore and Haverfordwest, and between Chepstow and Grange Court. In November 1850, the work on the line towards Fishguard (west of the point of junction for the Haverfordwest branch) was resumed; it had been suspended since the autumn of 1848. The instruction to complete the line may have been in frustration at the GWR position on the lease agreement. Further negotiation took place and the agreement in March 1851 took the form that the GWR would lease the line for 999 years from the time of completion from Grange Court to Swansea. The GWR were to take one third of the net profit, but pay a rental on the line; the SWR would provide the staffing other than the locomotive department. The work of completing the western extremity of the line was again discontinued. ===Gloucester to Chepstow=== Completion of the Chepstow bridge was much delayed, while the easier construction between its east side and Grange Court was proceeding well. Construction of the Gloucester and Forest of Dean Railway was also going well, although the opening bridge over the Severn at Gloucester, and the junction arrangements with the GWR at Gloucester station were causing delay. However the line was opened on 19 September 1851Stephen K Jones, Brunel in South Wales, Volume II, Communications and Coal, Tempus Publishing Limited, Stroud, 2006, from Gloucester to a temporary station named Chepstow East, at Sedbury Lane. Passengers (only) were conveyed by omnibus between the two Chepstow stations. On 19 July 1852 a single line over the Chepstow bridge was brought into use, and through communication from London to Swansea was available. The 999-year lease by the GWR started. The second track over the bridge was in use from 18 April 1853. The Chepstow railway bridge over the Wye had finally been completed: it had been a severe engineering challenge. The 300 feet main spans were suspended from chains, with an overhead tubular strut of 9 feet diameter to resist the inward force of the chains. Some commentators suggest that this arrangement was a preliminary to the Royal Albert Bridge at Saltash. > In sinking the cylinders to form the piers of the bridge, the workmen had > first to pass through 29 feet of blue clay and sand, below which they met > with a thin bed of peat containing timber, some solid oak, hazel-nuts, and > other similar substances... The cylinders were placed on planks to prevent > their cutting into the soft mud. One by one the cylinders were added until > they had reached the top of the stage (about 100 feet in height) which had > been erected for the purpose of sinking them. The weight of the column now > cut through the planks, and the cylinder sank about 6 feet.G A Sekon, A > History of the Great Western Railway, Being the Story of the Broad Gauge, > Digby Long & co, London, 1895, reprinted by Forgotten books, 2012 The approach spans were replaced in 1948 and the main spans were reconstructed using a warren truss configuration in 1962.W J Sivewright (editor), Civil Engineering Heritage: Wales and Western England, Thomas Telford, London, 1986, ===Landore westward=== The westward route from Landore to Carmarthen was opened on 11 October 1852. It was laid as a single line using Barlow rails for economy. Two lines of the Llanelly Railway were crossed on the level, as were other horse-operated mineral lines. In 1828 the Llanelly Railroad and Dock Company built a dock and a two-mile railway connecting coal pits north of Llanelly, and in 1839 a second line from Llanelly to Cwmamman was opened. At first concentrating on mineral traffic, the railway was very successful. The intended route of the South Wales Railway needed to cross the two lines of the Llanelly Railway and Dock company, and the SWR authorising Act did not specify in detail how this was to be done. The Llanelly Company wished to sell its network to the South Wales Railway, and suggested that the crossing would make its system unworkable: it demanded that the SWR pay compensation equivalent to a purchase. The SWR declined and the issue dragged on for a considerable time; the Llanelly Railway obstructed the SWR construction as much as possible, and at one stage the SWR considered crossing by a viaduct. Eventually however the SWR opened its line, crossing the Llanelly lines by flat crossings, and the matter was put to rest.Michael Denman, Railways Around Llanelli: A History of the Railways of East Carmarthenshire, The Wider View, Huntingdon, 2000, Michael Denman, The Llanelly Railway and Dock Company: The Heart of Wales Pioneer. The Wider View, Ilminster, 2012, In June 1852 a connection was made from Swansea station to the North Dock at Swansea.The North Dock was on the west side of the River Tawe. The definite decision was taken not to proceed to Fishguard, and an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1852 authorising abandonment of the Fishguard line and instead an extension from Haverfordwest to Neyland Point, on the Milford Haven Waterway.Milford Haven here refers to the body of water. The lease arrangement with the Great Western Railway again became a source of conflict, leading to an arbitration award largely in favour of the GWR. At length the SWR gave notice to terminate the arrangement, on 30 June 1857. Even after the termination, trailing disputes continued to arise leading to further arbitration. MacDermot states that The disputes were, however, always conducted in a more or less friendly fashion, and the two Companies never became really hostile to each other.MacDermot volume I part II page 527 The line was extended from Carmarthen to Haverfordwest on 2 January 1854, again a single line formed of Barlow rails. ==Adjacent railways== At first the South Wales Railway line made no junction connections with other railways except with the Gloucester and Forest of Dean Railway at Grange Court; notwithstanding its name, that railway simply provided the link between Gloucester and the north-eastern extremity of the South Wales Railway. At first there were no other broad gauge lines in the area traversed by the SWR. Some railways were already in existence and their routes were crossed by the SWR: At Bullo Pill there was an old but active tramway known first as the Bullo Pill Railway, from 1826 as the Forest of Dean Railway, and after lengthy negotiations the SWR was able to purchase it in September 1850. A connection was made soon after the opening of the main line, and work started on converting it to a broad gauge railway. The small network, which became known as the Forest of Dean branch, was ready for mineral traffic on 24 July 1854. At Lydney the Severn and Wye Railway, a 3 ft 6in gauge horse-operated line dating from about 1813, crossed the path of the SWR on the level. The SWR agreed to pay the S&WR; £15,000 to be spent on upgrading their line for broad gauge vehicles. The S&WR; dragged their feet, but in 1857 they put the work in hand. Their line continued to be worked by horses alone. At Newport a short junction branch to exchange sidings with the narrow gauge Monmouthshire Railway western valley was installed. The Taff Vale Railway had been opened between Cardiff and Merthyr in 1840 and 1841, and the company went on to expand its network considerably. It extended south from its Cardiff terminus to the Bute West Dock in Cardiff in 1848, so that the South Wales Railway needed to cross it. Although engineered by Brunel, the Taff Vale Railway was a narrow (standard) gauge line. In 1851 the South Wales Railway applied for powers to make a junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Bute Street, Cardiff, hoping that the Taff Vale would install broad gauge, to avoid the transshipment of minerals at the break of gauge. This the Taff Vale declined to do, and instead the SWR itself laid narrow gauge track into its own Cardiff station; this was ready in January 1854 and sanctioned for passenger train use in February 1854. The horse-worked Llynvi Valley Railway brought minerals to a transfer station at Stormy, just east of Pyle. The Swansea Vale Railway which had long been established as a waggonway, crossed the SWR main line by a flat crossing near Llansamlet. Steps were taken to abolish the dangerous crossing, forming a proper junction instead, and broad gauge rails were laid on the Swansea Vale between the point of junction and the SVR sidings at North Dock, Swansea. This work was completed in February 1857; there had been a serious collision in the previous October at the old crossing. The Llanelly Railway routes were crossed on the level by the South Wales Railway; apparatus was installed at Llanelly for the transfer of minerals from narrow gauge Llanelly wagons to broad gauge SWR wagons. ==SWR branches not built== The SWR had intended two branches of its own. That from Newport to Monmouth was in truth a concession to vocal interests in Monmouth. When it became apparent that the Monmouth and Hereford Railway was not to be constructed, the SWR dropped the branch. The other branch was to have connected to Pembroke. When the SWR decided to make their western terminus at Neyland instead of Fishguard, the Pembroke branch was going to be an expensive luxury, as Neyland was only a five-minute ferry crossing away. The company hoped to forget the Pembroke branch, but vociferous local opinion pressed the legal obligation of the company to complete its authorised lines, and in default of the legal obligation the company was forced to suspend its second-half dividend in 1857. ==Completion to Neyland, and some branches== On 15 April 1856 the line was extended from Haverfordwest to Neyland. The Barlow rail track installed on the earlier western sections was now found to be unsatisfactory, and this new section was made with ordinary longitudinal timber track. The Barlow track was progressively relaid over the following years. The line between Carmarthen and Neyland was doubled from 1 July 1857. A short extension to the Bute docks at Cardiff was opened on 19 April 1858, and an extension of the Swansea coal branch to connect with the harbour railway was opened in September 1859. ==Independent broad gauge railways== Four independent railways made broad gauge connections with the South Wales Railway during the time of its independent existence. The most important was the Vale of Neath Railway. It was incorporated in 1846 to make a line from Neath to Merthyr Tydvil, with a branch from near Hirwaun to Aberdare. As a broad gauge line serving a mineral district it was obviously to be a useful feeder to the South Wales Railway, and when it was unable to secure the subscriptions it needed to build its line, the South Wales Railway subscribed £127,780. The shortage of capital caused the directors to prioritise the Aberdare route, which opened from Neath on 24 September 1851 for passenger traffic, goods and minerals following in December. The Vale of Neath Railway was the biggest contributor of mineral traffic to the South Wales Railway, but most of that was destined for Swansea docks, so that no long haul income was derived from the connection. (In fact for many years a single daily mineral train to London was adequate for all the South Wales Railway's traffic.) The South Wales Mineral Railway built a line of about 12 miles from Briton Ferry to Glyncorrwg, opening from 1860. The Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway opened part of its line, from the SWR Carmarthen station to their own Carmarthen station; the SWR Station was renamed Carmarthen Junction on the same day, 1 July 1860. The Llynvi Valley Railway had been a tramway; the Company obtained power to convert to a broad gauge railway at Bridgend, and in August 1861 opened the improved line form mineral traffic. The Ely Valley Railway opened a mineral line from Llantrisant to Tonyrefail in August 1860. The Neyland terminal was at a remote location, and the nearby settlement named Milford was significant, and local interests promoted a railway as a branch of the SWR, from Johnston. The Milford Railway was incorporated on 5 June 1856, and the independent company constructed the line. The Great Western Railway, which was working the South Wales Railway, worked the Milford branch from its opening on 7 September 1863 (actually after amalgamation of the SWR and the GWR). The Milford terminus became better known as Milford Haven, and continues at the present day.E T MacDermot, History of the Great Western Railway, volume II: 1863 – 1921, published by the Great Western Railway, London , 1931Vic Mitchell and Keith Smith, Carmarthen to Fishguard, Middleton Press, Midhurst, 2010, ==Relations with the Great Western Railway== The working arrangement with the Great Western Railway continued to be a source of friction, and at the half yearly meeting of the SWR in February 1860, a letter from the auditors to the directors was read to the meeting: > Gentlemen: We think it our duty to call your serious attention to the very > unsatisfactory condition of the accounts between the South Wales and Great > Western Railway companies. Your auditors have understood that from time to > time attempts have been made to adjust the many items involving large sums > in difference between the two companies, but we now conclude they have > proved abortive, as… other questions have recently arisen which have so > largely added to the disputed amounts as to render any division of profits > in our judgment of doubtful prudence. > We, therefore, strongly recommend that the agreement between the two > companies should be cancelled, and that the South Wales Railway should be > worked independently and separately.Report of the proceedings in the Cardiff > and Merthyr Guardian 3 March 1860, accessed at the British Newspaper > Archive, subscription required A motion was put to the meeting, that the "lease is injurious to both companies, and that it is desirable to put an end to it". The directors had no immediate means of putting an end to it, and in the following months further sources of conflict arose. Eventually the Board submitted a Bill in Parliament for the 1861 session to create more capital to purchase rolling stock, and to work the line itself. This was received favourably in Parliament, but it was evident that there was not time to get the Bill passed in that session, and it was withdrawn. The GWR, sensing Parliament's view of the lease proposed instead an amalgamation of the two companies. This negotiation too was difficult, but agreement was reached on 15 November 1861, so that from 1 January 1862 the GWR would take a lease of the SWR until the amalgamation of the GWR and the West Midland Railway, then in process, was finalised. After amalgamation the SWR was to receive 10.7% rising to 10.9% of the combined receipts of the GWR, WMR and SWR. The amalgamation was sanctioned by Act of 21 July 1863, and it took effect on 1 August 1863. ==Part of the Great Western Railway== From 1 August 1863 the South Wales Railway network was formally part of the Great Western Railway. The continuous route from Paddington (London) to Neyland was 285 miles of which 164 had been built by the South Wales Railway. The Gloucester to Grange Court section had always been worked with the SWR and now ceased to have a separate existence. Although successful, the line had not fulfilled its potential: the hoped-for heavy mineral traffic from South Wales was in fact largely conveyed by coastal shipping, and the transatlantic passenger business had not materialised at all. The opening up of deep coal seams in the central part of the South Wales Coalfield from about 1850 had encouraged deep-sea (that is, overseas) export rather than domestic trade. ==Bristol and South Wales Union Railway== From the outset, it was obvious that the considerable intercourse between Bristol and South Wales needed better facilities, and any railway journey via Gloucester hardly answered the need. Ferry crossings of the Severn were already commonplace, and a railway from Bristol to New Passage Pier was promoted. This became the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway, opened on 8 September 1863. It was worked by the GWR; a short branch on the western shore to Portskewett Pier was opened at the same time.John Norris, The Bristol & South Wales Union Railway, Railway and Canal Historical Society, Oakham, 1985, ==Gauge conversion== When conceived as a prime trunk line, the broad gauge had seemed a superior technical solution, but as time passed, the practical difficulty of the break of gauge with neighbouring lines assumed an ever-greater significance. Moreover, the supremacy of the former SWR line in West Wales was beginning to be eroded; the Pembroke and Tenby Railway, a narrow gauge line, had aligned itself with other such lines at Carmarthen and had obtained an Act for an independent line from Whitland to Carmarthen; the GWR saw that this could lead to a hostile railway, probably the London and North Western Railway, establishing control of these lines and the GWR agreed to lay standard gauge track on its own route between Whitland and Carmarthen to accommodate the P&TR; trains. It did so by altering one line of the broad gauge double line to narrow (standard) gauge. This was ready on 1 June 1868. The conversion was the first instance of GWR broad gauge track being altered to narrow gauge.M R C Price, The Pembroke and Tenby Railway, Oakwood Press, Headington, 1986, Finally in 1871 the GWR took the decision to convert the gauge of all its broad gauge track from Swindon through Gloucester to west Wales, including all branches; some mixed gauge sections were converted to narrow-only in addition. The work was executed in April 1872 in a massive operation. On the night of Tuesday 30 April the up line from New Milford and Grange Court was closed, and single line working of a reduced train service instituted on the down line. Considerable technical preparation had been made including oiling and freeing of the bolts; much of the track was the GWR pattern longitudinal timber track, but some Barlow rail sections had been replaced with rails on cross sleepers, and because of the use of fang bolts this was much more laborious to convert. The up line was ready for narrow gauge traffic on 12 May and all broad gauge rolling stock was cleared from the Welsh lines; this included the Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway, and an inspector was sent to verify that this had been done. The reduced train service was operated over the single up line, and sidings at certain station had been previously narrowed to allow passenger trains to be shunted to pass opposing trains, as there was no ordinary crossing loop for a few days. During this time goods trains were not run on the line under conversion, but as far as possible goods traffic was worked by alternative routes where they were available east of Swansea Conversion of the down line was complete on 22 May and the following day a skeleton service was run at reduced speed. Private owners' broad gauge wagons were returned to their home station; in many cases there was not enough siding accommodation for them, and they were turned off the line as close to their home station as possible. ==From 1873 to 1923== ===Mineral and other traffic development=== The gauge conversion immediately rendered the neighbouring independent railways more accessible as the break of gauge had been done away with. The development of industry in South Wales provided a considerable spur to the mineral traffic on the SWR route. The development was by no means confined to the collieries in the South Wales Valleys. Iron, and later steel, industries became important, at first largely concentrated on extractive processes but soon followed by intermediate and finishing industries; tinplate came to have especial importance. Copper smelting developed a massive importance, centred on Swansea. General commercial social development fed a demand for ordinary passenger and goods traffic, and some coastal towns became important as holiday resorts in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.W E Minchinton (editor), Industrial South Wales, 1850 to 1914, Essays in Welsh Economic History, 1966 reprinted 2006, Routledge, Abingdon, 1969, digital version 2010, Nonetheless many independent railway companies saw the GWR as a difficult partner, and the use of coastal shipping for mineral transport remained high. ===Severn Tunnel=== The route from London and Bristol to the former South Wales Railway system lay through Gloucester, and the GWR had long suffered from the epithet "the Great Way Round". The Bristol and South Wales Union Railway provided a rail and ferry connection, but this was not capable of handling bulk minerals, and there was soon a move to cross under the Severn. This was a prodigious undertaking; the tunnel when completed was 4 miles 624 yards (7,008 m) in length; it was the longest tunnel in the United Kingdom until 2007, and the longest underwater tunnel in the world until 1987. The line was opened on 1 September 1886, although passenger trains were not run until 1 December 1886.Roger Cragg, Civil engineering Heritage: Wales and West Central England, Thomas Telford Publishing, London, 1986 revised 1997, ===Swansea west loop=== When the South Wales Railway was constructed, Swansea was placed on a branch line from the through route to Carmarthen; the junction point was at Landore. Traffic west from Swansea was required to reverse and this situation was not improved until 1907 when the Swansea Loop was provided, forming a south to west chord on the triangle.R A Cooke, Atlas of the Great Western Railway, 1947, Wild Swan Publications, Didcot, 1997, Swansea High Street station was built originally as a two-platform wooden structure. It was enlarged in 1879, but although the opening of the Swansea West Loop in 1906 allowed through working between High Street and Carmarthen, it was not until after the High Street station was completely modernised during 1923-32, that the station became adequate for the increase in traffic and longer trains. The Landore Viaduct is a prominent landmark. MacDermot refers to the line as Swansea, Landore West Loop, and gives opening dates as 5 March 1906, passengers 1 May 1906.MacDermot, volume 2, page 611 ===Fishguard=== The original aspiration of the South Wales Railway, to reach Fishguard, was finally achieved when on 30 August 1906 a new route was opened from Clarbeston Road to Fishguard Harbour, partly using a local railway route. A ferry service between Fishguard Harbour and Rosslare was started at the same time. The construction had been prodigiously expensive as much of the station and sidings area at Fishguard had to be blasted out of rock cliffs. Transatlantic traffic was the prize still sought after, and the called at Fishguard on 25 August 1909. Transatlantic steamers continued to call on a sporadic basis, but the outbreak of World War I resulted in suspension of the trade after the call of the on 14 September 1914, and it was never resumed. The Irish ferry trade continued after the war and is still in use at the present day.Ernie Shepherd, Fishguard and Rosslare Railways and Harbours Company: An Illustrated History, Colourpoint Books, Newtownards, 2015, ==1923 to 1947== The railways of Great Britain were "grouped" under the terms of the Railways Act 1921, effective from 1 January 1923 (although some effective dates were shortly before or after that date). The pre-1923 Great Western Railway, the Taff Vale Railway, the Rhymney Railway, the Alexandra (Newport & South Wales) Docks & Railway, the Barry Railway, the Cambrian Railways and the Cardiff Railway were constituents of the post-1923 Great Western Railway. Most other lines in South Wales and Gloucestershire west of the River Severn were "subsidiaries" of the Great Western Railway, although some lines that had become owned by the Midland Railway and the London and North Western Railway became part of the new London, Midland and Scottish Railway.Gwyn Brynant Jones and Denis Dunstone, The Origins of the LMS in South Wales, Gomer Press, Llandysul, 1999, The combined Great Western Railway brought most of the branch lines under GWR control, and enabled efficiencies of scale to be introduced in time. The GWR had long been accused of exploiting its near-monopoly of long-distance rail connection, and the grouping enhanced that hostility: > In South Wales some of the troubles that were to beset the railways were > attributed to the Great Western "takeover". It was necessary more than once, > to remind business interests, and other people in South Wales, that the > amalgamations of 1922 were no result of Great Western aggrandisement. The > grouping was imposed by law...O S Nock, History of the Great Western > Railway, volume 3, 1923 to 1947, Ian Allan Limited, Shepperton, 1967 > reprinted 1982, The size of the enlarged company may be judged from the fact that the GWR was responsible for 11% of the local rates of Cardiff in 1924. The South Wales Railway route now assumed its destiny as the spine of the GWR system, with the former independent railways forming branches off it.Peter Semmens, History of the Great Western Railway: 1: Consolidation 1923 – 29, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1985 reprinted 1990,m The Development (Loan Guarantees and Grants) Act, 1929 was passed to encourage capital works by the railways and other industries, with the aim of reducing unemployment. The Great Western Railway took advantage of the government assistance, in improving and extending the goods marshalling facilities at Severn Tunnel Junction, and in modernisation and improvements at Cardiff General and Swansea High Street stations. A major power signalling system was installed at Cardiff, and some rationalisation of the duplicate routes at Briton Ferry and Court Sart, a legacy of the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway, were undertaken. All this work was done in the period 1930 to 1934.R Tourret, GWR Engineering Work, 1928 – 1938, Tourret Publishing, Abingdon, 2003, ==Nationalisation and later== The main line railways of Great Britain were taken into national ownership, under British Railways, at the beginning of 1948; the Great Western Railway ceased to exist. Steel manufacture was also undergoing major change, and part of that process resulted in the opening of a major steelworks at Port Talbot in 1951. This was followed by the establishment of a further major integrated steelworks at Llanwern, between Newport and Severn Tunnel Junction.Martin Johnes, Wales since 1939, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013, Margam marshalling yard was completed in 1960, rationalising goods and mineral routing in the area. A branch line to the new Gulf Oil refinery at Waterston, near Milford haven, was opened on 21 August 1960; it made a junction at Herbrandston Junction. The location was chosen because of the availability of deep water berthing for very large oil tanker ships; a further branch was opened to a new Amoco refinery at Robeston on 20 February 1974. Neyland had lost its significance as a ferry terminal when Fishguard was started in 1906, but the extensive carriage servicing and locomotive depot and traincrew establishment there caused it to remain an important terminal for many decades. Finally however rationalisation, chiefly spurred by the introduction of diesel multiple units and the consequent changed pattern of rolling stock servicing, resulted in the closure of the line from Johnston to Neyland on 14 June 1964.Richard Parker: Neyland: A Great Western Outpost, KRB Publications, Bishops Waltham, 2002, ==Recent times== The majority of the original South Wales Railway main line is in use between Gloucester and Milford Haven. From Severn Tunnel Junction to Swansea is part of the South Wales Main Line, forming part of the London to Swansea section. A significant passenger service operates between Gloucester and Severn Tunnel Junction, and west of Swansea. Milford Haven and Fishguard form the western extremities of the line, the original Neyland section having closed. ==Station Reopening== Most of the stations that have been reopened in the time of British Rail under the Regional Railways sector. The stations reopened being: as part of the Maesteg Line reopening (Mid Glamorgan council and British Rail), Pontyclun and Pencoed in 1992; under the Swanline (West Glamorgan and Mid Glamorgan councils as well as British Rail) Pyle in 1994 and along with Briton Ferry, Skewen and Llansamlet. Then following the break up of British Rail, Railtrack installed a new station on the Swanline in Baglan in 1996. Under Network Rail and the Welsh Assembly Government a reopened Llanharan and was funded in part by SEWTA and at a cost of £4.3 million, in 2007. ==Station list== List of stations during the independent existence of the South Wales Railway (until 1 August 1863). * Gloucester; GWR station opened 19 September 1851; * Grange Court; opened 1 June 1855; * Newnham; opened 19 September 1851; * Awre for Blakeney; opened 19 December 1851; * Gatcombe; opened August 1851; * Lydney; opened 19 September 1851; * Woolaston; opened 1 June 1853; * Chepstow East; opened 19 September 1851; * Chepstow; opened 19 June 1850; * Portskewett; opened 19 June 1850; * Magor; opened October 1851; * Llanwern; opened October 1855; * Newport; opened 19 June 1850; * Marshfield; opened 2 September 1852; * Cardiff; opened 19 June 1850; * Ely; opened 2 September 1852; * St Fagans; opened 1 April 1852; * Peterston; opened September 1858; * Llantrisant; opened 19 June 1850; * Pencoed;opened 2 September 1850; * Bridgend; opened 19 June 1850; * Pyle; opened 19 June 1850; * Port Talbot; opened 19 June 1850; * Briton Ferry; opened 2 September 1850; * Neath; opened 19 June 1850; * Llansamlet; opened 1 April 1852; * Landore; opened 19 June 1850; * Swansea; opened 19 June 1850. * Landore (above); * Gower Road; opened 1 August 1854; * Llanelly; opened 11 October 1852; * Pembrey & Burry Port; opened 11 October 1852; * Kidwelly; opened 11 October 1852; * Ferryside; opened 11 October 1852; * Carmarthen; opened 11 October 1852; renamed Carmarthen Junction 1860; * St Clears; opened 2 January 1854; * Whitland; opened 2 January 1854; * Narberth Road; opened 2 January 1854; * Clarbeston Road; opened 2 January 1854; * Haverfordwest; opened 2 January 1854; * Johnston; opened 15 April 1856; * Milford Haven; opened 15 April 1856; renamed Neyland in 1859, then renamed New Milford later in 1859; later Neyland; note that this is not the later Milford Haven station.M E Quick, Railway Passenger Stations in England Scotland and Wales—A Chronology, The Railway and Canal Historical Society, 2002 ==Notes== ==References== Category:Railway lines in Wales Category:Rail transport in Carmarthenshire Category:Rail transport in Gloucestershire Category:Transport in Monmouthshire Category:Rail transport in Pembrokeshire Category:Rail transport in Swansea Category:Great Western Railway constituents Category:7 ft gauge railways Category:Works of Isambard Kingdom Brunel Category:Standard gauge railways in Wales
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Famous Last Words (formerly known as A Walking Memory and Barlait) is an American metalcore/post-hardcore band from Petoskey, Michigan. Formed in 2008, they are known for their concept albums and have released three studio albums to date: Two-Faced Charade, Council of the Dead and The Incubus. Following their 2016 release, "The Incubus," the group departed from Revival Recordings and signed to SBG Records. The group currently consists of vocalist Jeremy "JT" Tollas, bassist Tyler Myklebust, guitarist Evan Foley, and drummer Cody Paige. == 2008-2010: Barlait and A Walking Memory == Hailing from Petoskey, Michigan, Famous Last Words (Then called Barlait) was formed in 2008 by member JT Tollas. The group released an album called A Walking Memory. == 2010-2012: You Could Have Made This Easier, In Your Face, and Pick Your Poison == Renaming themselves A Walking Memory, the group quickly began to make their mark within the scene. Utilizing heavy guitar riffs, catchy hooks, folly, and symphonic elements, the band took things a step further and introduced detailed stories into their lyrics and album structure; transforming their band into more of an art project. It was characteristics like this that lead the independent label InVogue Records to sign the band in 2012. Aaron Peano would leave the band after the release of "In Your Face" in 2010. Starting his own band "The Monsters I've Met" They released the EP You Could Have Made This Easier in 2010. This appeared in self-initiative. After the name change this was followed by the EP's "In Your Face" in 2010 and Pick Your Poison in 2012. The latter has already appeared at InVogue Records. == 2013: Two-Faced Charade == Their first studio album, Two Faced Charade, released April 30, 2013. This is the first of their concept albums, a story about an outcast (who has schizophrenia), who falls in love with his neighbor, Elise (Welcome To The Show). Situations escalate, and he ends up following her into town (Victim of the Virtuoso), and finding out she has a boyfriend (The Relentless). He grows enraged, and starts to hear a screaming internally, one very similar to the one he feels inside. This scream is soon followed by a voice, the form that his previously mentioned schizophrenia takes (Voices). It starts telling him the actions he must take to have Elise as his (Lust of the Lost). He eventually makes a plan, when the boyfriend is about to go on a business trip, the main character stops him outside and acts concerned, since it seems as if the boyfriend was heavily drunk. He brings the boyfriend inside, and proceeds to murder the boyfriend (Legends and Legacies), and then hesitantly cut up the body, and then bury it into the ground (To Play Hide and Seek With Jealousy). Afterwards, he uses the boyfriend's phone to text Elise, in the perspective of the boyfriend telling her that they're done for, and that the stress of this job that the boyfriend took was too much. Elise gets heavily upset and the next day, when the main character goes over to her house to act like he was just coming to have breakfast, she rejects him kindly, explaining how they got broken up over text. The main character tells her everything is okay, and eventually that he took care of the boyfriend (Searching for a Home). She gets extremely confused when he says this, and once the main character realizes this, he runs back to his house, with Elise on his tail. She walks into the house, and into his bedroom, where the main character is (Even A Ghost Has A Sanctuary). She sees the bloodied knife and turns to the door, smelling the stench of blood and bleach. She walks into the bathroom and sees the blood, and the main character reassures her that he took care of her boyfriend, and that it's all okay. After she calls him a monster, he grows extremely angry and yells at her that he did this all of her and himself, before she says he did it all for him. He smashes her head into the wall vigorously, before realizing what he's doing and stopping himself. Realizing he just accidentally killed Elise, he turns to the mirror and tells the "inner-demon" that he had messed up his life, before the main character cuts himself down the wrist, killing himself. (The Show Must Go On, Prt. 1 and 2) There's a short film and a short story both written by the lead singer, JT Tollas. He even directed the short film, and starred in it. ==2014-2015: Council of the Dead== The band premiered the single "Council of the Dead" on January 27, 2014, and announced their second studio album, Council of the Dead, on the same day. The album is set to be released on August 26, 2014 through InVogue Records. On May 6, 2014 the band announced "The Hope Revolution Tour" beginning late August through September with fellow acts Hawthorne Heights, The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus and New Empire in the US. On August 1, 2014, the band released the music video for two new tracks, "One In The Chamber" and "The End Of The Beginning", from their upcoming album Council of the Dead. Famous Last Words have revealed the artwork and track listing for their upcoming sophomore studio album, Council of the Dead was released on InVogue on August 26, 2014 nationwide. On August 25, 2014, the band released Council of the Dead. It reached #91 on the Top 200 and #18 on Independent Albums on Billboard's charts. On October 10, the band announced "The InVogue Records Tour" beginning late November through December with fellow acts For All I Am, Kingdom of Giants and Whether, I in the US. On February 19, 2015 the band announced "The Touring Dead" beginning late February through March with fellow acts For All I Am and Tear Out the Heart in the US. ==2016-2018: Revival Recordings and The Incubus== On January 5, 2016, it was revealed by Revival Recordings that they had signed Famous Last Words, and that the band was working on their third studio album. The first single, "Pretty In Porcelain," as well as an acoustic rendition of "I'll Be Home Soon", from the label's upcoming compilation was released on iTunes, along with a promotional lyric video. On June 10, 2016, the band announced "The Method to the Madness Tour" beginning late July with fellow acts Outline in Color, It Lives, It Breathes and Open Your Eyes in the US. On July 9, 2016 the first single, "Pretty In Porcelain", from their upcoming album was released on iTunes, along with a promotional music video. On September 30, 2016, the group released their third effort, "The Incubus", marking their only release on Revival Recordings. On November 10, 2016, the band announced "The Incubus Tour" beginning late November with fellow acts, The Funeral Portrait and Versus Me On June 13, 2017, founding member and drummer Craig Simons announced his departure from the band, citing personal issues as his primary reasoning for his departure, and wishing his bandmates luck in the future. On December 11, 2017, the band announced their departure from Revival Recordings, and wished all other bands on the label their best. On October 26, 2018, the band released the first track "No Walls" off their new EP titled "Arizona". ==2019-present: Arizona and The Negative== On May 16, 2019, the group released the extended play Arizona under SBG records, marking their first release under the label and their first non-concept effort. Commenting on the EP, Tollas stated: “Arizona is the result of us, as a band, living through and emerging from a really dark place. At the end of 2017, we weren’t sure what the future of Famous Last Words looked like. Or if there even was a future. We decided to channel all of that emotion and anger into the music you hear on this EP. The decision to abandon the concept format for this project was no accident. We had pain, anger, and emotion that we wanted our fans to understand were not anchored around a fictional character. These songs tell the stories of the things we were dealing with.” On December 9, 2020, Tollas tweeted that he had finished "tracking the last bit of new FLW tracks" and that new music is coming soon. Almost a full year later, on October 29, 2021, Famous Last Words finally released their new single "In The Blink Of An Eye", shocking many fans who had initially thought the band had disbanded. A little longer than a month after this, the band released their three track concept EP titled "The Negative", even though the band claimed to have departed from the concept theme. The EP, though only being three tracks long, (2 songs, and a four minute voice recording) tells the story of a photographer who sees “moments of truths” captured by his camera. He feels his purpose is to capture what he calls “moments of truth” which are completely unfiltered, unedited, natural moments. He wants to capture these moments and preserve them so people can remember what “real life” looks like among the plethora of inauthenticity. When developing one day he sees a vision of a parallel universe colliding with our universe in one of his photo negatives. He doesn’t know when or what is going to happen exactly once it collides, but he knows it’s going to be soon and he begins to wildly speculate on all of the horrifying possibilities. He carries this knowledge on his own out of fear of the world thinking he has gone mad. Physical copies of the EP were limited to 300 copies, sold exclusively in their bundle titled The Anthology, including three CDs. CD one is their second EP, "Pick Your Poison", and "The Negative", CD two is their debut album "Two-Faced Charade", and CD three is their sophomore album "Council of the Dead". Alongside as the CD bundle, The Anthology included a flag, a poster, a "The Negative" t-shirt, and a single polaroid picture of one of the band members. In August 2022, Famous Last Words embarked on their first tour in 3 years with support from Across The White Water Tower and Dark Divine. == Members == ;Current * Jeremy "JT" Tollas – lead vocals (2008–present) * Evan Foley - guitars, backing vocals (2014–Present) * Tyler Myklebust – bass (2018–present), guitar (2011–2018) * Cody Paige — drums (2017–present) ;Former * Jesse Maddy – bass (2011–2013) * Ethan Osborn – lead guitar, backing vocals (2010-2014), rhythm guitar (2010-2012) * Craig Simons – drums, backing vocals (2010–2017) * Matthew Bell – bass, backing vocals (2010–2011) (2013-2018) * Aaron Peano – guitar, backing vocals (2008-2010) ===Timeline=== ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:18 PlotArea = left:100 bottom:80 top:10 right:20 Alignbars = justify DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/01/2008 till:17/10/2022 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Colors = id:vocals value:red legend:Lead_Vocals id:unclean value:claret legend:Unclean_Vocals id:guitar value:green legend:Guitar id:lguitar value:teal legend:Lead_Guitar id:rguitar value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_Guitar id:bass value:blue legend:Bass id:drums value:orange legend:Drums id:lines1 value:black legend:Studio_Album id:EP value:gray(0.5) legend:Other_releases Legend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:2 start:2010 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:2010 BarData = bar:Jeremy text:Jeremy Tollas bar:Aaron text:Aaron Peano bar:Ethan text:Ethan Osborn bar:Evan text:Evan Foley bar:Tyler text:Tyler Myklebust bar:Matthew text:Matthew Bell bar:Jesse text:Jesse Maddy bar:Craig text:Craig Simons bar:Cody text:Cody Paige PlotData= width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:Jeremy from:start till:end color:Vocals bar:Jeremy from:01/01/2010 till:end color:unclean width:3 bar:Ethan from:01/01/2010 till:01/01/2012 color:guitar bar:Ethan from:01/01/2010 till:01/01/2011 color:bass width:3 bar:Ethan from:01/01/2012 till:31/12/2013 color:lguitar bar:Evan from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2017 color:lguitar bar:Evan from:01/01/2018 till:end color:guitar bar:Tyler from:01/01/2012 till:31/12/2017 color:rguitar bar:Tyler from:01/01/2018 till:end color:bass bar:Jesse from:01/01/2011 till:31/12/2013 color:bass bar:Matthew from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2010 color:bass bar:Matthew from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2017 color:bass bar:Craig from:start till:31/12/2017 color:drums bar:Cody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:drums bar:Aaron from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2010 color:guitar bar:Aaron from:01/01/2008 till:01/01/2010 color:unclean width:3 LineData= at:17/01/2012 color:EP layer:back at:30/04/2013 color:lines1 layer:back at:26/08/2014 color:lines1 layer:back at:30/09/2016 color:lines1 layer:back at:17/05/2019 color:EP layer:back at:03/12/2021 color:EP layer:back == Discography == === Studio albums === * Two-Faced Charade (2013) * Council of the Dead (2014) * The Incubus (2016) === Extended plays === * A Walking Memory (as Barlait) (2008) * You Could Have Made This Easier (as A Walking Memory) (2010) * In Your Face (as Famous Last Words) (2010) * Pick Your Poison (2012) * Arizona (2019) * The Negative (2021) === Singles === Year Song Album 2012 "Starting Over" Pick Your Poison 2013 "The Show Must Go On" Two-Faced Charade 2013 "Lust of the Lost" Two-Faced Charade 2013 "To Play Hide And Seek With Jealousy" Two-Faced Charade 2014 "Council of the Dead" Council of the Dead 2014 "One In The Chamber" Council of the Dead 2014 "The End of the Beginning" Council of the Dead 2014 "The Uprise" Council of the Dead 2016 "Pretty In Porcelain" The Incubus 2016 "The Judged" The Incubus 2018 "No Walls" Arizona 2021 "In The Blink Of An Eye" The Negative === Music videos === Year Album Song Director Type Link 2012 Pick Your Poison "Starting Over" Charlie Anderson Narrative Unknown 2013 Two-Faced Charade "To Play Hide and Seek With Jealousy" Unknown Narrative Unknown "The Show Must Go On" Charlie Anderson narrative unknown 2014 Council of the Dead "The Uprise" unknown narrative unknown "One in the Chamber / The End of the Beginning" Charlie Anderson narrative unknown 2016 The Incubus "Pretty In Porcelain" Charlie Anderson Narrative Unknown 2016 The Incubus "The Judged" Unknown Narrative Unknown 2021 The Negative "In The Blink Of An Eye" Charlie Anderson Narrative Unknown 2021 The Negative "The Negative" Charlie Anderson Narrative Unknown == References == == External links == * Category:American post-hardcore musical groups Category:Musical groups established in 2010 Category:Rock music groups from Michigan Category:2010 establishments in Michigan Category:Metalcore musical groups from Michigan
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Seán Óg Ó hAilpín (; born 22 May 1977) is a Fijian-Irish hurler and Gaelic footballer. In an inter-county playing career that spanned three decades, Ó hAilpín played for the Cork senior hurling and football teams, winning major honours with both. He also enjoyed much success with club side Na Piarsaigh and represented Munster in the inter-provincial championships. After starting his career as a hurler at minor level, Ó hAilpín joined the Cork senior hurling team in 1996. Between then and 2012 he won three All-Ireland medals, five Munster medals and one National Hurling League medal. Ó hAilpín's three- year career with the Cork senior football team saw him win one Munster medal and one National Football League medal. At club level Ó hAilpín is a two-time county hurling championship medalist with Na Piarsaigh. Ó hAilpín has a number of personal achievements, including three consecutive All Star awards. In 2004 he made a clean sweep of all the top individual awards, winning the All Star, Texaco and GPA Hurler of the Year awards. Four years later in 2009 he was chosen on the Munster team of the past twenty-five years. His brothers Setanta, Teu, and Aisake are also notable sportsmen. In October 2013, Ó hAilpín released his autobiography called Seán Óg Ó hAilpÍn ... The Autobiography. ==Early life and education== Ó hAilpín was born on the island of Rotuma, 646 kilometres north of the main Fiji islands to Seán Ó hAilpín, an oil-rig worker and a native of Fermanagh in Northern Ireland, and his wife Emilie, a hotel worker and a Rotuman. The eldest of six children, he was the only Ó hAilpín to be born on his mother's native island. When Ó hAilpín was three years-old the family emigrated to Sydney in Australia. It was here that he first gained an interest in various sports, particularly rugby league. His years in Australia also saw the birth of Ó hAilpín's siblings – Teu, Sarote, Setanta and Aisake. Both Setanta and Aisake would later play for the Carlton Football Club in the Australian Football League. Teu subsequently played both hurling and football in Ireland and Britain. The Ó hAilpín family moved from Australia to Ireland in 1988 and settled in Cork. They rented a house in Knocknaheeny before moving permanently to Blarney, just a short few miles outside the city. Ó hAilpín adapted well to life in his new surroundings and openly accepted all aspects of Irish culture. He was educated locally in the Gaelcholáiste section of the famous North Monastery secondary school. Here, all of Ó hAilpín's classes were taught in Irish, a language that was alien to him, however, he quickly became fluent. It was in the "North Mon" that he was also first introduced to Gaelic games, and he quickly became a key component of the school's senior hurling team. Ó hAilpín subsequently attended Dublin City University. In 1999 he was conferred with a BSc in Finance Computing and Entrepreneurship (Airgeadas, Ríomhaireacht agus Fiontraíocht). ==Playing career== ===Colleges=== Ó hAilpín first enjoyed hurling success as a member of the North Monastery senior hurling team. He won a provincial Dr. Harty Cup medal in 1994, before later lining out in the All-Ireland colleges' final. St. Mary's school from Galway provided the opposition, however, victory went to the Cork school. The 1–10 to 1–6 score line resulted in Ó hAilpín picking up an All-Ireland medal. ===Club=== While Ó hAilpín first came into contact with Gaelic games during his secondary schooling, he also linked up with the Na Piarsaigh club on the north side of Cork city. Here he played both hurling and Gaelic football and experienced much success. In 1995 Ó hAilpín won a championship medal at minor level as the club triumphed in the under-18 grade. He subsequently joined the Na Piarsaigh under-21 team, however, he enjoyed little success in this grade, losing two finals in three seasons. Ó hAilpín was just out of the minor grade when he joined the club's senior team in 1995. That year he lined out in his first senior county final. Ballyhea were the opponents on that occasion; however, victory went to city-side Na Piarsaigh on a score line of 1–12 to 3–1. It was Ó hAilpín's first senior county championship medal. It took Na Piarsaigh almost a decade to qualify for their next county final at senior level, as 2004 saw the club take on east Cork stalwarts Cloyne. An intriguing contest ensued and, at the full-time whistle, victory went to Na Piarsaigh on a score line of 0–17 to 0–10. It was Ó hAilpín's second championship medal. ===Minor and under-21=== Ó hAilpín first came to prominence on the inter-county scene as a member of the Cork minor hurling team in 1994. In his first season on the team he won a Munster winners' medal following an emphatic 2–15 to 0–9 trouncing of Waterford. Ó hAilpín later lined out in the All-Ireland final with Galway providing the opposition. Unfortunately for Ó hAilpín victory narrowly went to the team from the west by 2–10 to 1–11. In 1995 Ó hAilpín was a key member of the Cork minor team again. That year he collected a second consecutive Munster title following a second consecutive trouncing of Waterford. Cork subsequently qualified for the All-Ireland final again, this time with arch-rivals Kilkenny providing the opposition. At the second time of asking Cork triumphed and Ó hAilpín collected an All-Ireland Minor Hurling Championship medal. He was also captain of the minor football team this year but lost out in the Munster final to Tipperary. By 1996 Ó hAilpín was ineligible for the minor team, however, he was an automatic choice for the Cork under-21 team. In his first season on the panel he won a Munster title following a 3–16 to 2–7 trouncing of Clare in the provincial decider. Cork were later defeated by eventual champions Galway in the All-Ireland semi-final. In 1997 Ó hAilpín lined out in a second consecutive Munster decider. Arch provincial rivals Tipperary were the opponents on that occasion. After a close game Cork emerged victorious by a single point and Ó hAilpín collected a second Munster under-21 medal. 'The Rebels' later qualified for the All-Ireland final with Galway providing the opposition. After a defeat at the hands of the men from the west the previous year, Cork gained revenge in 1997 with a 3–11 to 0–13 win in the championship decider. It was Ó hAilpín's first All-Ireland medal. The victory was all the more spectacular as it was Cork's one hundredth All-Ireland title across all grades. In 1998 Ó hAilpín was in his final year on the under-21 team. Once again Cork qualified for the provincial decider and, once again, Tipperary provided the opposition. On this occasion Cork's victory over their old enemy was much more comprehensive and Ó hAilpín added a third consecutive Munster under-21 medal to his collection. The subsequent All-Ireland final saw Cork take on Galway at that stage of the competition for the second year in-a-row. An interesting game developed; however, victory went to Cork by 2–15 to 2–10. It was Ó hAilpín's second and final All-Ireland medal in the under-21 grade. ===Senior=== By this stage Ó hAilpín was also a member of the Cork senior hurling team. He made his debut in a Munster championship game against Limerick in 1996. He came on as a substitute for Mark Mullins and assumed the captaincy of the team as the only Na Piarsaigh player on the field of play. Cork were trounced on that occasion by 3–18 to 1–8. Two years later in 1998 Ó hAilpín first tasted success at senior level. Cork defeated Waterford by 2–14 to 0–13 to take the National Hurling League title. Cork failed to repeat this success in the championship, however, the capturing of the league title was a victory which kick-started Cork's return to the big time. In 1999 Ó hAilpín became a dual star with Cork, a player of both hurling and Gaelic football at senior level. He began the year by winning a National Football League medal following a 0–12 to 1–7 victory over Dublin. Later that year the Cork senior hurlers were back in the Munster final for the first time in seven years. Clare, the provincial stars of the last few years, provided the opposition on that occasion and were the firm favourites to secure a fourth title in five years. A Joe Deane goal proved the key for Cork and, at the full-time whistle, 'the Rebels' were the victors by 1–15 to 0–14. It was Ó hAilpín's first Munster medal at senior level. Shortly after this victory Ó hAilpín lined out with the Cork senior footballers in the Munster football decider against arch- rivals Kerry. In atrocious weather conditions Cork emerged victorious by 2–10 to 2–4. It was Ó hAilpín's first Munster football title and acted as a springboard for further success. Back with the hurlers Cork subsequently qualified for the All-Ireland final against Kilkenny. Once again the wet conditions severely hampered what many people expected to be a classic game. Both teams shot seventeen wides over the seventy minutes, however, the Jimmy Barry-Murphy-managed Cork team, with an average age of twenty-two, sealed a 0–13 to 0–12 victory. It was Ó hAilpín's first All-Ireland medal. Two weeks after this victory he lined out for the Cork footballers in the All-Ireland final against Meath. In an exciting game that saw the lead switch hands on several occasions Cork's hopes of doing the double were dashed as Meath won by 1–11 to 1–8. In 2000 Cork's hurlers were the favourites to retain their All- Ireland title. The team got off to a good start by retaining their Munster title, however, Tipperary put up a good fight in the final but were ultimately defeated by 0–23 to 3–12. Cork's next game was an All-Ireland semi-final meeting with Offaly. While Cork were expected to win the game without breaking a sweat Offaly caught Ó hAilpín's side on the hop and secured a 0–19 to 0–15 win. A car crash in 2001 almost ended Ó hAilpín's career as his kneecap was severed; however, he overcame this difficulty and fought his way back to fitness in a short period of time. While the Cork hurling team should have gone from strength to strength as a result of a solid foundation at minor and under-21 levels the opposite happened. Embarrassing defeats in 2001 and 2002 saw the Cork hurling team reach rock bottom and call a players strike just before Christmas in 2002. Ó hAilpín played a huge role as one of the main spokesmen in representing the welfare of his fellow players. Had the strike failed it could have meant the end of his inter-county career, however, in the end the Cork county board relented and met the demands. Although still amateur sportsmen the Cork senior hurling team were treated to all the trappings of professional athletes. In 2003 Cork's players were vindicated in taking a stand as the team reached the Munster final for the first time in three years. Waterford provided the opposition on that occasion and one of hurling's modern rivalries began in earnest. An exciting game resulted between the two teams; however, victory went to Cork by 3–16 to 3–12. It was Ó hAilpín's third Munster medal. Cork subsequently qualified for an All-Ireland final meeting with Kilkenny. In another thrilling game of hurling both teams were level for much of the game, exchanging tit-for-tat scores. A Martin Comerford goal five minutes from the end settled the game as Kilkenny went on to win by 1–14 to 1–11. In spite of losing that day Seán Óg and his brother Setanta were both subsequently honoured with All-Star awards. 2004 saw Cork reach the Munster final once again and, for the second consecutive year, Waterford provided the opposition. In what many consider to be the greatest provincial championship decider of them all, both sides fought tooth-and-nail for the full seventy minutes. Unfortunately for Ó hAilpín Cork lost the game by just a single point on a score line of 3–16 to 1–21. Although Cork surrendered their provincial crown they were still in with a chance of landing the All-Ireland title. After maneuvering through the qualifiers Cork reached a second consecutive All- Ireland final and, once again, Kilkenny provided the opposition. This game took on a life of its own for a number of reasons. Chief among these was the fact that Kilkenny were attempting to capture a third All-Ireland in-a-row and go one ahead of Cork in the All-Ireland roll of honour. The game was expected to be another classic; however, a damp day put an end to this. The first half was a low-scoring affair and provided little excitement for fans. The second- half saw Cork completely take over. For the last twenty-three minutes Cork scored nine unanswered points and went on to win the game by 0–17 to 0–9. It was Ó hAilpín's second All-Ireland medal and a second consecutive All-Star soon followed. In 2005 Cork were on form again while Ó hAilpín was honoured by being appointed captain of the team. That year Cork won back the provincial crown with a 1–21 to 1–16 victory over fierce provincial rivals Tipperary. It was Ó hAilpín's fourth Munster medal as Cork went on the march for glory once again. While it was expected that Cork and Kilkenny would do battle again in a third consecutive All-Ireland final Galway were the surprise winners of the second semi-final. It was the first meeting of Cork and Galway in an All- Ireland final since 1990 and even more daunting was the fact that men from the west had never beaten Cork in a championship decider. Once again neither side broke away into a considerable lead, however, Galway failed to score for the last ten minutes and at the final whistle Cork were ahead by 1–21 to 1–16.The GAA Book of Lists p. 368 For the second year in-a-row Cork were the All- Ireland champions and Ó hAilpín had the great honour of collecting the Liam MacCarthy Cup. Despite being born in Fiji, Ó hAilpín is a fluent speaker of the Irish Language and was lauded for his acceptance speech following the final as it was delivered exclusively in Irish. A third consecutive All-Star award soon followed. Following the conclusion of the championship Seán Óg joined his brother, Setanta, a former hurler and currently a player in the Australian Football League with Carlton, for some off-season training. It was thought that he may join his brother at the Australian club, however, unlike his younger brother; his age was a factor against this. 2006 saw Cork turn their attentions to a first three-in-a-row of All-Ireland titles since 1978. The provincial decider saw Cork take on Tipperary for the second consecutive year. Once again Cork's stalwarts stood up and contributed greatly to Cork's 2–11 to 1–11 victory over their old rivals. Subsequent one-point victories over Limerick and Waterford saw Cork qualify for their fourth consecutive All- Ireland final and for the third time Kilkenny were the opponents. Like previous encounters neither side took a considerable lead, however, Kilkenny had a vital goal from Aidan Fogarty. Cork were in arrears coming into the final few minutes, however, Ben O'Connor scored a goal for Cork. It was too little too late as 'the Cats' denied 'the Rebels' the three-in-a-row on a score line of 1–16 to 1–13. In 2007 Ó hAilpín's side were set out to atone for their All-Ireland defeat the previous year, however, Cork's championship ambitions were hampered from the beginning. Although defeating Clare in the opening round the so-called Semplegate affair resulted in Ó hAilpín, goalkeeper Donal Óg Cusack and full-back Diarmuid O'Sullivan being suspended for a crucial Munster semi-final clash with Waterford. Cork exited the championship after an All-Ireland quarter-final replay defeat by Waterford. On 18 October 2010 O hAilpín announced that he had met with senior hurling manager Denis Walsh over the previous weekend and that he had informed him that he was not in his plans for the Cork hurling panel. In a statement released by the Gaelic Players’ Association he said “I would love to continue to play for Cork, but I must respect the manager's decision in this regard". One year later it was announced on the Cork GAA website that Ó hAilpín would be included in the training squad for the 2012 hurling season. Cork's championship season ended at the All-Ireland semi-final stage with a defeat by Galway. On 2 November 2012 Ó hAilpín announced his retirement from inter- county hurling. ===Inter-provincial=== Ó hAilpín also experienced success as a dual player with the Munster inter-provincial teams. He first lined out for his province in 1999. While the Munster hurlers were defeated Ó hAilpín won a Railway Cup medal as the Munster footballers defeated Connacht by 0–10 to 0–7. It was 2007 before he finally collected a Railway Cup hurling medal after Munster defeated Connacht by three points in controversial circumstances. ===International=== In 2004 Ó hAilpín received his first call up to the Irish International Rules squad. Ó hAilpín started both tests getting on the score sheet with a behind in the first test as Ireland ran out series winners. In 2005 Ó hAilpín was again selected as part of the squad to travel to Australia. He was selected to play in both tests as Ireland were defeated. In 2008 Ó hAilpín was selected for Ireland against Scotland in the Hurling/Shinty Compromise International Rules. He is the first man to be selected for both the Irish International Rules and Hurling-Shinty International Rules teams. ==Personal life== In November 2017, The Irish Times reported that Fianna Fáil was thinking of Ó hAilpín, an employee of Ulster Bank, as a potential election candidate. ==Honours== ===Team=== ;North Monastery *Dr Croke Cup (1): 1994 *Dr Harty Cup (1): 1994 ;Na Piarsaigh *Cork Senior Club Hurling Championship (2): 1995, 2004 *Cork Minor Club Hurling Championship (1): 1995 *Cork Minor Club Football Championship (1): 1995 ;Cork *All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship (3): 1999, 2004, 2005 (c) *Munster Senior Hurling Championship (5): 1999, 2000, 2003, 2005 (c), 2006 *Munster Senior Football Championship (1): 1999 *National Hurling League (1): 1998 *National Football League (1): 1999 *All- Ireland Under-21 Hurling Championship (2): 1997, 1998 *Munster Under-21 Hurling Championship (3): 1996, 1997, 1998 *All-Ireland Minor Hurling Championship (1): 1995 *Munster Minor Hurling Championship (2): 1994, 1995 ;Munster *Railway Cup (football) (1): 1999 *Railway Cup (hurling) (1): 2007 ;Ireland *International Rules (1): 2004 ===Individual=== *Munster Hurling Team of the Last 25 Years (1984–2009) *GPA Hurler of the Year (1): 2004 *All Stars Hurler of the Year (1): 2004 *Texaco Hurler of the Year (1): 2004 *RTÉ Sports Person of the Year (1): 2004 *All Stars (3): 2003, 2004, 2005 ==References== |- |- Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:All Stars Hurlers of the Year Category:Alumni of Dublin City University Category:Australian emigrants to Ireland Category:Australian Gaelic footballers Category:Australian hurlers Category:Australian people of Irish descent Category:Australian people of Rotuman descent Category:Cork inter-county Gaelic footballers Category:Cork inter-county hurlers Category:DCU Gaelic footballers Category:DCU hurlers Category:Dual players Category:Fijian emigrants to Australia Category:Fijian emigrants to Ireland Category:Fijian Gaelic footballers Category:Fijian hurlers Category:Fijian people of Irish descent Category:Irish international rules football players Category:Irish people of Rotuman descent Category:Irish people of Fijian descent Category:Munster inter-provincial Gaelic footballers Category:Munster inter- provincial hurlers Category:Na Piarsaigh Gaelic footballers Category:Na Piarsaigh hurlers Sean Category:People educated at North Monastery Category:Sportspeople from Sydney Category:Rotuman people Category:RTÉ Sports Person of the Year winners Category:Sportsmen from New South Wales Category:Sportspeople from County Cork Category:20th-century Irish people Category:21st-century Irish people
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Luis Severino (born February 20, 1994) is a Dominican professional baseball pitcher for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB). Severino signed with the Yankees as an international free agent in 2011, and made his MLB debut in 2015. After a rough 2016 season, he broke out as one of the league's best pitchers in 2017, being named an All-Star and finishing third in the American League Cy Young Award vote. He was also named an All-Star in 2018. He missed most of the 2019 and 2021 seasons and all of the 2020 season due to various injuries. ==Career== ===Minor leagues=== Severino signed with the New York Yankees as an international free agent on December 26, 2011, agreeing on a $225,000 signing bonus. He had agreed to terms to sign with the Colorado Rockies, but a Yankees scout matched their offer and convinced Severino to play for the team he had grown up as a fan of. At the time, he could throw his fastball at . He made his professional debut for the Dominican Summer League (DSL) Yankees 1 that year. He started 14 games, pitching to a 4–2 win–loss record with a 1.68 earned run average (ERA) and 45 strikeouts in innings. He started 2013 with the DSL Yankees 1 and was promoted to the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League during the season. He finished 4–2 with a 2.45 ERA, 53 strikeouts over 44 innings in 10 games (eight starts). His fastball velocity reached at Charleston. Prior to the 2014 season, Baseball America ranked him as the Yankees ninth-best prospect. Severino started the season with Charleston before being promoted to the Tampa Yankees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League. After his promotion to Tampa, he was selected to appear in the 2014 All-Star Futures Game in July. After the Futures Game, he was again promoted, to the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League. Combined between the three teams, Severino went 6–5 win–loss record with a 2.46 ERA, 127 strikeouts, and 27 walks in 24 games (all starts) and 113 innings pitched. Before the start of the 2015 season, Severino was ranked the best prospect in the Yankees farm system and the 23rd best out of all minor league players by MLB Pipeline. He was ranked 35th by Baseball America. Severino began the 2015 season with Trenton, where he had a 2–2 win–loss record with a 3.32 ERA and 48 strikeouts in 38 innings pitched across eight games started. He received a promotion to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders of the Class AAA International League, where he worked with RailRiders' pitching coach Scott Aldred to improve his pitching delivery. Severino pitched to a 7–0 win–loss record and a 1.91 ERA in 11 games started for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre through the end of July. With the Yankees in the postseason race, the Yankees made Severino unavailable in trade discussions for pitchers David Price, Cole Hamels, and Johnny Cueto at the MLB trade deadline of July 31. ===New York Yankees=== ====2015==== With a late-July injury to Michael Pineda, and the Yankees not acquiring a starting pitcher before the trade deadline, Brian Cashman, the general manager of the Yankees, announced that Severino's next start would come in the major leagues against the Boston Red Sox, the primary rival of the Yankees, at Yankee Stadium. Though Severino set a career-high with 113 innings pitched in the 2014 season, Cashman said that Severino would not be limited in how many innings he throws over the remainder of the 2015 season, in part because they limited his innings earlier in the season. Yankees' manager Joe Girardi set Severino's major league debut for August 5. Severino pitched five innings in his debut, allowing two hits, two runs (one earned), with seven strikeouts and no walks. At age 21, he was the youngest pitcher to make a start in the 2015 MLB season. Additionally, he became the first AL pitcher in MLB history to strike out seven hitters while walking none and allowing no more than two hits in their major league debut. He ended his rookie season having started 11 games, pitching innings with a 5–3 record, 2.89 ERA and 56 strikeouts. ====2016==== Severino began the 2016 season in the Yankees starting rotation. In a game against the Chicago White Sox on May 13, 2016, Severino left the game with an apparent injury after giving up 7 runs in 2.2 innings. The next day, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to right triceps inflammation. On May 30, 2016, he was activated from the disabled list, and optioned to the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders. He was called back up on July 25 and was primarily used as a reliever for the remainder of the season. On September 26, Severino was ejected for the first time in his Major League career after hitting Justin Smoak with a pitch. This followed after he hit Josh Donaldson on the elbow and Blue Jays starter J. A. Happ hit Chase Headley with a pitch in the first inning. Severino finished the 2016 season with a 3–8 record and an ERA of 5.83. In his 11 starts, he went 0–8 with an 8.50 ERA and 1.78 WHIP. However, in his 11 relief appearances, he went 3–0 with a 0.39 ERA and 0.77 WHIP. ====2017==== Following Spring Training, Severino was named the Yankees fourth starter. On April 13, 2017, Severino struck out a career-high 11 batters in seven innings as the Yankees won 3–2 over the Tampa Bay Rays. In his following start, Severino struck out 10 batters in a career-high eight innings in a 4–1 loss to the Chicago White Sox. On April 26, Severino pitched seven shutout innings against the Boston Red Sox. On May 24, Severino pitched eight shutout innings against the Kansas City Royals. As of June 10, he had a 5–2 record with a 2.75 ERA. In a no-decision, he struck out a career-high 12 batters in seven innings against the White Sox on June 27 as the bullpen blew a lead for the sixth time in Severino's starts. Despite his strong start, Severino struggled to end the first half, allowing 16 earned runs in four starts from June 15 to July 2, for a 7.03 ERA in that span. He finished his first half on a high note though, striking out 10 batters over seven innings of three-run ball against the Milwaukee Brewers on July 8, his fourth start of the season with at least 10 strikeouts. Severino was named to the American League All-Star team alongside his teammates Aaron Judge, Gary Sanchez, Starlin Castro and Dellin Betances. In the first half of the season, he had posted a 5–4 record with a 3.54 ERA and 124 strikeouts in innings. His 10.50 strikeout per-9 ratio ranked in the top five of the American League. Severino started the second half strong, first matching Chris Sale by allowing one run over seven innings in a pitcher's duel against the Red Sox. In his next start, he fired seven shutout innings against the Seattle Mariners and then allowed zero earned runs in seven innings against the Cincinnati Reds. As of July 27, Severino was tied with Max Scherzer for second-most starts (8) of at least seven innings pitched with one earned run or less in the 2017 season, behind Clayton Kershaw's 11. On August 17, 2017, Severino collected his first Major League hit off Steven Matz against the New York Mets. He collected his 11th win holding the Detroit Tigers to one earned run over innings with eight strikeouts on August 23. On September 3, against the Boston Red Sox, Severino struck out his 200th batter of the season, becoming the second-youngest Yankee in franchise history with 200 strikeouts in one season behind Al Downing in 1964. In the second half of the season, he went 9–2 with a 2.28 ERA in 14 starts, allowing no more than one earned run in ten of those starts. Severino ended the season having thrown a career-high innings in 31 starts, with a 14–6 record, 2.98 ERA, 1.04 WHIP, .208 opponent batting average, 5.3 bWAR, 5.7 fWAR and 230 strikeouts, tied with CC Sabathia for the third-most single-season strikeouts in Yankees history, and the most strikeouts in a single season by a right-handed pitcher in Yankees history in the Modern Era (post 1920). He also became the first Yankee starter to qualify for the ERA title with a sub-3.00 ERA since David Cone and Andy Pettitte both did so in 1997 and the youngest Yankee starter to do so since Dave Righetti in 1981. His 16 starts of one run allowed or less led the major leagues, additionally he was the first Yankee starter to have 16 starts with one or no runs allowed in a single season since Mike Mussina in 2001 and the youngest pitcher in the major leagues to reach this mark since Dwight Gooden in 1985. He also became the first American League pitcher with an ERA below 3.00 and 230 or more strikeouts in their age-23 season or younger since Roger Clemens in 1986. He led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 97.6 miles per hour. Severino was chosen to start the 2017 American League Wild Card Game; he was removed from the game after giving up three earned runs in one-third of an inning, tied for the shortest outing by a Yankees pitcher in the postseason. He went on to finish the 2017 postseason with a 1–1 record and a 5.68 ERA in 16 innings (4 starts) as the Yankees lost to the Houston Astros in seven games in the American League Championship Series. On November 6, Severino was named a finalist for the American League Cy Young Award. He finished third in the voting, behind Corey Kluber and Chris Sale. He received 20 third-place votes, 6 fourth-place votes and 1 fifth place vote, for a total of 73 points. ====2018==== On March 17, 2018, the Yankees named Severino their Opening Day starter. He struck out seven and allowed one hit in innings against the Toronto Blue Jays. On May 2, 2018, against the Houston Astros, Severino pitched a complete game for the first time in his major league career, shutting out the Astros 4–0. Severino allowed zero runs and struck out 10. From April 16 to June 4, Severino posted ten consecutive quality starts of at least six innings pitched and three earned runs or less allowed (in six of those he allowed one or no earned runs), during this time span he went 7–0 with a 1.85 ERA in 68 innings, giving up only 45 hits (4 home runs), striking out 82, walking just 14 batters, and limiting opponents to a .184 batting average. Severino earned his 10th win of the season on June 16 after limiting the Rays to three hits and two walks in eight shutout innings with nine strikeouts, double his win count prior to the All-Star break in 2017, and becoming the first Yankee pitcher to win 10 or more games prior to the All- Star break since Masahiro Tanaka in 2014. On July 1, Severino became the first Yankee since CC Sabathia in 2011 to win 13 games prior to the All-Star break after throwing shutout innings to beat the Red Sox. Owning a 14–2 record and a 2.12 ERA, Severino was named to the 2018 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, his second consecutive selection. He finished the first half of the season 14–2 with a 2.31 ERA in 20 starts, with 144 strikeouts against 32 walks in innings and posting a .209 opponent batting average and 1.01 WHIP. Severino became the first Yankees pitcher to enter the All-Star break with 14 wins since Mel Stottlemyre in 1969 and only the fourth to ever do so (Lefty Gomez and Whitey Ford did so in 1934 and 1961 respectively, with Ford holding the club record for most pre-All Star game wins with 16). For the season, he was 19–8, with a 3.39 ERA. He had the highest line drive percentage allowed (25.9%) of all major league pitchers. For the second consecutive year, he led all major league pitchers with an average fastball velocity of 97.6 miles per hour. Severino started the 2018 American League Wild Card Game. ====2019==== On February 15, 2019, Severino signed a four-year, $40 million contract extension that included a club option for a fifth season worth an additional $12.25 million. On March 15, it was revealed that Severino was diagnosed with rotator cuff inflammation on his right shoulder. This put him out of action for all of April. On April 9, it was revealed that Severino was diagnosed with a Grade 2 lat strain, ruling him out for an additional six weeks. He did not play in any rehab assignments until September. He started for the Yankees on September 17, 2019 against the Los Angeles Angels in New York, and made two more starts in the regular season. ====2020==== On February 25, 2020, it was announced that Severino would undergo Tommy John surgery to repair a partially torn UCL in his right elbow, ending his 2020 season. He officially underwent the surgery on February 27 along with removing a bone chip from his right elbow. ====2021==== On February 22, 2021, Severino was placed on the 60-day injured list as he continued to recover from Tommy John surgery. On June 12, 2021, Severino suffered a groin injury during a rehab start with the Hudson Valley Renegades and was sidelined until August. After pitching two rehab starts in August, Severino suffered another setback after "not feeling right" during warmups before a game. On September 20, 2021, Severino was activated off the injury list for the first time in 706 days. ====2022==== With Brett Gardner not re-signing for the 2022 season, Severino became the longest- tenured Yankee. He was placed on the 60-day injured list with a low-grade right lat strain. On October 4, during a game against the Texas Rangers at Globe Life Field, Severino pitched seven no-hit innings before manager Aaron Boone pulled him from the game with 94 pitches. The potential combined no- hitter was broken up in the eighth inning when Josh Jung recorded a hit off Yankees reliever Miguel Castro. ==Pitching style== With a three-quarters delivery, Severino currently throws four pitches: a four-seam fastball averaging 98 mph, a slider, a change-up and as of 2022, a cutter. His fastball was clocked at 101 mph in 2017. His average spin rate for sliders was ranked no. 2 in MLB (2910 rpm) behind Garrett Richards (2919 rpm) in 2018. == Personal life == Severino is from Sabana de la Mar, in the Hato Mayor province of the Dominican Republic. He grew up a fan of the Yankees, particularly fellow Dominican Robinson Canó. Severino and his wife, Rosmaly, have one daughter, who was born in July 2015. Severino's second child, a son, Luis Jr, was born on July 8, 2021. ==References== ==External links== * Category:1994 births Category:Living people Category:American League All-Stars Category:Charleston RiverDogs players Category:Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States Category:Dominican Summer League Yankees players Category:Gulf Coast Yankees players Category:Major League Baseball pitchers Category:Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic Category:New York Yankees players Category:People from Hato Mayor Province Category:Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players Category:Somerset Patriots players Category:Tampa Yankees players Category:Trenton Thunder players Category:2017 World Baseball Classic players
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Michael William Thomas Jr. (born March 3, 1993) is an American football wide receiver for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for Ohio State. Thomas holds the record for the most receptions by a player in a single season with 149 in 2019. He led the league in receptions in both the 2018 and 2019 seasons, while also leading the league in yardage in the 2019 season. He was the NFL Offensive Player of the Year in 2019. ==Early years== Thomas attended Taft High School in Woodland Hills, California. As a senior, he had 86 receptions for a state-leading 1,656 yards and 21 touchdowns for the Toreadors football team. Thomas was ranked by Rivals.com as a four-star recruit. He committed to Ohio State University to play college football. Thomas attended Fork Union Military Academy for a year after high school and was roommates with fellow Ohio State teammate Cardale Jones. ==College career== thumb|175px|left|Thomas in 2012 Thomas played in 11 games as a true freshman in 2012. He had three receptions for 22 yards in the 2012 season. As a sophomore in 2013, Thomas was redshirted. Thomas entered his redshirt sophomore season in 2014 as a backup, but eventually took over as a starting wide receiver. He ended the season leading the team in receptions with 54 for 799 yards and nine touchdowns. In the National Semifinals against Alabama in the Sugar Bowl, he had seven receptions for 66 yards and a touchdown in the victory. In the 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship victory over Oregon, he had four receptions for 53 yards. In the 2015 season, he had 56 receptions for 781 receiving yards and nine receiving touchdowns. On January 5, 2016, he announced his intention to enter the 2016 NFL Draft. ===College statistics=== NCAA career statistics Ohio State Buckeyes Season Team GP Receiving Rec Yds Avg Lng TD 2012 Ohio State 11 3 22 7.3 11 0 2014 Ohio State 15 54 799 14.8 79 9 2015 Ohio State 13 56 781 13.9 50 9 Total 39 113 1,602 14.2 79 18 ===College awards and honors=== * CFP national champion (2014) * Fiesta Bowl champion (2015) * Sugar Bowl champion (2014) * Big Ten champion (2014) * Third-team All-Big Ten (2015) * Big Ten All- Honorable Mention (2014) ==Professional career== Thomas was drafted by the New Orleans Saints in the second round with the 47th overall pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the sixth wide receiver to be selected that year. ===2016 season=== On May 9, 2016, the Saints signed Thomas to a four-year, $5.11 million contract with $2.60 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $1.92 million. The Saints named Thomas one of their starting wide receivers, along with Brandin Cooks, for the season opener against the Oakland Raiders. He finished his first NFL start with six receptions for 58 yards. On September 26, 2016, he caught his first NFL touchdown on a three-yard pass from Drew Brees during the second quarter of a Monday Night Football matchup against the Atlanta Falcons. Thomas finished the 45–32 loss with seven catches for 71 yards and a touchdown. On October 23, 2016, he had his first game with over 100 receiving yards after he finished with a season-high ten receptions for 130 yards in a 21–27 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs. During a Week 9 road game against the San Francisco 49ers, Thomas caught two touchdowns and made five catches for 73 yards, as the Saints routed the 49ers by a score of 41–23. On November 27, Thomas caught nine passes for 108 yards and tied his season-high of two touchdown receptions in a 49–21 win over the Los Angeles Rams. In the regular season finale against the Falcons, he had 10 receptions for 156 yards and a touchdown in the 38–32 loss. During his rookie season, Thomas set franchise records for a rookie in receptions, receiving yards, and touchdowns. ===2017 season=== In his second season, Thomas came into the year as the Saints' number one receiver after Brandin Cooks was traded to the New England Patriots. He was named to his first Pro Bowl. He finished the season with 104 receptions for 1,245 yards and five touchdowns. His 104 receptions finished third in the NFL, and his 196 receptions in his first two seasons in the league were the most in NFL history, passing Jarvis Landry's 194 set in 2015. Thomas appeared in his first career playoff game on January 7, 2018, against division rival Carolina in the Wild Card Round. He recorded eight receptions for 131 yards in the 31–26 win. In the Divisional Round against the Minnesota Vikings, he had seven receptions for 85 yards and two touchdowns in the 29–24 loss. He earned a Pro Bowl nomination for his 2017 season. Thomas was ranked 81st by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018. ===2018 season=== In the season-opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Thomas caught a franchise-record 16 passes for 180 yards and a touchdown, breaking the century-mark for the fourth time in his career and eclipsing 200-career receptions. The 16 receptions were the most by any player for the 2018 season for a single game. The next week, he scored twice more with 89 yards on 12 catches in a 21–18 win over the Cleveland Browns. With his 12 receptions, Thomas set an NFL record for the most catches in the first two games with 28, the record previously held by Andre Rison with 26 set in 1994. In Week 3, he added 10 receptions for 129 yards against the Atlanta Falcons. His 38 receptions through the first three games were the most in NFL history. Prior to a Week 9 matchup against the Los Angeles Rams, Thomas engaged in an online feud with ex-Saints receiver Brandin Cooks following his departure. The Rams entered the matchup with an undefeated 8-0 record. During the game; Thomas had 12 catches for a franchise-record 211 yards, including a 72-yard touchdown. Upon scoring, Thomas paid tribute to former Saints wide receiver Joe Horn by recreating his famous cell phone touchdown celebration in an effort to simultaneously taunt the Rams, which drew a 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty and he was later fined $30,000 by the league office. Horn said he "teared up" at the gesture and bought Thomas' jersey, though numerous players on the Rams sideline were infuriated by the gesture; notably Rams' then- cornerback Marcus Peters. This Week 9 performance earned Thomas NFC Offensive Player of the Week. In Week 13 against the Dallas Cowboys, Thomas recorded his 90th catch of the season, joining Odell Beckham Jr. as the only players in NFL history to record at least 90 receptions in their first three seasons. Thomas finished the season with 125 receptions for 1,405 yards and nine touchdowns. He led the league in receptions and finished sixth in the league in receiving yards. He also set the Saints franchise record in receiving yards, passing Joe Horn's 1,399 yards set in 2004. He was named to his second straight Pro Bowl and was named first-team All-Pro. He was ranked 13th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019. Thomas and the Saints later rematched against the Rams in the controversial 2018 NFC Championship Game. Thomas played exceptionally poorly, making 7 catches for only 36 yards as the Saints' comeback was cut short by a controversial hit during the fourth quarter. During a critical play in overtime, the score was tied 23-23 as Brees attempted to target Thomas for a crucial pass to keep their drive alive. Brees was charged by Rams' defensive end Dante Fowler as he threw the ball to Thomas, who was promptly beaten to the catch by Rams' safety John Johnson who mockingly celebrated Thomas' "horse-saddle" as a retaliatory action for his gesture earlier in the season. The Rams managed to kick a field goal, winning the game. Thomas later attacked the Rams and the no-call during his postgame interview telling reporters; _"As Far as next year? we're going back, and we're coming back with revenge for sure. I saw exactly what you saw, that was pass interference"_. ===2019 season=== thumb|left|Thomas (center) after a Week 2 loss to the Rams on September 15, 2019 On July 31, 2019, Thomas signed a five-year, $100 million contract extension with $61 million guaranteed with the Saints. This made Thomas the highest paid wide receiver in the NFL at the time. During the season-opener against the Houston Texans on Monday Night Football, Thomas caught 10 passes for 123 yards in the narrow 30–28 victory. The Rams and Saints would meet again in Los Angeles during the week 2 matchup which saw Thomas perform better in comparison to the prior matchup, as he caught 10 receptions for 89 yards as the Rams blew out the Saints 27-9. Following the game, Thomas was later seen at midfield crying on the turf. Thomas rebounded strongly the following week against the Seattle Seahawks, as he caught five passes for 54 yards and scored his first touchdown of the season in the 33–27 road victory. During Week 5 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he caught 11 passes for 182 yards and two touchdowns as the Saints won 31–24. During Week 7 against the Chicago Bears, Thomas caught nine passes for 131 yards in the 36–25 road victory. In the next game against the Arizona Cardinals, he caught 11 passes for 112 yards and a touchdown in the 31–9 victory. During Week 10 against the Atlanta Falcons, Thomas finished with a season-high 13 catches for 152 yards as the Saints lost 26–9. During Week 11 against the Buccaneers, he caught eight passes for 114 yards and a touchdown in the 34–17 win. Thomas was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Month for his play in November. In Week 14 against the San Francisco 49ers, Thomas caught 11 passes for 134 yards and a touchdown in the 48–46 loss. During the game, Thomas set a new Saints' record for receiving yards in a single season. In the next game against the Indianapolis Colts on Monday Night Football, Thomas caught 12 passes for 128 yards and a touchdown during the 34–7 win. In Week 16 against the Tennessee Titans, he broke the single-season receptions record formerly held by Marvin Harrison with his 144th catch of the season, followed by a one-yard touchdown catch for his 145th, while the Saints won on the road by a score of 38–28. Thomas finished the season with an NFL record 149 catches for 1,725 yards and nine touchdowns. In the NFC Wild Card Round against the Minnesota Vikings, Thomas caught seven passes for 70 yards during the 26–20 overtime loss. Thomas was named to the Pro Bowl and earned First Team All-Pro honors. On February 1, 2020, Thomas was awarded AP Offensive Player of the Year for his performance during the 2019 season, becoming the first wide receiver to win the award since Jerry Rice in 1993. He was ranked fifth by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2020. ===2020 season=== In Week 1 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Thomas recorded three catches for 17 yards before exiting the game due to a high ankle sprain. Thomas was set to return to action in Week 5 against the Los Angeles Chargers on Monday Night Football, but on October 11, 2020, Thomas was declared inactive for the game by the Saints after he punched teammate C. J. Gardner- Johnson in practice. Thomas was also fined $58,823 by the team for the incident. Thomas made his return from injury in Week 9 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on Sunday Night Football. During the game, Thomas led the team with five catches for 51 yards during the 38–3 win. In Week 11 against the Atlanta Falcons, Thomas recorded nine catches for 104 yards during the 24–9 win. This was Thomas' first 100-yard receiving game of the season. He was placed on injured reserve on December 19, 2020, due to the lingering ankle injury. He was activated on January 9, 2021. In the Wild Card Round against the Chicago Bears, Thomas recorded five catches for 73 yards and his first touchdown reception of the season during the 21–9 win. He was ranked 72nd by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2021. ===2021 season=== On July 23, it was revealed that Thomas had undergone ankle surgery in the past month. He was placed on the PUP list three days later. On November 3, it was announced Thomas would not return during the 2021 season due to a setback with his ankle injury. ===2022 season=== Thomas returned from his injury in Week 1 against the Atlanta Falcons, where he caught five passes for 57 yards, and two touchdowns in the 27-26 comeback win. Thomas recorded another productive game in Week 2 with six out of nine receptions for 65 yards and a touchdown in a 20-10 loss to the Buccaneers. During a Week 3 matchup against the Carolina Panthers, Thomas exited the game early with a foot injury and went on to miss multiple weeks before being placed on injured reserve on November 3, 2022, ending his season. ==NFL career statistics== Legend AP NFL Offensive Player of the Year NFL record Led the league Bold Career high Regular season statistics Year Team Games Receiving Rushing Fumbles GP GS Rec Yds Avg Lng TD Att Yds Avg Lng TD Fum Lost 2016 NO 15 12 92 1,137 12.4 46 9 0 0 0.0 0 0 2 2 2017 NO 16 14 104 1,245 12.0 43 5 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 2018 NO 16 16 125 1,405 11.2 72 9 0 0 0.0 0 0 2 2 2019 NO 16 15 149 1,725 11.6 49 9 1 -9 -9.0 -9 0 1 0 2020 NO 7 5 40 438 11.0 24 0 1 1 1.0 1 0 0 0 2021 NO 0 0 did not play due to injury 2022 NO 3 3 16 171 10.7 21 3 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 Total 73 65 526 6,121 11.6 72 35 2 -8 -4.0 1 0 5 4 Postseason statistics Year Team Games Receiving Rushing Fumbles GP GS Rec Yds Avg Lng TD Att Yds Avg Lng TD Fum Lost 2017 NO 2 2 15 216 14.4 46 2 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 2018 NO 2 2 16 207 12.9 42 1 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 2019 NO 1 1 7 70 10.0 20 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 2020 NO 2 1 5 73 14.6 38 1 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 Total 7 6 43 566 13.2 46 4 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 ===NFL records=== * Most receptions by a player through first game of a season: 16 (2018) * Most receptions by a player through first two games of a season: 28 (2018) * Most receptions by a player through first three games of a season: 38 (2018) * Most receptions by a player through first four games of a season: 42 (2018) * Most receptions by a player through first nine games of a season: 86 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first ten games of a season: 94 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first eleven games of a season: 104 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first twelve games of a season: 110 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first thirteen games of a season: 121 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first fourteen games of a season: 133 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first fifteen games of a season: 145 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through first sixteen games of a season: 149 (2019) * Most receptions by a player through his first two seasons: 196 * Most receptions by a player through his first four seasons: 470 * Most receptions by a player through his first five seasons: 510 * Most receptions by a player in a single season: 149 * Most receptions by a player in a single season including playoffs: 156 * Most consecutive games with 4+ receptions: 43 * Most consecutive games with 11+ receptions: 3 * Most consecutive games with 12+ receptions: 2 * Most receiving yards by a player through his first four seasons: 5,512 (2016-2019) * Most seasons, 120+ pass receptions: 2 (2018-2019) (tied with 2 others) * Most seasons, 125+ pass receptions: 2 (2018-2019) (tied with 1 other) * Fewest games to record 300 career receptions: 45 (2016-2018) (tied with one other) * Fewest games to record 400 career receptions: 56 (2016-2019) *Fewest games to record 500 career receptions: 69 (2016-2020) ====Saints franchise records==== * Most receptions in a game: 16 (September 9, 2018, vs Tampa Bay Buccaneers) * Most receiving yards in a game: 211 (November 4, 2018, vs Los Angeles Rams) * Most receptions in a season by a rookie: 92 (2016) * Most receiving yards in a season by a rookie: 1,137 (2016) * Most receiving touchdowns in a season by a rookie: 9 (2016) * Most receptions in a season: 149 (2019) * Most receiving yards in a season: 1,725 (2019) ==Personal life== Thomas is the nephew of former NFL wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson. Thomas is a Christian. ==References== ==External links== * * Ohio State Buckeyes profile * New Orleans Saints profile Category:1993 births Category:Living people Category:American football wide receivers Category:National Conference Pro Bowl players Category:New Orleans Saints players Category:Ohio State Buckeyes football players Category:Players of American football from Los Angeles Category:William Howard Taft Charter High School alumni Category:National Football League Offensive Player of the Year Award winners
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Gökhan Saki (born 18 October 1983Profile of Gokhan Saki , K-1"K1 topper Gökhan The rebel Saki te gast in FunXtra!" , 3 April 2009, FunX Radio ) is a Dutch- Turkish kickboxer and mixed martial artist. He is a Dutch, European and World Muay Thai champion, K-1 World GP 2006 in Amsterdam tournament finalist, K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 in Hawaii champion and former Glory Light Heavyweight Champion. Saki also competed in the light heavyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. ==Early life== Saki, born and raised in Schiedam, Netherlands, holds dual Dutch and Turkish nationality as both his parents were Turkish immigrants. Saki began training in kickboxing at the age of 10 when he also began playing football, but eventually quit football at the age of 16 because of his preference for kickboxing.K-1's official interview, 16 September 2008, K-1 ==Kickboxing career== His initial trainer was Jan Pasztjerik, under whom he became Dutch, European and World Muay Thai champion within three years, before moving to Golden Glory in 2003. In 2006, he returned to Pasztjerik as he embarked on a joint production with Golden Glory and Pasztjerik. Training at Golden Glory with Cor Hemmers, Saki became a well- known fighter as he took wins over André Tete, Vitali Akhramenko, Henriques Zowa and Alexey Ignashov. Apart from the aforementioned wins he also accumulated losses against well-established fighters such as Badr Hari and the Greek Nicholas Pettas. Despite his success under Hemmers, Saki considers Pasztjerik as the main influence who helped him develop to the fighter he would become. ===2006–2007=== Saki made his K-1 debut at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Amsterdam on 13 May 2006 where he defeated Rani Berbachi in the quarter-finals and Alexey Ignashov in the semis, before losing to Bjorn Bregy by first round knockout in tournament finals. Saki returned to K-1 in March the following year, taking on Hiromi Amada at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2007 in Yokohama and winning via technical knockout by using Dutch-style low kicks. On 23 June 2007, he defeated Mourad Bouzidi at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2007 in Amsterdam by unanimous decision. He finished off the year by taking a unanimous decision victory over Russian muay Thai fighter Magomed Magomedov at K-1 Fighting Network Turkey 2007 in Istanbul on 2 November. ===2008=== On 16 February 2008, Saki won the World Full Contact Association (WFCA) World Thaiboxing Super Heavyweight (+95 kg) Championship by defeating Englishman Chris Knowles via TKO (left low kick) in his hometown of Schiedam. Following this, his next significant bout came in a super fight at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 in Amsterdam on 26 April where he knocked out Paul Slowinski with a left cross in the first round. Following these impressive victories, he was invited to take part in the sixteen-man tournament at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 in Hawaii on 9 August. Saki was able to win the tournament in devastating fashion by knocking out all three of his opponents, Deutsch Pu'u, Rick Cheek and Randy Kim. This victory earned Saki a place in the 2008 K-1 World Grand Prix final sixteen. Later that year at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 in Seoul Final 16 on 27 September, he was drawn against legendary New Zealander Ray Sefo. After three rounds, the judges had scored the fight a decision draw so it went to an extra round to determine the winner, after which Saki was announced the victor by unanimous decision. Advancing to the final eight at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 Final on 6 December, Saki defeated Ruslan Karaev in the quarter-finals before being knocked out by the eventual champion, Remy Bonjasky, in the semis by a jumping kick to the rib cage. ===2009=== Gokhan Saki began 2009 with a defence of his WFCA World Thaiboxing Super Heavyweight Championship, finishing Germany's Arndt Bunk with a body shot in round 1 on 28 February. A month later, he took part in the K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 in Yokohama, an eight-man tournament to determine the inaugural K-1 Heavyweight (−100kg) Champion. In the semi-finals, his fight with Tyrone Spong went into an extra round where he was able to win via knockout. In the final, he faced Keijiro Maeda in a bout which also went into an extra round. However, he lost via majority decision this time. He returned against Pavel Zhuravlev on 2 August in a super fight at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 in Seoul. He lost the fight via unanimous decision and also injured his knee in the fight, which meant that he could not participate in the World Grand Prix last sixteen. He was still able to take part in a reserve fight at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 Final, however, where he faced the legendary Dutchman Peter Aerts. He was defeated via unanimous decision (30–27, 29–27, and 29–28), meaning that he had now lost three fights in a row. ===2010=== In early 2010, Saki was able to bounce back by taking two wins in January and February, including a defence of his WFCA Muay Thai title against Utley Meriana, before rejoining the K-1 circuit in April. He took a decision victory over Singh Jaideep at the K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 in Yokohama before taking on Melvin Manhoef in a highly anticipated bout at It's Showtime 2010 Amsterdam on 29 May. Saki won via TKO in the second round after the referee stopped the fight due to Manhoef being knocked down three times. Having made a full recovery from his injuries and poor form, Saki was invited to the K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 in Seoul Final 16 on 2 October where he knocked out Frenchman Freddy Kemayo in the first round. Following this, he entered the United Glory 2010/11 World Series at United Glory 12 fourteen days later where he KO'd Russian Nikolaj Falin in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Saki then returned to Japan for the K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 Final on 11 December. He faced Daniel Ghiţă in the quarter-finals and won by unanimous decision after four rounds. However, he broke his right hand during the fight and went on to battle Golden Glory teammate Alistair Overeem in the semis. Alistair landed a heavy left kick to Saki's right elbow that was also broken in his quarter-final fight. The fight was a first-round TKO win for Overeem."K-1 WGP 2010: A Monster Crowned" by Stuart Tonkin, 11 December 2010, K-1 ===2011=== After recuperating from the injuries he sustained in the K-1 Grand Prix, Saki returned to the United Glory World Series in March 2011 where he took a decision victory over Wendell Roche in the semis at United Glory 13. He then went on to win the World Series at United Glory 14: 2010–2011 World Series Finals on 28 May in Moscow, Russia where he defeated Brice Guidon by decision. ===2012=== On 28 January 2012, Saki faced Badr Hari at It's Showtime 2012 in Leeuwarden in what was to be Hari's last kickboxing match before moving into boxing. Hari defeated Saki with ease, scoring three knockdowns in the first round before the referee stopped the fight, earning him a TKO victory. He dropped him with a right uppercut first, the second knockdown came by a right hook. Finally, he landed a right uppercut again which dropped Saki for the third time.Walsh, Dave. (28 January 2012) Badr Hari drops Gökhan Saki three times in an impressive performance at It's Showtime 55. Liverkick.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-03.Badr Hari Retires, Daniel Ghita the Man to Beat at Heavyweight. Liverkick.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-03. When Saki's trainer, Cor Hemmers, took up a position working in the Glory promotion and was unable to spend as much time in the gym as before, Saki moved to Mike's Gym to train under Mike Passenier. He faced Mourad Bouzidi at Glory 2: Brussels on 6 October 2012 in Brussels, Belgium and won by unanimous decision. Saki ended the year by competing in the sixteen-man 2012 Glory Heavyweight Grand Slam at Glory 4: Tokyo – 2012 Heavyweight Grand Slam in Saitama, Japan on 31 December 2012. Saki defeated Raoumaru with ease at the opening stage, flooring the out- matched Korean twice in round one and forcing the referee to stop the bout. Then, in the quarter-finals, he knocked out Anderson "Braddock" Silva with his patented left hook in the closing seconds of round one. Advancing to the semis, Saki was eliminated by the eventual tournament winner, Semmy Schilt. Dwarfed by eleven inches and outweighed by twenty seven kilograms, Saki's high work rate was not enough to outpoint Schilt and he lost on points after the judges awarded the giant Dutchman the first two rounds. === 2013–2015 === Saki rematched Daniel Ghiţă at Glory 6: Istanbul in Istanbul, Turkey on 6 April 2013 in a #1 contender's bout for the Glory Heavyweight Championship held by Semmy Schilt. The fight started out a little rough, as Saki caught a kick from the Romanian. He then backed Ghiţă up and threw him to the mat with a sweep. Ghiţă landed hard, looking to have suffered an arm injury. According to Glory's official rules, leg sweeps and trips are illegal moves and should thusly be counted as such. Instead, referee Joop Ubeda counted it as a down as Ghiţă took a while to get to his feet. Even though injured, round two saw again Ghiţă being more consistent but midway through the round, the Dutch began landing heavy punches on him and simply did not let up, dropping durable Romanian three times to take a win via TKO after the referee stepped in, calling the fight. In the semi-finals of Glory 11: Chicago – Heavyweight World Championship Tournament in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, United States in October 2013, Saki gave a lackluster performance and was on the receiving end of a controversial knockdown in round one as he lost a majority decision to eventual tournament champion Rico Verhoeven.4 Man Tournament with Daniel Ghita and Gohkan Saki Set for GLORY 11 On 2 November 2013, Saki released a statement declaring that he was looking into taking legal action against Glory over the decision. Saki was crowned the inaugural Glory Light Heavyweight Champion when he won the Glory 15: Istanbul – Light Heavyweight World Championship Tournament in Istanbul, Turkey on 12 April 2014. He faced Nathan Corbett in the semi-finals and was beginning to punish the Australian's body when blood began to leak from Corbett's right ear after an overhand left to the organ, leading the ringside physician to advise referee Al Wichgers to halt the fight at the 2:35 mark of round one. He then faced Tyrone Spong in a highly anticipated rematch in the final. Midway through the opening round, Spong threw a kick to Saki's left leg. Saki checked the kick, causing Spong's lower right leg to fracture immediately and end the fight via TKO.GLORY 15 Results/Pictures: Saki wins title, Spong suffers horrific leg injury Saki's sportsmanship of immediately tending to Spong was widely praised by the fans. Saki was stripped of the Glory light heavyweight title due to inactivity in Glory on 27 July 2015. === 2021–present === On 8 October 2021 it was announced that Saki made his return to Glory with a single-fight contract. He was scheduled to replace Antonio Plazibat against James McSweeney at Glory: Collision 3 on October 23, 2021. Saki won the fight by second-round knockout via leg kicks. ==Mixed martial arts career== ===Early career=== Early in his kickboxing career, Saki also had a MMA bout. He faced James Zikic on 11 July 2004 at Cage Fighting Championships 1: Cage Carnage. He lost the fight via TKO. ===Ultimate Fighting Championship=== On 25 May 2017, Saki announced he had signed a multi-fight deal with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Saki made his promotional debut against Henrique da Silva on 23 September 2017 at UFC Fight Night: Saint Preux vs. Okami. He won the fight via knockout in the final seconds of the first round. This win earned Saki his first Performance of the Night bonus award. Saki was expected to face Khalil Rountree on 30 December 2017 at UFC 219. However, he was forced to pull out, citing knee injury and was replaced by Michal Oleksiejczuk. The bout against Rountree was then rescheduled and eventually took place at UFC 226 on 7 July 2018. Saki lost the fight via TKO in the first round. Saki was scheduled to face Saparbek Safarov on 16 March 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 5. However Saki pulled out of the fight in late February due to an undisclosed injury. Safarov remained on the card against a replacement, Nicolae Negumereanu. On 8 February 2021, it was reported that Saki had been released from the UFC. Later, Saki clarified that he asked the UFC to let him go due to the multiple injuries sustained in mixed martial arts training. ==Personal life== Saki holds dual Dutch and Turkish nationality. He has stated that he respects Ramon Dekkers, and referred to Fedor Emelianenko as his favorite fighter. == Championships and achievements == === Kickboxing === *Glory ** 2014 Glory Light Heavyweight Championship (inaugural) ** 2014 Glory Light Heavyweight World Championship Tournament Champion ** 2011 United Glory World Series heavyweight tournament champion *K-1 ** 2010 K-1 World Grand Prix Final 3rd place ** 2009 K-1 Heavyweight (−100 kg) tournament runner up ** 2008 K-1 World Grand Prix Final 3rd place ** 2008 K-1 World GP in Hawaii champion ** 2006 K-1 World Grand Prix in Amsterdam runner up *World Full Contact Association ** 2008 WFCA World Thaiboxing Super Heavyweight (+95 kg) title *Awards ** 2014 Kickboxingplanet Kickboxer of the year *Muay Thai ** 2003 World Muay Thai champion ** 2002 European Muay Thai champion ** 2001 Dutch Muay Thai champion === Mixed martial arts === * Ultimate Fighting Championship **Performance of the Night (One time) ==Kickboxing record (Incomplete)== |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2021-10-23 ||Win ||align=left| James McSweeney || Glory Collision 3 || Arnhem, Netherlands || KO (low kicks) || 2 || |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-04-17 || Win ||align=left| Sebastian Ciobanu || GFC Fight Series 3 || Dubai, UAE || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-04-12 || Win ||align=left| Tyrone Spong || Glory 15: Istanbul – Light Heavyweight World Championship Tournament, Final || Istanbul, Turkey || TKO (Leg injury) || 1 || 1:37 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-04-12 || Win ||align=left| Nathan Corbett || Glory 15: Istanbul – Light Heavyweight World Championship Tournament, Semi Finals || Istanbul, Turkey || TKO (Ear injury) || 1 || 2:35 |- |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2013-10-12 || Loss ||align=left| Rico Verhoeven || Glory 11: Chicago – Heavyweight World Championship Tournament, Semi Finals || Hoffman Estates, Illinois, USA || Decision (Majority) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-04-06 || Win ||align=left| Daniel Ghiţă || Glory 6: Istanbul || Istanbul, Turkey || TKO (Punches) || 2 || 1:26 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2012-12-31 || Loss ||align=left| Semmy Schilt || Glory 4: Tokyo – 2012 Heavyweight Grand Slam Tournament, Semi Finals || Saitama, Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 2 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-12-31 || Win ||align=left| Anderson Silva || Glory 4: Tokyo – Heavyweight Grand Slam Tournament, Quarter Finals || Saitama, Japan || KO (Left hook) || 1 || 2:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-12-31 || Win ||align=left| Raoumaru || Glory 4: Tokyo – Heavyweight Grand Slam Tournament, First Round || Saitama, Japan || TKO (Punches and Left high kick) || 1 || 1:06 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-10-06 || Win ||align=left| Mourad Bouzidi || Glory 2: Brussels || Brussels, Belgium || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-05-26 || Win ||align=left| Carter Williams || Glory 1: Stockholm || Stockholm || KO (Left hook) || 1 || 2:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2012-01-28 || Loss ||align=left| Badr Hari || It's Showtime 2012 in Leeuwarden || Leeuwarden, Netherlands || TKO (3 Knockdowns Rule) || 1 || 2:44 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-05-28 || Win ||align=left| Brice Guidon || United Glory 14, Final || Moscow, Russia || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-03-19 || Win ||align=left| Wendell Roche || United Glory 13: 2010–2011 World Series Semifinals, Semi Finals || Charleroi, Belgium || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2010-12-11 || Loss ||align=left| Alistair Overeem || K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 Final, Semi Finals || Tokyo, Japan || TKO (Arm injury) || 1 || 2:20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-12-11 || Win ||align=left| Daniel Ghiţă || K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 Final, Quarter Finals || Tokyo, Japan || Ext R. Decision (Unanimous) || 4 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-10-16 || Win ||align=left| Nikolaj Falin || United Glory 12: 2010–2011 World Series Quarterfinals, Quarter Finals || Amsterdam, Netherlands || KO (Left hook to the body) || 3 || 1:55 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-10-02 || Win ||align=left| Freddy Kemayo || K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 in Seoul Final 16 || Seoul, South Korea || TKO (Punches) || 1 || 2:14 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-05-29 || Win ||align=left| Melvin Manhoef || It's Showtime 2010 Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || TKO (3 Knockdowns Rule) || 2 || 1:55 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-04-03 || Win ||align=left| Singh Jaideep || K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 in Yokohama || Yokohama, Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-02-27 || Win ||align=left| Utley Meriana || K.O. Night in the Margriethal || Schiedam, Netherlands || KO (Straight right) || 1 || 1:10 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-01-24 || Win ||align=left| Dennis Stolzenbach || Muay Thai Mania II || Rijswijk, Netherlands || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2009-12-05 || Loss ||align=left| Peter Aerts || K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 Final || Yokohama, Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2009-08-02 || Loss ||align=left| Pavel Zhuravlev || K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 in Seoul || Seoul, Republic of Korea || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2009-03-28 || Loss ||align=left| Kyotaro || K-1 World GP 2009 in Yokohama || Yokohama, Japan || Ext R. Decision (Majority) || 4 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2009-03-28 || Win ||align=left| Tyrone Spong || K-1 World GP 2009 in Yokohama || Yokohama, Japan || KO (Right hook) || 4 || 1:58 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2009-02-28 || Win ||align=left| Arndt Bunk || Ring Sensation Schiedam || Schiedam, Netherlands || KO (Left body shot) || 1 || 2:18 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2008-12-06 || Loss ||align=left| Remy Bonjasky || K-1 World GP 2008 Final || Yokohama, Japan || TKO (Ref. stoppage/Back injury) || 2 || 0:53 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-12-06 || Win ||align=left| Ruslan Karaev || K-1 World GP 2008 Final || Yokohama, Japan || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-09-27 || Win ||align=left| Ray Sefo || K-1 World GP 2008 Final 16 || Seoul, South Korea || Ext R. Decision (Unanimous) || 4 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-08-09 || Win ||align=left| Randy Kim || K-1 World GP 2008 in Hawaii || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO (Left hook) || 2 || 1:39 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-08-09 || Win ||align=left| Rick Cheek || K-1 World GP 2008 in Hawaii || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO (Left body shot) || 1 || 1:36 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-08-09 || Win ||align=left| Deutsch Pu'u || K-1 World GP 2008 in Hawaii || Honolulu, Hawaii, USA || KO (Low kicks) || 1 || 2:15 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-05-31 || Win ||align=left| Iwan Dhaene || Beast of the East || Zutphen, Netherlands || KO (Left high kick) || 1 || 0:45 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-04-26 || Win ||align=left| Paul Slowinski || K-1 World GP 2008 in Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || KO (Left cross) || 1 || 1:40 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-03-15 || Win ||align=left| Jantje Siersma || It's Showtime 75MAX Trophy 2008, Super Fight || 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands || KO (Left overhand) || 2 || 2:42 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2008-02-16 || Win ||align=left| Chris Knowles || MM Thaibox Gala || Schiedam, Netherlands || TKO (Left low kick) || 3 || 2:31 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-11-02 || Win ||align=left| Magomed Magomedov || K-1 Fighting Network Turkey 2007 || Istanbul, Turkey || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-07-29 || Win ||align=left| J.Defer Illiadis || A-1 World Champions League || Istanbul, Turkey || KO (High kick) || 1 || 0:44 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-06-23 || Win ||align=left| Mourad Bouzidi || K-1 World GP 2007 in Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-05-20 || Win ||align=left| Kevin Klinger || Ultimate Glory III || Amersfoort, Netherlands || TKO || 1 || 0:40 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-03-04 || Win ||align=left| Hiromi Amada || K-1 World GP 2007 in Yokohama || Yokohama, Japan || TKO (Low kicks) || 2 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2007-02-17 || Win ||align=left| Harry Hooft || Gala in Margriethal || Schiedam, Netherlands || KO (Left cross) || 1 || 1:14 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2006-05-18 || Win ||align=left| Henriques Zowa || Gala in Vlaardingen || Vlaardingen, Netherlands || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2006-05-13 || Loss ||align=left| Bjorn Bregy || K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || KO (Left hook) || 1 || 1:44 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2006-05-13 || Win ||align=left| Alexey Ignashov || K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2006-05-13 || Win ||align=left| Rani Berbachi || K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2005-10-08 || Loss ||align=left| Nicholas Pettas || Bushido Europe "Rotterdam Rumble" || Rotterdam, Netherlands || TKO(leg injury) || 2 || N/A |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2005-06-12 || Win ||align=left| Vitali Akhramenko || It's Showtime 2005 Amsterdam || Amsterdam, Netherlands || KO (Left low kick) || 4 || 0:45 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2005-03-26 || Win ||align=left| André Tete || Night of the Explosion || Rotterdam, Netherlands || KO || N/A || N/A |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2004-10-10 || Loss ||align=left| Badr Hari || 2 Hot 2 Handle XVII|| Rotterdam, Netherlands || TKO (Corner stoppage) || 2 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2003-10-11 || Win ||align=left| Daniel Leko || Muay Thai Gala Vlaardingen || Vlaardingen, Netherlands || KO || N/A || N/A |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2003-04-20 || Win ||align=left| Karim Mrabet || Tulp Muay Thai Gala || Amsterdam, Netherlands || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2003-01-11 || Loss ||align=left| Karim Mrabet || A Night To Remember || Hilversum, Netherlands || KO || 1 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2002-10-20 || Loss ||align=left| Jacco de Jong || N/A || Dordrecht, Netherlands || KO || N/A || N/A |- bgcolor="#c5d2ea" | 2002-09-08 || NC ||align=left| Jeroen de Groot || Fighting Party || Rotterdam, Netherlands || NC || N/A || N/A |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2002-03-30 || Win ||align=left| Pierre Descendre || N/A || Vlaardingen, Netherlands || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2002-02-03 || Win ||align=left| Ed Schapner || WPKL Gala in Schuttersveld || Rotterdam, Netherlands || TKO || 1 || N/A |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2000-09-03 || Win ||align=left| Farrad Arslan || "Veselic Meets Dejpitak" || Arnhem, Netherlands || KO || 3 || N/A |- | colspan=9 | Legend: ==Mixed martial arts record== |- |Loss |align=center|1–2 |Khalil Rountree Jr. |TKO (punches) |UFC 226 | |align=center|1 |align=center|1:36 |Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | |- |Win |align=center|1–1 |Henrique da Silva |KO (punch) |UFC Fight Night: Saint Preux vs. Okami | |align=center|1 |align=center|4:45 |Saitama, Japan | |- |Loss |align=center|0–1 |James Zikic |TKO (punches) |Cage Fighting Championships 1: Cage Carnage | |align=center|N/A |align=center|N/A |Liverpool, England | ==See also== *List of K-1 events *List of K-1 champions *List of male kickboxers ==References== ==External links== * at K-1 *Gökhan Saki Official Site * * Category:1983 births Category:Living people Category:Dutch male kickboxers Category:Heavyweight kickboxers Category:Dutch male mixed martial artists Category:Light heavyweight mixed martial artists Category:Dutch Muay Thai practitioners Category:Mixed martial artists utilizing kickboxing Category:Mixed martial artists utilizing Muay Thai Category:Sportspeople from Schiedam Category:Dutch people of Turkish descent Category:Glory champions Category:Glory kickboxers Category:Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
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Citizen Smith is a British television sitcom written by John Sullivan, first broadcast from 1977 to 1980. It starred Robert Lindsay as Walter Henry "Wolfie" Smith, a young Marxist "urban guerrilla" in Tooting, south London, who is attempting to emulate his hero Che Guevara. Wolfie is a reference to the Irish revolutionary Wolfe Tone, who used the pseudonym "Citizen Smith" in order to evade capture by the British. Wolfie is the self-proclaimed leader of the revolutionary Tooting Popular Front (the TPF, merely a small bunch of his friends), the goals of which are "Power to the People" and "Freedom for Tooting". Wolfie dresses in a stereotypical fashion for rebellious students of the period: logoed T-shirt, denim jeans and Afghan coat. He supports Fulham F. C. and occasionally wears a Fulham scarf. He rides a scooter and spends most of the time at his girlfriend's house, which means he constantly clashes with her parents. ==Cast== *Robert Lindsay as Walter Henry "Wolfie" Smith *Mike Grady as Ken Mills *George Sweeney as Speed (Anthony "Speed" King) *Tony Millan as Tucker *Cheryl Hall as Shirley Johnson (series 1–2) *Hilda Braid as Florence Johnson, Shirley's mother *Artro Morris as Charles Johnson, Shirley's father (pilot episode) *Peter Vaughan as Charlie Johnson, Shirley's father (series 1–2) *Tony Steedman as Charlie Johnson, Shirley's father (series 3–4; 1980 Christmas special) *Stephen Greif as Harry Fenning (series 1–3) *David Garfield as Ronnie Lynch (series 4; 1980 Christmas special) *Susie Baker as Mandy Lynch (series 4; 1980 Christmas special) *Anna Nygh as Desiree, Speed's girlfriend (series 1–2) *John Tordoff as policeman, Brian Tofkin (series 3-4) ==History== John Sullivan became a scenery shifter at the BBC in 1974 because of his desire to write a sitcom outline he had called Citizen Smith; fearing rejection if he sent the idea in, he decided it would be better to get a job, any job, at the BBC, learn more about the business and then meet someone who would actually take notice of his as yet unwritten script. After he approached producer Dennis Main Wilson, the first Citizen Smith script was written. Main Wilson loved the script, and saw the potential for a series; it was put into production almost immediately as a pilot for Comedy Special — a showcase for new talent, which had succeeded Comedy Playhouse — under the title Citizen Smith. The pilot was a success, and four series and a Christmas special were produced between 1977 and 1980. It has been claimed that the "Tooting Popular Front" — fictionally based near to writer John Sullivan's childhood home of Balham — was partly inspired by a real-life fellow-South London far-left group, the Brixton-based Workers' Institute of Marxism-Leninism-Mao Tsetung Thought. The group's activities were reported in The Times diary of April 1977, the same month the pilot episode of Citizen Smith was broadcast. ==Opening titles== The opening titles of each episode of the first two series always began with Wolfie emerging from Tooting Broadway Underground station, followed by a shot of him kicking a can across a bridge until he is in close up, accompanied by a background rendition of the socialist anthem The Red Flag. They always ended with him shouting "Power to the People", resulting in awkward consequences such as waking a sleeping baby or causing a vehicle to crash. From the third series, the shots of Wolfie on the bridge were replaced with on-screen clips of other cast members and their names, rather than just the list of names that had been used previously, and the reactions to Wolfie's shout were dropped entirely. Series 4 had a new title sequence, which began with Tucker's van driving past Tooting Broadway tube station with "The Revolution is Back" painted on it. The rest of the credits were backed by clips from the last episode of series three, "The Glorious Day", and Wolfie's shout is heard but he is not seen. ==Plot== ===Series 1=== From episode three, "Abide with Me", Wolfie Smith (Robert Lindsay) lives, with his religious, teetotal friend Ken Mills (Mike Grady), in a flat in the house of his girlfriend's family — Shirley Johnson (Cheryl Hall, at the time Lindsay's wife); her affable but naïve mother, Florence, who mistakenly calls Wolfie "Foxy"; and her strict, right-wing father, Charlie, who disapproves of Smith's lifestyle and refers to him as a "flaming yeti" or "Chairman Mao". Shirley considers herself engaged to Wolfie, on account of a fake crocodile tooth necklace he gave her after she was asked when they would get engaged. Other regular characters in the series are the other "urban guerrillas": Tucker (married to the ever-pregnant but never-seen June); Speed, the TPF's Warlord, and his girlfriend Desiree; and local gangster publican Harry Fenning (played by Stephen Greif), who refers to Wolfie as "Trotsky". Wolfie and the TPF frequent Harry's pub, The Vigilante, and are at times menaced by Harry's hired muscle Floyd and Cyril (played by Dana Michie and Barry Hayes), who are referred to by Florence as "Mr Fenning's foster children". The closest Wolfie comes to legitimate political office is contesting the Tooting North constituency as the TPF candidate at a parliamentary by-election, whose election night declaration is televised; however, he gains only six votes, losing to the Conservative candidate David West. He and the gang attempt to kidnap the new MP from a victory celebration, only to mistakenly capture Harry Fenning (who was leaving the Conservative Club during the occasion) instead (Episode 6 - "The Hostage"). ===Series 2=== Series two consists of six episodes; however, owing to industrial action at the BBC on 22 December 1978, one episode ("Spanish Fly") had to be rescheduled as a special in August 1979. ===Series 3=== "The Glorious Day", which Wolfie had always been plotting, comes at the end of the third series, in an episode of the same name, in which the Tooting Popular Front "liberate" a Scorpion tank and use it to invade the Houses of Parliament, only to find the place empty, owing to a parliamentary recess. During the TPF's "annual manoeuvres" on Salisbury Plain, Wolfie, Ken, Tucker and Speed decide to camp down after an evening of heavy drinking; unbeknownst to them, they are in the middle of a military live firing area. During the night, the British Army hold an exercise, and the Scorpion is "abandoned" by its crew after being declared "knocked out" by a "landmine" during a training exercise. When Wolfie and his comrades discover this, Wolfie comes up with his revolutionary plan. Speed states that he learned to drive a Scorpion during his time in the Territorial Army, at which point the group steal it and drive it back to London. On returning, they hide it in Charlie Johnson's garage. Charlie comes home from work and opens the garage door to park his car. Curious as to the purpose of the Scorpion parked amongst the garden tools, he climbs down inside and accidentally steps on the machine-gun fire button. The result is that their neat garden is raked with heavy machine- gun fire, narrowly missing his wife Florence who is hanging out the washing, and annihilating their garden gnomes. This episode also includes a new song from John Sullivan and sung by Robert Lindsay — "We are the TPF. We are the People." Series three consists of seven episodes. ===Series 4=== The series began with Wolfie and company being paroled, a brief flirtation at being pop stars on the back of their "fame" ended in disaster. While the TPF have been away, a new gangster, Ronnie Lynch, has usurped Fenning's position in Tooting, including his old pub. Wolfie hates him more than he did Fenning, and after various run-ins with Lynch (who constantly refers to Wolfie as "Wally"), the series was concluded in the penultimate episode, with Wolfie fleeing Tooting to escape a £6,000 contract put on his head by Ronnie Lynch after Lynch had caught Wolfie in his wife Mandy's bedroom. Closing with a shot mirroring the opening credits, Wolfie is seen entering Tooting Broadway tube station. Series four consisted of seven episodes and a Christmas special, "Buon Natale", in which Wolfie and Ken ride to Rimini on Wolfie's Lambretta to visit Shirley for the festive period, only to find that she has become romantically involved with an Italian named Paolo. This episode was shown after the series officially ended, but is set before the events of the last episode. ==Notes== *Some sources erroneously name the pilot as "A Roof Over My Head", which was actually the title of the previous week's Comedy Special, written by Barry Took (which also led to a series). *In the penultimate episode, Wolfie's full name was revealed as Walter Henry Smith – W H Smith. *Early episodes state that there are six members of the Tooting Popular Front, but only four appear onscreen. In series 3 Wolfie says that two founder members have left the TPF: Dave the Nose (the TPF's Foreign Secretary) has emigrated, and Reg X (a Black Panther) is playing second oil drum in a steel band at Butlins. *In the 1980 Christmas special, the Italianate village of Portmeirion in North Wales stood in for Rimini, with other locations in the vicinity used for other parts of their journey across Europe. *The 1980 Christmas special featured the Beatles' song "Here Comes the Sun", which has been replaced on subsequent DVD releases, owing to licensing issues. *In the original television broadcast of the episode, "Working Class Hero" the music that accompanies Wolfie's commute on his first day at work is "Carry That Weight" from the Beatles' Abbey Road album. This too was substituted on the DVD issue, with a nondescript jazz tune. *The end title theme was written by John Sullivan and sung by Robert Lindsay, and is called "The Glorious Day". ==Episodes== The first episode aired on 12 April 1977. This episode was a pilot. Over the next three years, a further four series and a Christmas special were aired, totalling thirty episodes. The last episode aired on 31 December 1980. There is a mythical episode called "Right to Work" which appears in some episode guides; the confusion may arise from the episode "Working Class Hero", which opens with Wolfie involved in a "right to work" protest. The entire series was repeated on BBC1 in 1992–1993. The series has also been re-run on satellite channels UKGold/UKTV Drama and on Gold, though one episode has never been repeated – "A Story For Christmas" from 1977. All the episodes have been released on DVD. ==Novel== Citizen Smith, a novelisation of the first series written by Christopher Kenworthy, was published by Universal books, London in 1978. ==Mooted revival== In 2015, Lindsay was reported as saying he was very keen to reprise the role of Wolfie Smith, particularly with the rise of Jeremy Corbyn. However, it was also reported that the family of the by then deceased Sullivan, who own the rights, did not want to bring it back. ==Home media== Playback released two DVD volumes of Citizen Smith, each with two series. Series one and two (including the pilot) were released in 2003 followed by series three and four later that year. Only two episodes have actually been cut: "Changes" – where Tucker and Wolfie miming to the Beatles tracks "Till There Was You" (and Tucker's line "I think they like us.") and "Help!" have been cut from the scene where Tucker serenades June; and "Prisoners" – where a short scene of Wolfie singing along to the Beatles track "She Loves You", which comes in between the shot of Speed throwing stones at Wolfie's window and the shot of the window breaking, has also been cut. Cinema Club bought the rights to the series, and later released all four series in a complete series set on 17 July 2017. ==References== * Steve Clark The Only Fools and Horses Story, pp26–28, , first published 1998, * Mark Lewisohn Radio Times Guide to TV Comedy, (A Roof Over My Head, p172, 658.) , reprinted 2003. * Universal/Playback DVD Series 1/2 and Series 3/4. 2003. ==Notes== ==External links== * * Comedy Guide * * * * *Citizen Smith at British TV Resources Category:1977 British television series debuts Category:1980 British television series endings Category:1970s British sitcoms Category:1980s British sitcoms Category:BBC television sitcoms Category:English-language television shows Category:Television shows set in London Category:Tooting Category:Television shows adapted into novels
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The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds each (24 × 60 × 60 = 86400). The current and formal definition in the International System of Units (SI) is more precise: > The second [...] is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the > caesium frequency, ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition > frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be when expressed in the unit Hz, > which is equal to s−1. This current definition was adopted in 1967 when it became feasible to define the second based on fundamental properties of nature with caesium clocks. Because the speed of Earth's rotation varies and is slowing ever so slightly, a leap second is added at irregular intervals to civil time to keep clocks in sync with Earth's rotation. ==Uses== Analog clocks and watches often have sixty tick marks on their faces, representing seconds (and minutes), and a "second hand" to mark the passage of time in seconds. Digital clocks and watches often have a two-digit seconds counter. SI prefixes are frequently combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second: milliseconds (thousandths), microseconds (millionths), nanoseconds (billionths), and sometimes smaller units of a second. Multiples of seconds are usually counted in hours and minutes. Though SI prefixes may also be used to form multiples of the second such as kiloseconds (thousands of seconds), such units are rarely used in practice. An everyday experience with small fractions of a second is a 1-gigahertz microprocessor which has a cycle time of 1 nanosecond. Camera shutter speeds are often expressed in fractions of a second, such as second or second. Sexagesimal divisions of the day from a calendar based on astronomical observation have existed since the third millennium BC, though they were not seconds as we know them today. Small divisions of time could not be measured back then, so such divisions were mathematically derived. The first timekeepers that could count seconds accurately were pendulum clocks invented in the 17th century. Starting in the 1950s, atomic clocks became better timekeepers than Earth's rotation, and they continue to set the standard today. ==Clocks and solar time== A mechanical clock, one which does not depend on measuring the relative rotational position of the Earth, keeps uniform time called mean time, within whatever accuracy is intrinsic to it. That means that every second, minute and every other division of time counted by the clock will be the same duration as any other identical division of time. But a sundial which measures the relative position of the Sun in the sky called apparent time, does not keep uniform time. The time kept by a sundial varies by time of year, meaning that seconds, minutes and every other division of time is a different duration at different times of the year. The time of day measured with mean time versus apparent time may differ by as much as 15 minutes, but a single day will differ from the next by only a small amount; 15 minutes is a cumulative difference over a part of the year. The effect is due chiefly to the obliqueness of Earth's axis with respect to its orbit around the Sun. The difference between apparent solar time and mean time was recognized by astronomers since antiquity, but prior to the invention of accurate mechanical clocks in the mid-17th century, sundials were the only reliable timepieces, and apparent solar time was the only generally accepted standard. ==Events and units of time in seconds== Fractions of a second are usually denoted in decimal notation, for example 2.01 seconds, or two and one hundredth seconds. Multiples of seconds are usually expressed as minutes and seconds, or hours, minutes and seconds of clock time, separated by colons, such as 11:23:24, or 45:23 (the latter notation can give rise to ambiguity, because the same notation is used to denote hours and minutes). It rarely makes sense to express longer periods of time like hours or days in seconds, because they are awkwardly large numbers. For the metric unit of second, there are decimal prefixes representing 10 to 10 seconds. Some common units of time in seconds are: a minute is 60 seconds; an hour is 3,600 seconds; a day is 86,400 seconds; a week is 604,800 seconds; a year (other than leap years) is 31,536,000 seconds; and a (Gregorian) century averages 3,155,695,200 seconds; with all of the above excluding any possible leap seconds. Some common events in seconds are: a stone falls about 4.9 meters from rest in one second; a pendulum of length about one meter has a swing of one second, so pendulum clocks have pendulums about a meter long; the fastest human sprinters run 10 meters in a second; an ocean wave in deep water travels about 23 meters in one second; sound travels about 343 meters in one second in air; light takes 1.3 seconds to reach Earth from the surface of the Moon, a distance of 384,400 kilometers. ==Other units incorporating seconds== A second is directly part of other units, such as frequency measured in hertz (inverse seconds or second−1), speed in meters per second, and acceleration in meters per second squared. The metric system unit becquerel, a measure of radioactive decay, is measured in inverse seconds. Though many derivative units for everyday things are reported in terms of larger units of time, not seconds, they are ultimately defined in terms of the SI second; this includes time expressed in hours and minutes, velocity of a car in kilometers per hour or miles per hour, kilowatt hours of electricity usage, and speed of a turntable in rotations per minute. Moreover, most other SI base units are defined by their relationship to the second: the metre is defined by setting the speed of light (in vacuum) to be 299 792 458 m/s, exactly; definitions of the SI base units kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and candela also depend on the second. The only base unit whose definition does not depend on the second is the mole, and only two of the 22 named derived units, radian and steradian, do not depend on the second either. ==Timekeeping standards== A set of atomic clocks throughout the world keeps time by consensus: the clocks "vote" on the correct time, and all voting clocks are steered to agree with the consensus, which is called International Atomic Time (TAI). TAI "ticks" atomic seconds. Civil time is defined to agree with the rotation of the Earth. The international standard for timekeeping is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). This time scale "ticks" the same atomic seconds as TAI, but inserts or omits leap seconds as necessary to correct for variations in the rate of rotation of the Earth. A time scale in which the seconds are not exactly equal to atomic seconds is UT1, a form of universal time. UT1 is defined by the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun, and does not contain any leap seconds. UT1 always differs from UTC by less than a second. ===Optical lattice clock=== While they are not yet part of any timekeeping standard, optical lattice clocks with frequencies in the visible light spectrum now exist and are the most accurate timekeepers of all. A strontium clock with frequency 430 THz, in the red range of visible light, during the 2010s held the accuracy record: it will gain or lose less than a second in 15 billion years, which is longer than the estimated age of the universe. Such a clock can measure a change in its elevation of as little as 2 cm by the change in its rate due to gravitational time dilation. ==History of definition== There have only ever been three definitions of the second: as a fraction of the day, as a fraction of an extrapolated year, and as the microwave frequency of a caesium atomic clock, which have each realized a sexagesimal division of the day from ancient astronomical calendars. ===Sexagesimal divisions of calendar time and day=== Civilizations in the classic period and earlier created divisions of the calendar as well as arcs using a sexagesimal system of counting, so at that time the second was a sexagesimal subdivision of the day (ancient second=), not of the hour like the modern second (=). Sundials and water clocks were among the earliest timekeeping devices, and units of time were measured in degrees of arc. Conceptual units of time smaller than realisable on sundials were also used. There are references to 'second' as part of a lunar month in the writings of natural philosophers of the Middle Ages, which were mathematical subdivisions that could not be measured mechanically. ===Fraction of solar day=== The earliest mechanical clocks, which appeared starting in the 14th century, had displays that divided the hour into halves, thirds, quarters and sometimes even 12 parts, but never by 60. In fact, the hour was not commonly divided in 60 minutes as it was not uniform in duration. It was not practical for timekeepers to consider minutes until the first mechanical clocks that displayed minutes appeared near the end of the 16th century. Mechanical clocks kept the mean time, as opposed to the apparent time displayed by sundials. By that time, sexagesimal divisions of time were well established in Europe. The earliest clocks to display seconds appeared during the last half of the 16th century. The second became accurately measurable with the development of mechanical clocks. The earliest spring-driven timepiece with a second hand which marked seconds is an unsigned clock depicting Orpheus in the Fremersdorf collection, dated between 1560 and During the 3rd quarter of the 16th century, Taqi al-Din built a clock with marks every 1/5 minute. In 1579, Jost Bürgi built a clock for William of Hesse that marked seconds. In 1581, Tycho Brahe redesigned clocks that had displayed only minutes at his observatory so they also displayed seconds, even though those seconds were not accurate. In 1587, Tycho complained that his four clocks disagreed by plus or minus four seconds. In 1656, Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented the first pendulum clock. It had a pendulum length of just under a meter which gave it a swing of one second, and an escapement that ticked every second. It was the first clock that could accurately keep time in seconds. By the 1730s, 80 years later, John Harrison's maritime chronometers could keep time accurate to within one second in 100 days. In 1832, Gauss proposed using the second as the base unit of time in his millimeter–milligram–second system of units. The British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) in 1862 stated that "All men of science are agreed to use the second of mean solar time as the unit of time." BAAS formally proposed the CGS system in 1874, although this system was gradually replaced over the next 70 years by MKS units. Both the CGS and MKS systems used the same second as their base unit of time. MKS was adopted internationally during the 1940s, defining the second as of a mean solar day. ===Fraction of an ephemeris year=== Sometime in the late 1940s, quartz crystal oscillator clocks with an operating frequency of ~100 kHz advanced to keep time with accuracy better than 1 part in 108 over an operating period of a day. It became apparent that a consensus of such clocks kept better time than the rotation of the Earth. Metrologists also knew that Earth's orbit around the Sun (a year) was much more stable than Earth's rotation. This led to proposals as early as 1950 to define the second as a fraction of a year. The Earth's motion was described in Newcomb's Tables of the Sun (1895), which provided a formula for estimating the motion of the Sun relative to the epoch 1900 based on astronomical observations made between 1750 and 1892. This resulted in adoption of an ephemeris time scale expressed in units of the sidereal year at that epoch by the IAU in 1952. This extrapolated timescale brings the observed positions of the celestial bodies into accord with Newtonian dynamical theories of their motion. In 1955, the tropical year, considered more fundamental than the sidereal year, was chosen by the IAU as the unit of time. The tropical year in the definition was not measured but calculated from a formula describing a mean tropical year that decreased linearly over time. In 1956, the second was redefined in terms of a year relative to that epoch. The second was thus defined as "the fraction of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time". This definition was adopted as part of the International System of Units in 1960. ==="Atomic" second=== Even the best mechanical, electric motorized and quartz crystal- based clocks develop discrepancies from environmental conditions; far better for timekeeping is the natural and exact "vibration" in an energized atom. The frequency of vibration (i.e., radiation) is very specific depending on the type of atom and how it is excited. Since 1967, the second has been defined as exactly "the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom". This length of a second was selected to correspond exactly to the length of the ephemeris second previously defined. Atomic clocks use such a frequency to measure seconds by counting cycles per second at that frequency. Radiation of this kind is one of the most stable and reproducible phenomena of nature. The current generation of atomic clocks is accurate to within one second in a few hundred million years. Since 1967, atomic clocks based on atoms other than caesium-133 have been developed with increased precision by a factor of 100. Therefore a new definition of the second is planned.Draft resolutions of the 27. General Conference on Weights and Measures in November 2022, Section E, p. 25 Atomic clocks now set the length of a second and the time standard for the world. ===Table=== Evolution of the Second Decisions of the CIPM Resolution of the CGPM Information That according to the decisions of the 8th General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (Rome, 1952), the second of ephemeris time (ET) is the fraction \frac{12960276813}{408986496}\times10^{-9} of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 h ET. The second is the fraction \frac{1}{31556925.9747} of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time. 1956 CIPM 11th CGPM 1960 Resolution 9 The standard to be employed is the transition between the hyperfine levels F=4, M=0 and F=3, M=0 of the ground state ^2S_{1/2} of the caesium 133 atom, unperturbed by external fields, and that the frequency of this transition is assigned the value 9192631770 hertz. The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom 13th CGPM Resolution 1 CIPM 1967 This definition implies that the caesium atom is at rest and unperturbed. In consequence, in its practical realization, measurements must be corrected for velocity of the atoms with respect to the clock reference frame, for magnetic and electric fields including ambient black-body radiation, for spin-exchange effects and for other possible perturbations. At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that: This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K. This note was intended to make it clear that the definition of the SI second is based on a Cs atom unperturbed by black-body radiation, that is, in an environment whose temperature is 0 K, and that the frequencies of primary frequency standards should therefore be corrected for the shift due to ambient radiation, as stated at the meeting of the CCTF in 1999. footnote added by the 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Time and Frequency in 1999 the footnote was added at the 86th (1997) meeting of the CIPM GCPM 1998 7th Edition SI Brochure The definition of a unit refers to an idealized situation that can be reached in the practical realization with some uncertainty only. In this spirit, the definition of the second has to be understood as referring to atoms free of any perturbation, at rest and in the absence of electric and magnetic fields. A future re-definition of the second will be justified if these idealized conditions can be achieved much easier than with the current definition. The definition of the second should be understood as the definition of the unit of proper time: it applies in a small spatial domain which shares the motion of the caesium atom used to realize the definition. In a laboratory sufficiently small to allow the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field to be neglected when compared to the uncertainties of the realization of the second, the proper second is obtained after application of the special relativistic correction for the velocity of the atom in the laboratory. It is wrong to correct for the local gravitational field. The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency, ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1. The reference to an unperturbed atom is intended to make it clear that the definition of the SI second is based on an isolated caesium atom that is unperturbed by any external field, such as ambient black-body radiation. The second, so defined, is the unit of proper time in the sense of the general theory of relativity. To allow the provision of a coordinated time scale, the signals of different primary clocks in different locations are combined, which have to be corrected for relativistic caesium frequency shifts (see section 2.3.6). The CIPM has adopted various secondary representations of the second, based on a selected number of spectral lines of atoms, ions or molecules. The unperturbed frequencies of these lines can be determined with a relative uncertainty not lower than that of the realization of the second based on the 133Cs hyperfine transition frequency, but some can be reproduced with superior stability. Current Definition resolved in 2018 effective after the 26th GCPM approved the redefinition May 20, 2019. SI Brochure 9 == Future redefinition == In 2022, the best realisation of the second is done with caesium primary standard clocks such as IT-CsF2, NIST-F2, NPL-CsF2, PTB-CSF2, SU–CsFO2 or SYRTE-FO2. These clocks work by laser-cooling a cloud of Cs atoms to a microkelvin in a magneto-optic trap. These cold atoms are then launched vertically by laser light. The atoms then undergo Ramsey excitation in a microwave cavity. The fraction of excited atoms are then detected by laser beams. These clocks have systematic uncertainty, which is equivalent to 50 picoseconds per day. A system of several fountains worldwide contribute to International Atomic Time. These caesium clocks also underpin optical frequency measurements. Optical clocks are based on forbidden optical transitions in ions or atoms. They have frequencies around , with a natural linewidth \Delta f of typically 1 Hz, so the Q-factor is about , or even higher. They have better stabilities than microwave clocks, which means that they can facilitate evaluation of lower uncertainties. They also have better time resolution, which means the clock "ticks" faster. Optical clocks use either a single ion, or an optical lattice with – atoms. === Rydberg constant === A definition based on the Rydberg constant would involve fixing the value to a certain value: R_{\infty}=\frac{m_\text{e} e^4}{8 \varepsilon_0^2 h^3 c}=\frac{m_\text{e} c \alpha^2}{2h}. The Rydberg constant describes the energy levels in a hydrogen atom with the nonrelativistic approximation E_n \approx -\frac{R_{\infty} c h}{n^2}. The only viable way to fix the Rydberg constant involves trapping and cooling hydrogen. This is difficult because it is very light and the atoms move very fast, causing Doppler shifts. The radiation needed to cool the hydrogen –– is also difficult. Another hurdle involves improving the uncertainty in QED calculations. === Requirements === A redefinition must include improved optical clock reliability. TAI must be contributed to by optical clocks before the BIPM affirms a redefinition. A consistent method of sending signals must be developed before the second is redefined, such as fiber-optics. == SI multiples == SI prefixes are commonly used for times shorter than one second, but rarely for multiples of a second. Instead, certain non-SI units are permitted for use with SI: minutes, hours, days, and in astronomy Julian years. Reprinted from the "IAU Style Manual" by G.A. Wilkinson, Comm. 5, in IAU Transactions XXB (1987). SI multiples for second (s) Submultiples Multiples Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name Equivalent to 10−1 s ds decisecond 101 s das decasecond 10 seconds 10−2 s cs centisecond 102 s hs hectosecond 1 minute, 40 seconds 10−3 s ms millisecond 103 s ks kilosecond 16 minutes, 40 seconds 10−6 s µs microsecond 106 s Ms megasecond 11 days, 13 hours, 46 minutes, 40 seconds 10−9 s ns nanosecond 109 s Gs gigasecond 31.7 years 10−12 s ps picosecond 1012 s Ts terasecond 31,700 years 10−15 s fs femtosecond 1015 s Ps petasecond 31.7 million years 10−18 s as attosecond 1018 s Es exasecond 31.7 billion years 10−21 s zs zeptosecond 1021 s Zs zettasecond 31.7 trillion years 10−24 s ys yoctosecond 1024 s Ys yottasecond 31.7 quadrillion years 10−27 s rs rontosecond 1027 s Rs ronnasecond 31.7 quintillion years 10−30 s qs quectosecond 1030 s Qs quettasecond 31.7 sextillion years == See also == * Caesium standard * Orders of magnitude (time) * Seconds pendulum * Time standard ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * National Physical Laboratory: Trapped ion optical frequency standards * High-accuracy strontium ion optical clock; National Physical Laboratory (2005) * National Research Council of Canada: Optical frequency standard based on a single trapped ion * NIST: Definition of the second; notice the cesium atom must be in its ground state at 0 K * Official BIPM definition of the second * The leap second: its history and possible future * What is a Cesium atom clock? * SLAC: Scales of Time – Our universe from 1018 to 10−18 seconds Category:Centimetre–gram–second system of units Category:Orders of magnitude (time) Category:SI base units Category:Units of time
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The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum that addresses issues faced by the Arctic governments and the indigenous people of the Arctic. At present, eight countries exercise sovereignty over the lands within the Arctic Circle, and these constitute the member states of the council: Canada; Denmark; Finland; Iceland; Norway; Russia; Sweden; and the United States. Other countries or national groups can be admitted as observer states, while organizations representing the concerns of indigenous peoples can be admitted as indigenous permanent participants. ==History== The first step towards the formation of the Council occurred in 1991 when the eight Arctic countries signed the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). The 1996 Ottawa Declaration established the Arctic Council as a forum for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic states, with the involvement of the Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on issues such as sustainable development and environmental protection. The Arctic Council has conducted studies on climate change, oil and gas, and Arctic shipping. In 2011, the Council member states concluded the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement, the first binding treaty concluded under the council's auspices. On March 3, 2022, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and the United States declared that they will not attend meetings of the Arctic Council under Russian chairmanship because of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The same countries issued a second statement on June 8, 2022 that declared their intent to resume cooperation on a limited number of previously approved Arctic Council projects that do not involve Russian leadership or participation. ==Membership and participation== The council is made up of member and observer states, Indigenous "permanent participants", and observer organizations. ===States=== ==== Member states==== Only states with territory in the Arctic can be members of the council. The member states consist of the following: * Canada * Denmark; representing Greenland * Finland * Iceland * Norway * Russia * Sweden * United States ====Observer states==== Observer status is open to non-Arctic states approved by the Council at the Ministerial Meetings that occur once every two years. Observers have no voting rights in the council. As of September 2021, thirteen non-Arctic states have observer status. Observer states receive invitations for most Council meetings. Their participation in projects and task forces within the working groups is not always possible, but this poses few problems as few observer states want to participate at such a detailed level. , observer states included: * Germany, 1998 * Netherlands, 1998 * Poland, 1998 * United Kingdom, 1998 * France, 2000 * Spain, 2006 * China, 2013 * India, 2013 * Italy, 2013 * Japan, 2013 * South Korea, 2013 * Singapore, 2013 * Switzerland, 2017 In 2011, the Council clarified its criteria for admission of observers, most notably including a requirement of applicants to "recognize Arctic States' sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the Arctic" and "recognize that an extensive legal framework applies to the Arctic Ocean including, notably, the Law of the Sea, and that this framework provides a solid foundation for responsible management of this ocean". =====Pending observer states===== Pending observer states need to request permission for their presence at each individual meeting; such requests are routine and most of them are granted. At the 2013 Ministerial Meeting in Kiruna, Sweden, the European Union (EU) requested full observer status. It was not granted, mostly because the members do not agree with the EU ban on hunting seals. Pending observer states are: * Albania * Brunei * European Union * Montenegro * North Macedonia * Serbia * Turkey * Yemen The role of observers was re-evaluated, as were the criteria for admission. As a result, the distinction between permanent and ad hoc observers were dropped. ===Indigenous permanent participants=== Seven of the eight-member states have sizeable indigenous communities living in their Arctic areas (only Iceland does not have an indigenous community). Organizations of Arctic Indigenous Peoples can obtain the status of Permanent Participant to the Arctic Council, but only if they represent either one indigenous group residing in more than one Arctic State, or two or more Arctic indigenous peoples groups in a single Arctic state. The number of Permanent Participants should at any time be less than the number of members. The category of Permanent Participants has been created to provide for active participation and full consultation with the Arctic indigenous representatives within the Arctic Council. This principle applies to all meetings and activities of the Arctic Council. Permanent Participants may address the meetings. They may raise points of order that require an immediate decision by the chairman. Agendas of Ministerial Meetings need to be consulted beforehand with them; they may propose supplementary agenda items. When calling the biannual meetings of Senior Arctic Officials, the Permanent Participants must have been consulted beforehand. Finally, Permanent Participants may propose cooperative activities, such as projects. All this makes the position of Arctic indigenous peoples within the Arctic Council quite unique compared to the (often marginal) role of such peoples in other international governmental fora. However, decision-making in the Arctic Council remains in the hands of the eight-member states, on the basis of consensus. As of 2021, six Arctic indigenous communities have Permanent Participant status. These groups are represented by *The Aleut International Association (AIA), representing more than 15,000 Aleut in Russia and the United States (Alaska). *The Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), representing 45,000 Athabaskan peoples in Canada (Northwest Territories and Yukon) and the United States (Alaska). *The Gwich'in Council International (GCI), representing 9,000 Gwich'in people in Canada (Northwest Territories and Yukon) and the United States (Alaska). *The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), representing 180,000 Inuit in Canada, Greenland, Russia (Chukotka) and the United States (Alaska). *The Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), representing 250,000 indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East. *The Saami Council, representing more than 100,000 Sámi of Finland, Norway, Russia and Sweden. However prominent the role of indigenous peoples, the Permanent Participant status does not confer any legal recognition as peoples. The Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic Council's founding document, explicitly states (in a footnote): > "The use of the term 'peoples' in this declaration shall not be construed as > having any implications as regard the rights which may attach to the term > under international law." The Indigenous Permanent Participants are assisted by the Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples Secretariat. ===Observer organizations=== Approved intergovernmental organizations and Inter-parliamentary institutions (both global and regional), as well as non-governmental organizations can also obtain Observer Status. Organizations with observer status currently include the Arctic Parliamentarians, International Union for Conservation of Nature, the International Red Cross Federation, the Nordic Council, the Northern Forum, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme; the Association of World Reindeer Herders, Oceana, the University of the Arctic, and the World Wide Fund for Nature-Arctic Programme. ==Administrative aspects== ===Meetings=== The Arctic Council convenes every six months somewhere in the Chair's country for a Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) meeting. SAOs are high-level representatives from the eight-member nations. Sometimes they are ambassadors, but often they are senior foreign ministry officials entrusted with staff-level coordination. Representatives of the six Permanent Participants and the official Observers also are in attendance. At the end of the two-year cycle, the Chair hosts a Ministerial- level meeting, which is the culmination of the council's work for that period. Most of the eight-member nations are represented by a Minister from their Foreign Affairs, Northern Affairs, or Environment Ministry. A formal, although non-binding, "Declaration", named for the town in which the meeting is held, sums up the past accomplishments and the future work of the council. These Declarations cover climate change, sustainable development, Arctic monitoring and assessment, persistent organic pollutants and other contaminants, and the work of the council's five Working Groups. Arctic Council members agreed to action points on protecting the Arctic but most have never materialized.Press briefing, Arctic Council Annual Meeting, Nuuk May 2011 Stop talking – start protecting 2012. List of Arctic Council Ministerial Meetings Date(s) City Country 17–18 September 1998 Iqaluit Canada 13 October 2000 Barrow United States 10 October 2002 Inari Finland 24 November 2004 Reykjavík Iceland 26 October 2006 Salekhard Russia 29 April 2009 Tromsø Norway 12 May 2011 Nuuk Greenland, Denmark 15 May 2013 Kiruna Sweden 24 April 2015 Iqaluit Canada 10–11 May 2017 Fairbanks United States 7 May 2019 Rovaniemi Finland 19–20 May 2021 Reykjavík Iceland ===Chairmanship=== Chairmanship of the Council rotates every two years. The current chair is Norway, which serves until the Ministerial meeting in 2025. *Canada (1996–1998) *United States (1998–2000) *Finland (2000–2002) *Iceland (2002–2004) *Russia (2004–2006) *Norway (2006–2009) *Denmark (2009–2011) *Sweden (2011–2013) *Canada (2013–2015) *United States (2015–2017) *Finland (2017–2019) *Iceland (2019–2021) *Russia (2021–2023) *Norway (2023-2025) Norway, Denmark, and Sweden have agreed on a set of common priorities for the three chairmanships. They also agreed to a shared secretariat 2006–2013. ===The secretariat=== Each rotating Chair nation accepts responsibility for maintaining the secretariat, which handles the administrative aspects of the council, including organizing semiannual meetings, hosting the website, and distributing reports and documents. The Norwegian Polar Institute hosted the Arctic Council Secretariat for the six- year period from 2007 to 2013; this was based on an agreement between the three successive Scandinavian Chairs, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. This temporary Secretariat had a staff of three. In 2012, the Council moved towards creating a permanent secretariat in Tromsø, Norway. ====Past Directors==== *Magnús Jóhannesson (Iceland) February 2013-October 2017 *Nina Buvang Vaaja (Norway) October 2017-August 2021 *Mathieu Parker (Canada) August 2021 – Present ===The Indigenous Peoples' Secretariat=== It is costly for the Permanent participants to be represented at every Council meeting, especially since they take place across the entire circumpolar realm. To enhance the capacity of the PPs to pursue the objectives of the Arctic Council and to assist them to develop their internal capacity to participate and intervene in Council meetings, the Council provides financial support to the Indigenous Peoples' Secretariat (IPS). The IPS board decides on the allocation of the funds. The IPS was established in 1994 under the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). It was based in Copenhagen until 2016 when it relocated to Tromsø. In September 2017, Anna Degteva replaced Elle Merete Omma as the executive secretary for the Indigenous Peoples´ Secretariat. ===Working groups, programs and action plans=== Arctic Council working groups document Arctic problems and challenges such as sea ice loss, glacier melting, tundra thawing, increase of mercury in food chains, and ocean acidification affecting the entire marine ecosystem. The six Arctic Council workings groups: * Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) * Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF) * Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR) * Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) * Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) * Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) (since 2006) ====Programs and action plans==== * Arctic Biodiversity AssessmentArctic Biodiversity Assessment * Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program (CBMP) * Arctic Climate Impact Assessment * Arctic Human Development Report ==Security and geopolitical issues== Before signing the Ottawa Declaration, a footnote was added stating; "The Arctic Council should not deal with matters related to military security". In 2019, United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo stated that circumstances had changed and "the region has become an arena for power and for competition. And the eight Arctic states must adapt to this new future". The council is often in the middle of security and geopolitical issues since the Arctic has peculiar interests to Member States and Observers. Changes in the Arctic environment and participants of the Arctic Council have led to a reconsideration of the relationship between geopolitical matters and the role of the Arctic Council. Disputes over land and ocean in the Arctic had been extremely limited. The only outstanding land dispute was between Canada and Denmark over Hans Island, which was resolved in the summer of 2022 with agreement to split the island in half. There are oceanic claims between the United States and Canada in the Beaufort Sea. thumb|Claims to the Arctic Seabed and Arctic Sea. The major territorial disputes are over exclusive rights to the seabed under the central Arctic high seas. Due to climate change and melting of the Arctic sea-ice, more energy resources and waterways are now becoming accessible. Large reserves of oil, gas and minerals are located within the Arctic. This environmental factor generated territorial disputes among member states. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea allows states to extend their exclusive right to exploit resources on and in the continental shelf if they can prove that seabed more than from baselines is a "natural prolongation" of the land. Canada, Russia, and Denmark (via Greenland) have all submitted partially overlapping claims to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), which is charged with confirming the continental shelf's outer limits. Once the CLCS makes its rulings, Russia, Denmark, and Canada will need to negotiate to divide their overlapping claims. Disputes also exist over the nature of the Northwest Passage and the Northeast Passage / Northern Sea Route. Canada claims the entire Northwest Passage are Canadian Internal Waters, which means Canada would have total control over which ships may enter the channel. The United States believes the Passage is an international strait, which would mean any ship could transit at any time, and Canada could not close the Passage. Russia's claims over the Northern Sea Route are significantly different. Russia only claims small segments of the Northern Sea Route around straits as internal waters. However, Russia requires all commercial vessels to request and obtain permission to navigate in a large area of the Russian Arctic exclusive economic zone under Article 234 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which grants coastal states greater powers over ice-covered waters. Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage arouses substantial public concern in Canada. A poll indicated that half of Canadian respondents said Canada should try to assert its full sovereignty rights over the Beaufort Sea compared to just 10 percent of Americans. New commercial trans-Arctic shipping routes can be another factor of conflicts. A poll found that Canadians perceive the Northwest Passage as their internal Canadian waterway whereas other countries assert it is an international waterway. The increase in the number of observer states drew attention to other national security issues. Observers have demonstrated their interests in the Arctic region. China has explicitly shown its desire to extract natural resources in Greenland. Military infrastructure is another point to consider. Canada, Denmark, Norway and Russia are rapidly increasing their defence presence by building up their militaries in the Arctic and developing their building infrastructure. However, some say that the Arctic Council facilitates stability despite possible conflicts among member states. Norwegian Admiral Haakon Bruun-Hanssen has suggested that the Arctic is "probably the most stable area in the world". They say that laws are well established and followed. Member states think that the sharing cost of the development of Arctic shipping-lanes, research, etc., by cooperation and good relationships between states is beneficial to all. Looking at these two different perspectives, some suggest that the Arctic Council should expand its role by including peace and security issues as its agenda. A 2010 survey showed that large majorities of respondents in Norway, Canada, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark were very supportive on the issues of an Arctic nuclear-weapons free zone.Rethinking the Top of the World: Arctic Security Public Opinion Survey, EKOS, January 2011 Although only a small majority of Russian respondents supported such measures, more than 80 percent of them agreed that the Arctic Council should cover peace-building issues. Paul Berkman suggests that solving security matters in the Arctic Council could save members the much larger amount of time required to reach a decision in United Nations. However, as of June 2014, military security matters are often avoided. The focus on science and resource protection and management is seen as a priority, which could be diluted or strained by the discussion of geopolitical security issues. ==See also== * Arctic Economic Council * Arctic cooperation and politics * Arctic policy of Canada – Arctic Council Chair 2013–2015 * Arctic policy of the United States – Arctic Council Chair 2015–2017 * Antarctic Treaty System * Ilulissat Declaration * International Arctic Science Committee * United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ==References== ==Bibliography== * Danita Catherine Burke. 2020. Diplomacy and the Arctic Council. McGill Queen University Press. ==External links== * www.arctic-council.org – Arctic Council Category:Government of the Arctic Category:Intergovernmental organizations Category:Arctic
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The 7th Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada began its term on 12 December 2012. 478 people's deputies were elected during the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections. Full name Party Region District No. Party list No. Start End Mykola Azarov Party of Regions Nationwide 1 12 December 2012 18 December 2012 Tayisia Povaliy Party of Regions Nationwide 2 12 December 2012 Serhiy Tihipko Party of Regions Nationwide 3 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Yefremov Party of Regions Nationwide 5 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Boiko Party of Regions Nationwide 7 12 December 2012 Borys Kolesnikov Party of Regions Nationwide 8 12 December 2012 Leonid Kozhara Party of Regions Nationwide 9 12 December 2012 25 December 2012 Volodymyr Rybak Party of Regions Nationwide 10 12 December 2012 Dmytro Tabachnyk Party of Regions Nationwide 11 12 December 2012 25 December 2012 Oleksandr Lavrynovych Party of Regions Nationwide 12 12 December 2012 25 December 2012 Hanna Herman Party of Regions Nationwide 13 12 December 2012 Stanislav Skubashevsky Party of Regions Nationwide 14 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Blyzniuk Party of Regions Nationwide 15 12 December 2012 Ihor Sharov Party of Regions Nationwide 16 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Oliynyk Party of Regions Nationwide 17 12 December 2012 Yakiv Tabachnik Party of Regions Nationwide 18 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Makeyenko Party of Regions Nationwide 19 12 December 2012 Elbrus Tedeyev Party of Regions Nationwide 20 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Chechetov Party of Regions Nationwide 21 12 December 2012 Viktor Yanukovych Party of Regions Nationwide 22 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Khomutynnik Party of Regions Nationwide 23 12 December 2012 Yuriy Ivaniushchenko Party of Regions Nationwide 24 12 December 2012 Svitlana Fabrykant Party of Regions Nationwide 25 12 December 2012 Yuriy Voropayev Party of Regions Nationwide 26 12 December 2012 Nestor Shufrych Party of Regions Nationwide 27 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Demydko Party of Regions Nationwide 28 12 December 2012 Yevgeniy Geller Party of Regions Nationwide 29 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Maltsev Party of Regions Nationwide 30 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Vecherko Party of Regions Nationwide 31 12 December 2012 Nvier Mkhitaryan Party of Regions Nationwide 32 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kyi Party of Regions Nationwide 33 12 December 2012 Mykola Demianko Party of Regions Nationwide 34 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Dudka Party of Regions Nationwide 35 12 December 2012 Tariel Vasadze Party of Regions Nationwide 36 12 December 2012 Vasyl Khmelnytskyi Party of Regions Nationwide 37 12 December 2012 Oleh Zarubinsky Party of Regions Nationwide 38 12 December 2012 Yuriy Miroshnychenko Party of Regions Nationwide 39 12 December 2012 Viktor Turmanov Party of Regions Nationwide 40 12 December 2012 Andriy Selivarov Party of Regions Nationwide 41 12 December 2012 Serhiy Moshak Party of Regions Nationwide 42 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Kuzmuk Party of Regions Nationwide 43 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Yehorov Party of Regions Nationwide 44 12 December 2012 Kateryna Vashchuk Party of Regions Nationwide 45 12 December 2012 Andriy Verevsky Party of Regions Nationwide 46 12 December 2012 5 March 2013 Olena Bondarenko Party of Regions Nationwide 47 12 December 2012 Yevhen Sihal Party of Regions Nationwide 48 12 December 2012 Hryhoriy Smitiukh Party of Regions Nationwide 49 12 December 2012 Yuriy Chertkov Party of Regions Nationwide 50 12 December 2012 Mykola Bahrayev Party of Regions Nationwide 51 12 December 2012 Nurulislam Arkallayev Party of Regions Nationwide 52 12 December 2012 Anton Pryhodsky Party of Regions Nationwide 53 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Vasylyev Party of Regions Nationwide 54 12 December 2012 Oleh Shablatovych Party of Regions Nationwide 55 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Prodyvus Party of Regions Nationwide 56 12 December 2012 Artem Shcherban Party of Regions Nationwide 57 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Kaliuzhny Party of Regions Nationwide 58 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Kinakh Party of Regions Nationwide 59 12 December 2012 Inna Bohoslovska Party of Regions Nationwide 60 12 December 2012 Stanislav Melnyk Party of Regions Nationwide 61 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Malyshev Party of Regions Nationwide 62 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Myronenko Party of Regions Nationwide 63 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Volkov Party of Regions Nationwide 64 12 December 2012 Larysa Melnychuk Party of Regions Nationwide 65 12 December 2012 Pavlo Korzh Party of Regions Nationwide 66 12 December 2012 Vilen Shatvoryan Party of Regions Nationwide 67 12 December 2012 Ihor Prasolov Party of Regions Nationwide 68 12 December 2012 11 January 2013 Andriy Pinchuk Party of Regions Nationwide 69 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Korzhev Party of Regions Nationwide 70 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Dolzhenkov Party of Regions Nationwide 71 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Stoyan Party of Regions Nationwide 72 12 December 2012 Ivan Popesku Party of Regions Nationwide 73 12 December 2012 Ishtvan Haidosh Party of Regions Nationwide 74 12 December 2012 Vasyl Polyakov Party of Regions Nationwide 75 12 December 2012 25 December 2012 Yuriy Polyachenko Party of Regions Nationwide 76 12 December 2012 10 January 2013 Oleksandr Zats Party of Regions Nationwide 77 12 December 2012 10 January 2013 Yuriy Blahodyr Party of Regions Nationwide 78 12 December 2012 10 January 2013 Ivan Myrnyi Party of Regions Nationwide 79 12 December 2012 22 February 2013 Oleksandr Kozub Party of Regions Nationwide 80 12 December 2012 19 March 2013 Arseniy Yatsenyuk Fatherland Nationwide 2 12 December 2012 28 February 2014 Anatoliy Hrytsenko Fatherland Nationwide 3 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Turchynov Fatherland Nationwide 4 12 December 2012 Vyacheslav Kyrylenko Fatherland Nationwide 6 12 December 2012 Hryhoriy Nemyria Fatherland Nationwide 7 12 December 2012 Serhiy Soboliev Fatherland Nationwide 8 12 December 2012 Borys Tarasyuk Fatherland Nationwide 9 12 December 2012 Mykola Tomenko Fatherland Nationwide 10 12 December 2012 Mykola Knyazhytsky Fatherland Nationwide 11 12 December 2012 Mustafa Dzhemiliev Fatherland Nationwide 12 12 December 2012 Andriy Kozhemyakin Fatherland Nationwide 13 12 December 2012 Liliya Hrynevych Fatherland Nationwide 14 12 December 2012 Ivan Kyrylenko Fatherland Nationwide 15 12 December 2012 Yaroslav Fedorchuk Fatherland Nationwide 16 12 December 2012 Mykola Martynenko Fatherland Nationwide 17 12 December 2012 Iryna Lutsenko Fatherland Nationwide 18 12 December 2012 Andriy Pyshnyi Fatherland Nationwide 19 12 December 2012 Serhiy Vlasenko Fatherland Nationwide 20 12 December 2012 Andriy Parubiy Fatherland Nationwide 21 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Oleksandra Kuzhel Fatherland Nationwide 22 12 December 2012 Stepan Kubiv Fatherland Nationwide 23 12 December 2012 4 March 2014 Arsen Avakov Fatherland Nationwide 24 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Yuriy Odarchenko Fatherland Nationwide 25 12 December 2012 Lesya Orobets Fatherland Nationwide 26 12 December 2012 Serhiy Pashynsky Fatherland Nationwide 27 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Abdullin Fatherland Nationwide 28 12 December 2012 Andriy Pavelko Fatherland Nationwide 29 12 December 2012 Dmytro Shlemko Fatherland Nationwide 30 12 December 2012 Roman Zabzalyuk Fatherland Nationwide 31 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Moskal Fatherland Nationwide 32 12 December 2012 Andriy Shevchenko Fatherland Nationwide 33 12 December 2012 Denys Dzenzersky Fatherland Nationwide 34 12 December 2012 Valeriy Sushkevych Fatherland Nationwide 35 12 December 2012 Vasyl Derevlianyi Fatherland Nationwide 36 12 December 2012 Ruslan Knyazevych Fatherland Nationwide 37 12 December 2012 Lyudmila Denisova Fatherland Nationwide 38 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Serhiy Fayermark Fatherland Nationwide 39 12 December 2012 Viktor Shvets Fatherland Nationwide 40 12 December 2012 Andriy Ivanchuk Fatherland Nationwide 41 12 December 2012 Ruslan Lukianchuk Fatherland Nationwide 42 12 December 2012 Maksym Burbak Fatherland Nationwide 43 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Andriy Pavlovsky Fatherland Nationwide 44 12 December 2012 Kostiantyn Bondariev Fatherland Nationwide 45 12 December 2012 Leonid Serhiyenko Fatherland Nationwide 46 12 December 2012 Serhiy Sas Fatherland Nationwide 47 12 December 2012 13 March 2014 Andriy Senchenko Fatherland Nationwide 48 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Tabalov Fatherland Nationwide 49 12 December 2012 Vasyl Kravchuk Fatherland Nationwide 50 12 December 2012 Valeriy Kalchenko Fatherland Nationwide 51 12 December 2012 Pavlo Petrenko Fatherland Nationwide 52 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Tetiana Slyuz Fatherland Nationwide 53 12 December 2012 13 May 2014 Volodymyr Shkvarylyuk Fatherland Nationwide 54 12 December 2012 Tetiana Donets Fatherland Nationwide 55 12 December 2012 Valeriy Holovko Fatherland Nationwide 56 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Danilov Fatherland Nationwide 57 12 December 2012 Ihor Skosar Fatherland Nationwide 58 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Polochaninov Fatherland Nationwide 59 12 December 2012 Olena Kondratyuk Fatherland Nationwide 60 12 December 2012 Valeriy Lunchenko Fatherland Nationwide 61 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Nemilostivyi Fatherland Nationwide 62 12 December 2012 Yuriy Stets Fatherland Nationwide 63 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Dubovoy Fatherland Nationwide 64 12 December 2012 Roman Stadniychuk Fatherland Nationwide 65 19 March 2013 Vadym Merikov Fatherland Nationwide 66 15 March 2013 Oleh Shevchuk Fatherland Nationwide 67 25 March 2014 Leonid Makul Fatherland Nationwide 68 25 March 2014 Olena Ledovskykh Fatherland Nationwide 69 25 March 2014 Ihor Hryniv Fatherland Nationwide 70 25 March 2014 Oleksandr Chubatenko Fatherland Nationwide 71 25 March 2014 Olena Kolhanova Fatherland Nationwide 72 25 March 2014 Ruslan Bohdan Fatherland Nationwide 73 17 June 2014 Vitaliy Klychko UDAR Nationwide 1 12 December 2012 5 June 2014 Maria Matios UDAR Nationwide 2 12 December 2012 Valentyn Nalyvaichenko UDAR Nationwide 3 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Oksana Prodan UDAR Nationwide 4 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Kovalchuk UDAR Nationwide 5 12 December 2012 Iryna Herashchenko UDAR Nationwide 6 12 December 2012 Viktor Pynzenyk UDAR Nationwide 7 12 December 2012 Nataliya Ahafonova UDAR Nationwide 8 12 December 2012 Artur Palatny UDAR Nationwide 9 12 December 2012 Pavlo Rozenko UDAR Nationwide 10 12 December 2012 Nataliya Novak UDAR Nationwide 11 12 December 2012 Roman Romanyuk UDAR Nationwide 12 12 December 2012 Valeriy Karpuntsov UDAR Nationwide 13 12 December 2012 Mykola Palamarchuk UDAR Nationwide 14 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kunitsyn UDAR Nationwide 15 12 December 2012 Maria Ionova UDAR Nationwide 16 12 December 2012 Eduard Hurvits UDAR Nationwide 17 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Chuhunnikov UDAR Nationwide 18 12 December 2012 Valeriy Patskan UDAR Nationwide 19 12 December 2012 Yaroslav Hinka UDAR Nationwide 20 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Tkachuk UDAR Nationwide 21 12 December 2012 Rustam Raupov UDAR Nationwide 22 12 December 2012 Roman Cherneha UDAR Nationwide 23 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Korniychuk UDAR Nationwide 24 12 December 2012 Ihor Pober UDAR Nationwide 25 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Kurennoy UDAR Nationwide 26 12 December 2012 Yuriy Savchuk UDAR Nationwide 27 12 December 2012 Pavlo Ryabikin UDAR Nationwide 28 12 December 2012 Serhiy Averchenko UDAR Nationwide 29 12 December 2012 1 April 2014 Roman Vanzuryak UDAR Nationwide 30 12 December 2012 15 April 2014 Olha Bielkova UDAR Nationwide 31 12 December 2012 Valeriy Ishchenko UDAR Nationwide 32 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Mochkov UDAR Nationwide 33 12 December 2012 Rostyslav Pavlenko UDAR Nationwide 34 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Revenko UDAR Nationwide 35 26 March 2014 Vitaliy Krutyi UDAR Nationwide 36 9 April 2014 Yehor Firsov UDAR Nationwide 37 24 April 2014 Vitaliy Ilyashenko UDAR Nationwide 38 17 June 2014 Petro Symonenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 1 12 December 2012 Petro Tsybenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 2 12 December 2012 Iryna Spirina Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 3 12 December 2012 Spiridon Kilinkarov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 4 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Prysiazhniuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 5 12 December 2012 Ihor Aleksieyev Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 6 12 December 2012 Ihor Kalietnik Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 7 12 December 2012 Adam Martyniuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 8 12 December 2012 Valentyn Matvieyev Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 9 12 December 2012 Yevhen Marmazov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 10 25 December 2012 Oleksandr Holub Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 11 12 December 2012 Ruslan Skarboviychuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 12 12 December 2012 Serhiy Hordiyenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 13 12 December 2012 Serhiy Honcharov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 14 12 December 2012 Oleh Bukhovets Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 15 12 December 2012 Olha Mykhailenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 16 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Zubchevsky Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 17 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Bidyovka Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 18 12 December 2012 Mykola Dzardanov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 19 12 December 2012 Serhiy Balandin Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 20 12 December 2012 Serhiy Topalov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 21 12 December 2012 13 May 2014 Viktoriya Babych Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 22 12 December 2012 Roman Shchuhalo Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 23 12 December 2012 Larysa Baidyuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 24 12 December 2012 Vasyl Samoylenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 25 12 December 2012 Viktor Hubar Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 26 12 December 2012 Anton Dorokhov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 27 12 December 2012 Olha Levchenko Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 28 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Kudria Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 29 12 December 2012 Omelyan Parubok Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 30 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Herasymchuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 31 12 December 2012 7 November 2013 Olha Boryta Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 32 12 December 2012 Vasyl Demediuk Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 33 3 December 2013 Oleksandr Hanchukov Communist Party of Ukraine Nationwide 34 29 May 2014 Oleh Tyahnybok Freedom Nationwide 1 12 December 2012 Bohdan Beniuk Freedom Nationwide 2 12 December 2012 Andriy Mokhnyk Freedom Nationwide 3 12 December 2012 28 February 2014 Ihor Miroshnychenko Freedom Nationwide 4 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Shevchenko Freedom Nationwide 5 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Vitiv Freedom Nationwide 6 12 December 2012 Oleh Pankevych Freedom Nationwide 7 12 December 2012 Ihor Shvaika Freedom Nationwide 8 12 December 2012 28 February 2014 Pavlo Kyrylenko Freedom Nationwide 9 12 December 2012 Ihor Yankiv Freedom Nationwide 10 12 December 2012 Leontiy Martyniuk Freedom Nationwide 11 12 December 2012 Ruslan Koshulynskyi Freedom Nationwide 12 12 December 2012 Ihor Kryvetskyi Freedom Nationwide 13 12 December 2012 Yuriy Syrotiuk Freedom Nationwide 14 12 December 2012 Oleh Helevey Freedom Nationwide 15 12 December 2012 Oleh Syrotiuk Freedom Nationwide 16 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Mykhailo Blavatskyi Freedom Nationwide 17 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Myrnyi Freedom Nationwide 18 12 December 2012 Andriy Mishchenko Freedom Nationwide 19 12 December 2012 Ruslan Martsinkiv Freedom Nationwide 20 12 December 2012 Oleh Makhnitskyi Freedom Nationwide 21 12 December 2012 17 March 2014 Valeriy Cherniakov Freedom Nationwide 22 12 December 2012 1 April 2014 Eduard Leonov Freedom Nationwide 23 12 December 2012 Sviatoslav Khanenko Freedom Nationwide 24 12 December 2012 Ruslan Zelyk Freedom Nationwide 25 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Furman Freedom Nationwide 26 11 March 2014 Oleh Bondarchuk Freedom Nationwide 27 11 March 2014 Taras Osaulenko Freedom Nationwide 28 25 March 2014 Markiyan Lopachak Freedom Nationwide 29 25 March 2014 Halyna Chorna Freedom Nationwide 30 9 April 2014 Vitalina Dzoz Party of Regions AR Crimea 1 12 December 2012 Lev Myrymsky Soyuz AR Crimea 2 12 December 2012 Olena Netetska Party of Regions AR Crimea 3 12 December 2012 Oleh Paraskiv Party of Regions AR Crimea 4 12 December 2012 Valentyna Liutikova Party of Regions AR Crimea 5 12 December 2012 Yuliya Lyovochkina Party of Regions AR Crimea 6 12 December 2012 Serhiy Braiko Party of Regions AR Crimea 7 12 December 2012 Borys Deich Party of Regions AR Crimea 8 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Nechayev Party of Regions AR Crimea 9 12 December 2012 Hryhoriy Hruba Party of Regions AR Crimea 10 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Dombrovsky Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 11 12 December 2012 Petro Poroshenko Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 12 12 December 2012 3 June 2014 Mykola Katerynchuk Fatherland Vinnytsia Oblast 13 12 December 2012 Viktor Zherebniuk Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 14 12 December 2012 Mykola Dzhyha Party of Regions Vinnytsia Oblast 15 12 December 2012 Oksana Kaletnyk Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 16 12 December 2012 Hryhoriy Zabolotnyi Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 17 12 December 2012 Hryhoriy Kaletnik Independent Vinnytsia Oblast 18 12 December 2012 Yevhen Melnyk Freedom Volyn Oblast 19 12 December 2012 Serhiy Martyniak Independent Volyn Oblast 20 12 December 2012 Stepan Ivakhiv Independent Volyn Oblast 21 12 December 2012 Ihor Palytsia Independent Volyn Oblast 22 12 December 2012 Ihor Yeremeyev Independent Volyn Oblast 23 12 December 2012 Yakiv Bezbakh Independent Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 24 12 December 2012 Ihor Tsyrkin Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 25 12 December 2012 Ivan Stupak Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 26 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Momot Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 27 12 December 2012 Yevheniy Morozenko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 28 12 December 2012 Viktor Butkivsky Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 29 12 December 2012 Kostiantyn Huzenko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 30 12 December 2012 Kostiantyn Pavlov Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 31 12 December 2012 Yuriy Lyubonenko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 32 12 December 2012 Vyacheslav Zadorozhnyi Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 33 12 December 2012 Serhiy Hlazunov Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 34 12 December 2012 Andriy Shypko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 35 12 December 2012 Artur Martovytsky Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 36 12 December 2012 Dmytro Shpenov Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 37 12 December 2012 Mykola Soloshenko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 38 12 December 2012 Yuriy Samoilenko Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 39 12 December 2012 Oleh Tsaryov Party of Regions Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 40 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Bobkov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 41 12 December 2012 Tetiana Bakhteyeva Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 42 12 December 2012 Valentyn Landyk Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 43 12 December 2012 Mykola Levchenko Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 44 12 December 2012 Yukhym Zvyahilsky Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 45 12 December 2012 Serhiy Klyuev Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 46 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Azarov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 47 12 December 2012 Yuriy Boyarsky Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 48 12 December 2012 Denys Omelyanovych Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 49 12 December 2012 Leonid Baysarov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 50 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Honcharov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 51 12 December 2012 Ihor Shkiria Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 52 12 December 2012 Leonid Lytvynov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 53 12 December 2012 Vladyslav Lukianov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 54 12 December 2012 Valeriy Omelchenko Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 55 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Bort Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 56 12 December 2012 Serhiy Matviyenkov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 57 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Bilyi Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 58 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Vasyliev Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 59 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Ryzhenkov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 60 12 December 2012 Andriy Ponomaryov Party of Regions Donetsk Oblast 61 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Zubko Fatherland Zhytomyr Oblast 62 12 December 2012 Anzhelika Labunska Independent Zhytomyr Oblast 63 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Pekhov Party of Regions Zhytomyr Oblast 64 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Lytvyn People's Party Zhytomyr Oblast 65 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Zhyravsky Party of Regions Zhytomyr Oblast 66 12 December 2012 Viktor Razvadovsky Independent Zhytomyr Oblast 67 12 December 2012 Vasyl Kovach Party of Regions Zakarpattia Oblast 68 12 December 2012 Viktor Baloha United Centre Zakarpattia Oblast 69 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Lanyo Party of Regions Zakarpattia Oblast 70 12 December 2012 Pavlo Baloha United Centre Zakarpattia Oblast 71 12 December 2012 Vasyl Petyovka United Centre Zakarpattia Oblast 72 12 December 2012 Ivan Bushko Party of Regions Zakarpattia Oblast 73 12 December 2012 Yaroslav Sukhyi Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 74 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kaltsev Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 75 12 December 2012 Yevhen Kartashov Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 76 12 December 2012 Vyacheslav Bohuslayev Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 77 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Ponomaryov Independent Zaporizhia Oblast 78 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Bandurov Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 79 12 December 2012 Yevhen Balytsky Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 80 12 December 2012 Artem Pshonka Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 81 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Dudka Party of Regions Zaporizhia Oblast 82 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Sych Freedom Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 83 12 December 2012 28 February 2014 Oleksandr Shevchenko Independent Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 83 17 June 2014 Volodymyr Kupchak Fatherland Ivano- Frankivsk Oblast 84 12 December 2012 Olha Sikora Fatherland Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 85 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Dyriv Fatherland Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 86 12 December 2012 Yuriy Derevianko Independent Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 87 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Doniy Independent Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 88 12 December 2012 Vasyl Hladiy Fatherland Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 89 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Chudnovsky Independent Kyiv Oblast 90 12 December 2012 Ruslan Solvar UDAR Kyiv Oblast 91 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kutsuba Party of Regions Kyiv Oblast 92 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Onyshchenko Party of Regions Kyiv Oblast 93 12 December 2012 Ruslan Badayev Independent Kyiv Oblast 94 15 Januar 2014 Vyacheslav Kutovyi Fatherland Kyiv Oblast 95 12 December 2012 Yaroslav Moskalenko Party of Regions Kyiv Oblast 96 12 December 2012 Pavlo Rizanenko UDAR Kyiv Oblast 97 12 December 2012 Serhiy Mishchenko Independent Kyiv Oblast 98 12 December 2012 Andriy Tabalov Fatherland Kirovohrad Oblast 99 12 December 2012 Stanislav Berezkin Party of Regions Kirovohrad Oblast 100 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Hrushevsky Party of Regions Kirovohrad Oblast 101 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Yedin Party of Regions Kirovohrad Oblast 102 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kuzmenko Party of Regions Kirovohrad Oblast 103 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Struk Independent Luhansk Oblast 104 12 December 2012 Serhiy Horokhov Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 105 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Kunchenko Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 106 12 December 2012 Serhiy Dunayev Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 107 12 December 2012 Valeriy Moshensky Independent Luhansk Oblast 108 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Medyanyk Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 109 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Chub Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 110 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Koval Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 111 12 December 2012 Yuliy Ioffe Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 112 12 December 2012 Viktor Tykhonov Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 113 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Demishkan Party of Regions Luhansk Oblast 114 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Khmil Fatherland Lviv Oblast 115 12 December 2012 Iryna Farion Freedom Lviv Oblast 116 12 December 2012 Ihor Vasiunyk Fatherland Lviv Oblast 117 12 December 2012 Yuriy Mykhalchyshyn Freedom Lviv Oblast 118 12 December 2012 Iryna Sekh Freedom Lviv Oblast 119 12 December 2012 Yaroslav Dubnevych Independent Lviv Oblast 120 12 December 2012 Roman Ilyk Fatherland Lviv Oblast 121 12 December 2012 Vasyl Pazyniak Fatherland Lviv Oblast 122 12 December 2012 Lidiya Koteliak Fatherland Lviv Oblast 123 12 December 2012 Stepan Kurpil Fatherland Lviv Oblast 124 12 December 2012 Andriy Tyahnybok Freedom Lviv Oblast 125 12 December 2012 Oleh Kanivets Fatherland Lviv Oblast 126 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Nakonechny Party of Regions Mykolaiv Oblast 127 12 December 2012 Artem Iliuk Party of Regions Mykolaiv Oblast 128 12 December 2012 Mykola Zhuk Party of Regions Mykolaiv Oblast 129 12 December 2012 Ihor Brychenko Fatherland Mykolaiv Oblast 130 12 December 2012 Yuriy Herzhov Party of Regions Mykolaiv Oblast 131 12 December 2012 Mykola Kruhlov Independent Mykolaiv Oblast 132 15 January 2014 Ihor Markov Independent Odesa Oblast 133 12 December 2012 20 September 2013 Serhiy Hrynevetsky People's Party Odesa Oblast 134 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kivalov Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 135 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Trukhanov Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 136 12 December 2012 Leonid Klimov Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 137 12 December 2012 Ivan Fursin Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 138 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Presman Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 139 12 December 2012 Davyd Zhvania Independent Odesa Oblast 140 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Barvinenko Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 141 12 December 2012 Anton Kisse Independent Odesa Oblast 142 12 December 2012 Yuriy Kruk Party of Regions Odesa Oblast 143 12 December 2012 Serhiy Kaplin UDAR Poltava Oblast 144 12 December 2012 Yuriy Bublyk Freedom Poltava Oblast 145 12 December 2012 Yuriy Shapovalov Independent Poltava Oblast 146 12 December 2012 Oleh Kulinich Independent Poltava Oblast 147 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Pylypenko Independent Poltava Oblast 148 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Leliuk Party of Regions Poltava Oblast 149 12 December 2012 Kostiantyn Zhevaho Independent Poltava Oblast 150 12 December 2012 Taras Kutovyi UDAR Poltava Oblast 151 12 December 2012 Oleh Osukhovsky Freedom Rivne Oblast 152 12 December 2012 Yuriy Vozniuk Fatherland Rivne Oblast 153 12 December 2012 Valentyn Koroliuk Fatherland Rivne Oblast 154 12 December 2012 Mykola Soroka Party of Regions Rivne Oblast 155 12 December 2012 Mykola Kucheruk Fatherland Rivne Oblast 156 12 December 2012 Oleh Medunytsia Fatherland Sumy Oblast 157 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Volkov Independent Sumy Oblast 158 12 December 2012 Andriy Derkach Party of Regions Sumy Oblast 159 12 December 2012 Ihor Molotok Independent Sumy Oblast 160 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Shulha Fatherland Sumy Oblast 161 12 December 2012 Iryna Kupreichyk Fatherland Sumy Oblast 162 12 December 2012 Oleksiy Kaida Freedom Ternopil Oblast 163 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Holovko Freedom Ternopil Oblast 164 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Boiko Fatherland Ternopil Oblast 165 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Apostol Fatherland Ternopil Oblast 166 12 December 2012 Ivan Stoiko Fatherland Ternopil Oblast 167 12 December 2012 Valeriy Pysarenko Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 168 12 December 2012 Iryna Berezhna Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 169 12 December 2012 Dmytro Svyatash Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 170 12 December 2012 Iryna Horina Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 171 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Mysyk Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 172 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Denysenko Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 173 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Feldman Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 174 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Katsuba Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 175 12 December 2012 Dmytro Shentsev Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 176 12 December 2012 Viktor Ostapchuk Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 177 12 December 2012 Dmytro Dobkin Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 178 12 December 2012 Anatoliy Hirshfeld Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 179 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Bilovol Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 180 12 December 2012 Yevheniy Murayev Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 181 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Saldo Party of Regions Kharkiv Oblast 182 12 December 2012 Andriy Putilov UDAR Kherson Oblast 183 12 December 2012 Mykola Dmytruk Party of Regions Kherson Oblast 184 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Opanashchenko Party of Regions Kherson Oblast 185 12 December 2012 Fedir Nehoy Independent Kherson Oblast 186 12 December 2012 Oleh Lukashuk Fatherland Khmelnytskyi Oblast 187 12 December 2012 Serhiy Labaziuk Independent Khmelnytskyi Oblast 188 12 December 2012 Ihor Sabiy Freedom Khmelnytskyi Oblast 189 12 December 2012 Serhiy Buryak Independent Khmelnytskyi Oblast 190 12 December 2012 Viktor Bondar Independent Khmelnytskyi Oblast 191 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Hereha Independent Khmelnytskyi Oblast 192 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Melnychenko Independent Khmelnytskyi Oblast 193 12 December 2012 Mykhailo Poplavsky Independent Cherkasy Oblast 194 15 January 2014 Volodymyr Zubyk Independent Cherkasy Oblast 195 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Bobov Party of Regions Cherkasy Oblast 196 12 December 2012 Leonid Datsenko Fatherland Cherkasy Oblast 197 15 January 2014 Viktor Tymoshenko Independent Cherkasy Oblast 198 12 December 2012 Valentyn Nychyporenko Independent Cherkasy Oblast 199 12 December 2012 Anton Yatsenko Party of Regions Cherkasy Oblast 200 12 December 2012 Mykola Fedoruk Fatherland Chernivtsi Oblast 201 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Fyshchuk Fatherland Chernivtsi Oblast 202 12 December 2012 Hennadiy Fedoriak Party of Regions Chernivtsi Oblast 203 12 December 2012 Artem Semeniuk Party of Regions Chernivtsi Oblast 204 12 December 2012 Valeriy Dubil Fatherland Chernihiv Oblast 205 12 December 2012 Vladyslav Atroshenko Independent Chernihiv Oblast 206 12 December 2012 Ihor Rybakov Independent Chernihiv Oblast 207 12 December 2012 Oleh Lyashko Radical Party Chernihiv Oblast 208 12 December 2012 Ivan Kyrovsky Independent Chernihiv Oblast 209 12 December 2012 Mykola Rudkovsky Independent Chernihiv Oblast 210 12 December 2012 Serhiy Teryokhin Fatherland Kyiv 211 12 December 2012 Vitaliy Yarema Fatherland Kyiv 212 12 December 2012 13 May 2014 Volodymyr Yavorivsky Fatherland Kyiv 213 12 December 2012 Viktor Chumak UDAR Kyiv 214 12 December 2012 Andriy Illyenko Freedom Kyiv 215 12 December 2012 Kseniya Lyapina Fatherland Kyiv 216 12 December 2012 Oleksandr Bryhynets Fatherland Kyiv 217 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Ariev Fatherland Kyiv 218 12 December 2012 Volodymyr Bondarenko Fatherland Kyiv 219 12 December 2012 13 May 2014 Oleksandr Chornovolenko Fatherland Kyiv 220 12 December 2012 Leonid Yemets Fatherland Kyiv 221 12 December 2012 Dmytro Andriyevsky Fatherland Kyiv 222 12 December 2012 Viktor Pylypyshyn Independent Kyiv 223 15 January 2014 Pavlo Lebedyev Party of Regions Sevastopol 224 12 December 2012 22 March 2013 Vadym Novynsky Independent Sevastopol 224 13 September 2013 Vadym Kolesnichenko Party of Regions Sevastopol 225 12 December 2012 15 April 2014 ==References== * 2012-2014
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Ajaccio (, , ; French: ; or ; , locally: ; ) is a French commune, prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud, and head office of the Collectivité territoriale de Corse (capital city of Corsica). It is also the largest settlement on the island. Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille. The original city went into decline in the Middle Ages, but began to prosper again after the Genoese built a citadel in 1492, to the south of the earlier settlement. After the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755, the Genoese continued to hold several citadels, including Ajaccio, until the French took control of the island. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Ajacciens (men) or Ajacciennes (women). The most famous of these is Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Ajaccio in 1769, and whose ancestral home, the Maison Bonaparte, is now a museum. Other dedications to him in the city include Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport. ==Toponymy== Several hypotheses have been advanced as to the etymology of the name Ajaccio (Aiacciu in Corsican, Addiazzo on old documents). Among these, the most prestigious suggests that the city was founded by the Greek legendary hero Ajax and named after him. Other more realistic explanations are, for example, that the name could be related to the Tuscan agghiacciu meaning "sheep pens". Another explanation, supported by Byzantine sources from around the year 600 AD called the city Agiation which suggests a possible Greek origin for the word,Manuscript variants are Agration and Agiagium but the use of a Greek ending does not necessarily indicate anything at all about ethnicity. At this late date geographers used either Greek or Latin forms at will. The word is no more decipherable in Greek than it is in Latin; attempts to connect two or three letters with Indo-European roots amount to speculation. agathè could mean "good luck" or "good mooring" (this was also the root of the name of the city of Agde). ==Geography== ===Location=== Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille. The commune occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio between Gravona and the pointe de la Parata and includes the îles Sanguinaires (Bloody Islands). The harbour lies to the east of the original citadel below a hill overlooking a peninsula which protects the harbour in the south where the Quai de la Citadelle and the Jettée de la Citadelle are. The modern city not only encloses the entire harbour but takes up the better part of the Gulf of Ajaccio and in suburban form extends for some miles up the valley of the river Gravona. The flow from that river is nearly entirely consumed as the city's water supply. Many beaches and coves border its territory and the terrain is particularly rugged in the west where the highest point is . File:Porto Ajacio.JPG|Ajaccio Marina File:Baie_Ajaccio_voilier.jpg|The Bay File:Ajaccio_phare_citadelle.jpg|The lighthouse of the citadel of Ajaccio overlooking the bay File:Ajaccio Sanguinaires 1.jpg|Îles Sanguinaires Port Ajaccio.JPG|The market Ajaccio bay.jpg|A satellite image of the city and surrounding water. ===Urbanism=== thumb|left|300px|Port Although the commune of Ajaccio has a large area (82.03 km2), only a small portion of this is urbanized. Therefore, the urban area of Ajaccio is located in the east of the commune on a narrow coastal strip forming a densely populated arc. The rest of the territory is natural with habitation of little importance and spread thinly. Suburbanization occurs north and east of the main urban area. The original urban core, close to the old marshy plain of Cannes was abandoned in favour of the current city which was built near the Punta della Lechia. It has undergone various improvements, particularly under Napoleon, who originated the two current major structural arteries (the Cours Napoleon oriented north–south and the Cours Grandval oriented east–west). Ajaccio experienced a demographic boom in the 1960s, which explains why 85% of dwellings are post-1949.The Cities of France, by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000 This is reflected in the layout of the city which is marked by very large areas of low-rise buildings and concrete towers, especially on the heights (Les Jardins de l'Empereur) and in the north of the city - e.g. the waterfront, Les Cannes, and Les Salines. A dichotomy appears in the landscape between the old city and the imposing modern buildings. Ajaccio gives the image of a city built on two different levels. ===Climate=== The city has a Mediterranean climate which is Csa in the Köppen climate classification. The average annual sunshine is 2726 hours. There are important local climatic variations, especially with wind exposure and total precipitation, between the city centre, the airport, and the îles Sanguinaires. The annual average rainfall is at the Campo dell'Oro weather station (as per the chart) and at the Parata: the third-driest place in metropolitan France. The heat and dryness of summer are somewhat tempered by the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea except when the sirocco is blowing. In autumn and spring, heavy rain-storm episodes may occur. Winters are mild and snow is rare. Ajaccio is the French city which holds the record for the number of thunderstorms in the reference period 1971–2000 with an average of 39 thunderstorm days per year.MétéoFrance. On 14 September 2009, the city was hit by a tornado with an intensity of F1 on the Fujita scale. There was little damage except torn billboards, flying tiles, overturned cars, and broken windows but no casualties. Weather Data for Ajaccio ===Heraldry=== ==History== thumb|250px|right|Statue of Napoleon in the Place Foch Ex Grand Hôtel Continental (now office of the Collectivité territoriale de Corse)|thumb|250px|right ===Antiquity=== The city was not mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria in the 2nd century AD despite the presence of a place called Ourkinion in the Cinarca area. It is likely that the city of Ajaccio had its first development at this time. The 2nd century was a period of prosperity in the Mediterranean basin (the Pax Romana) and there was a need for a proper port at the head of the several valleys that lead to the Gulf able to accommodate large ships. Some important underwater archaeological discoveries recently made of Roman ships tend to confirm this. Further excavations conducted recently led to the discovery of important early Christian remains likely to significantly a reevaluation upwards of the size of Ajaccio city in Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The city was in any case already significant enough to be the seat of a diocese, mentioned by Pope Gregory the Great in 591. The city was then further north than the location chosen later by the Genoese - in the location of the existing quarters of Castel Vecchio and Sainte-Lucie. The earliest certain written record of a settlement at Ajaccio with a name ancestral to its name was the exhortation in Epistle 77 written in 601AD by Gregory the great to the Defensor Boniface, one of two known rectors of the early Corsican church, to tell him not to leave Aléria and Adjacium without bishops. There is no earlier use of the term and Adjacium is not an attested Latin word, which probably means that it is a Latinization of a word in some other language. The Ravenna Cosmography of about 700 AD cites Agiation, . Downloadable Google Books. which sometimes is taken as evidence of a prior Greek city, as -ion appears to be a Greek ending. There is, however, no evidence at all of a Greek presence on the west coast and the Ionians at Aléria on the east coast had been expelled by the Etruscans long before Roman domination. Ptolemy, who must come the closest to representing indigenous names, lists the Lochra River just south of a feature he calls the "sandy shore" on the southwest coast. If the shore is the Campo dell'Oro (Place of Gold) the Lochra would seem to be the combined mouth of the Gravona and Prunelli Rivers, neither one of which sounds like Lochra. North of there was a Roman city, Ourchinion. The western coastline was so distorted, however, that it is impossible to say where Adjacium was; certainly, he would have known its name and location if he had had any first- hand knowledge of the island and if in fact it was there. Ptolemy's Ourchinion is further north than Ajaccio and does not have the same name. It could be Sagone. . The lack of correspondence between Ptolemaic and historical names known to be ancient has no defense except in the case of the two Roman colonies, Aleria and Mariana. In any case the population of the region must belong to Ptolemy's Tarabeni or Titiani people, neither of which are ever heard about again. ===Archaeological evidence=== The population of the city throughout the centuries maintained an oral tradition that it had originally been Roman. Travellers of the 19th century could point to the Hill of San Giovanni on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio, which still had a cathedral said to have been the 6th-century seat of the Bishop of Ajaccio. The Castello Vecchio ("old castle"), a ruined citadel, was believed to be Roman but turned out to have Gothic features. The hill was planted with vines. The farmers kept turning up artifacts and terracotta funerary urns that seemed to be Roman. In the 20th century, the hill was covered over with buildings and became a part of downtown Ajaccio. In 2005 construction plans for a lot on the hill offered the opportunity to the Institut national de recherches archéologiques preventatives (Inrap) to excavate. They found the baptistry of a 6th-century cathedral and large amounts of pottery dated to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; in other words, an early Christian town. A cemetery had been placed over the old church. In it was a single Roman grave covered over with roof tiles bearing short indecipherable inscriptions. The finds of the previous century had included Roman coins. This is the only evidence so far of a Roman city continuous with the early Christian one. ===Medieval Genoese period=== It has been established that after the 8th century the city, like most other Corsican coastal communities, strongly declined and disappeared almost completely. Nevertheless, a castle and a cathedral were still in place in 1492 which last was not demolished until 1748. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Genoese were eager to assert their dominance in the south of the island and decided to rebuild the city of Ajaccio. Several sites were considered: the Pointe de la Parata (not chosen because it was too exposed to the wind), the ancient city (finally considered unsafe because of the proximity of the salt ponds), and finally the Punta della Lechia which was finally selected. Work began on the town on 21 April 1492 south of the Christian village by the Bank of Saint George at Genoa, who sent Cristoforo of Gandini, an architect, to build it. He began with a castle on Capo di Bolo, around which he constructed residences for several hundred people. thumb|right|250px|Genoese Tower. The new city was essentially a colony of Genoa. The Corsicans were restricted from the city for some years. Nevertheless, the town grew rapidly and became the administrative capital of the province of Au Delà Des Monts (more or less the current Corse-du-Sud). Bastia remained the capital of the entire island. Although at first populated exclusively by the Genoese, the city slowly opened to the Corsicans while the Ajaccians, almost to the French conquest, were legally citizens of the Republic of Genoa and were happy to distinguish themselves from the insular paesani who lived mainly in Borgu, a suburb outside the city walls (the current rue Fesch was the main street). ===Attachment to France=== Ajaccio was occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, but it again fell to the Genoese after the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year. Subsequently, the Republic of Genoa was strong enough to keep Corsica until 1755, the year Pasquale Paoli proclaimed the Corsican Republic. Paoli took most of the island for the republic, but he was unable to force Genoese troops out of the citadels of Saint-Florent, Calvi, Ajaccio, Bastia and Algajola. Leaving them there, he went on to build the nation, while the Republic of Genoa was left to ponder prospects and solutions. Their ultimate solution was to sell Corsica to France in 1768 and French troops of the Ancien Régime replaced Genoese ones in the citadels, including Ajaccio's. Corsica was formally annexed to France in 1780. ===Napoleon=== Napoleon Bonaparte (born as Napoleone di Buonaparte) was born at Ajaccio in the same year as the Battle of Ponte Novu, 1769. The Buonaparte family at the time had a modest four-story home in town (now a museum known as Maison Bonaparte) and a rarely used country home in the hills north of the city (now site of the Arboretum des Milelli). The father of the family, attorney Carlo di Buonaparte, was secretary to Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican Republic. thumb|left|Ajaccio, Place De Gaulle - monument Napoléon After the defeat of Paoli, the Comte de Marbeuf began to meet with some leading Corsicans to outline the shape of the future and enlist their assistance. The Comte was among a delegation from Ajaccio in 1769, offered his loyalty and was appointed assessor. Marbeuf also offered Carlo di Buonaparte an appointment for one of his sons to the Military College of Brienne, but Napoleone did not speak French which was a requirement and he had to be at least ten years of age. There is a dispute concerning Napoleon's age because of this requirement; the emperor is known to have altered the civic records at Ajaccio concerning himself and it is possible that he was born in Corte in 1768 when his father was there on business. In any case Napoleon was sent to a school in Autun to learn basic French, then after a year went to Brienne from 1779 to 1784. At Brienne Napoleon concentrated on studies. He wrote a boyish history of Corsica. He did not share his father's views but held Pasquale Paoli in high esteem and was at heart a Corsican nationalist. The top students were encouraged to go into the artillery. After graduation and a brief sojourn at the Military School of Paris Napoleon applied for a second-lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of La Fère at Valence and after a time was given the position. Meanwhile, his father died and his mother was cast into poverty in Corsica, still having four children to support. Her only income was Napoleon's meager salary. The regiment was in Auxonne when the revolution broke out in the summer of 1789. Napoleon returned on leave to Ajaccio in October, became a Jacobin and began to work for the revolution. The National Assembly in Paris united Corsica to France and pardoned its exiles. Paoli returned in 1790 after 21 years and kissed the soil on which he stood. He and Napoleon met and toured the battlefield of Paoli's defeat. A national assembly at Orezza created the department of Corsica and Paoli was subsequently elected president. He commanded the national guard raised by Napoleon. After a brief return to his regiment Napoleon was promoted to First Lieutenant and came home again on leave in 1791. thumbnail|View of the citadel of Ajaccio All officers were recalled from leave in 1792, intervention threatened and war with Austria (Marie-Antoinette's homeland) began. Napoleon returned to Paris for review, was exonerated, then promoted to Captain and given leave to escort his sister, a schoolgirl, back to Corsica at state expense. His family was prospering; his estate increased. Napoleon became a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Corsican National Guard. Paoli sent him off on an expedition to Sardinia, ordered by France, under Paolis's nephew but the nephew had secret orders from Paoli to make sure the expedition failed. Paoli was now a conservative, opposing the execution of the king and supporting an alliance with Great Britain. Returning from Sardinia Napoleon with his family and all his supporters were instrumental in getting Paoli denounced at the National Convention in Paris in 1793. Napoleon earned the hatred of the Paolists by pretending to support Paoli and then turning against him (payment, one supposes, for Sardinia). Paoli was convicted in absentia, a warrant was issued for his arrest (which could not be served) and Napoleon was dispatched to Corsica as Inspector General of Artillery to take the citadel of Ajaccio from the royalists who had held it since 1789. The Paolists combining with the royalists defeated the French in two pitched battles and Napoleon and his family went on the run, hiding by day, while the Paolists burned their estate. Napoleon and his mother, Laetitia, were taken out by ship in June 1793, by friends while two of the girls found refuge with other friends. They landed in Toulon with only Napoleon's pay for their support. The Bonapartes moved to Marseille but in August Toulon offered itself to the British and received the protection of a fleet under Admiral Hood. The Siege of Toulon began in September under revolutionary officers mainly untrained in the art of war. Napoleon happened to present socially one evening and during a casual conversation over a misplaced 24-pounder explained the value of artillery. Taken seriously he was allowed to bring up over 100 guns from coastal emplacements but his plan for the taking of Toulon was set aside as one incompetent officer superseded another. By December they decided to try his plan and made him a Colonel. Placing the guns at close range he used them to keep the British fleet away while he battered down the walls of Toulon. As soon as the Committee of Public Safety heard of the victory Napoleon became a Brigadier General, the start of his meteoric rise to power. The Bonapartes were back in Ajaccio in 1797 under the protection of General Napoleon. Soon after Napoleon became First Consul and then emperor, using his office to spread revolution throughout Europe. In 1811 he made Ajaccio the capital of the new Department of Corsica. Despite his subsequent defeat by the Prussians, Russians, and British, his exile and his death, no victorious power reversed that decision or tried to remove Corsica from France. Among the natives, though Corsican nationalism is strong, and feeling often runs high in favour of a union with Italy; loyalty to France, however, as evidenced by elections, remains stronger. ===19th and 20th centuries=== In the 19th century Ajaccio became a winter resort of the high society of the time, especially for the English, in the same way as Monaco, Cannes, and Nice. An Anglican Church was even built. The first prison in France for children was built in Ajaccio in 1855: the Horticultural colony of Saint Anthony. It was a correctional colony for juvenile delinquents (from 8 to 20 years old), established under Article 10 of the Act of 5 August 1850. Nearly 1,200 children from all over France stayed there until 1866, when it was closed. Sixty percent of them perished, the victims of poor sanitation and malaria which infested the unhealthy areas that they were responsible to clean. ===Contemporary history=== thumb|Ajaccio: the first French town liberated On 9 September 1943, the people of Ajaccio rose up against the Nazi occupiers and became the first French town to be liberated from the domination of the Germans. General Charles de Gaulle went to Ajaccio on 8 October 1943 and said: "We owe it to the field of battle the lesson of the page of history that was written in French Corsica. Corsica to her fortune and honour is the first morsel of France to be liberated; which was done intentionally and willingly, in the light of its liberation, this demonstrates that these are the intentions and the will of the whole nation." Throughout this period, no Jew was executed or deported from Corsica through the protection afforded by its people and its government. This event now allows Corsica to aspire to the title "Righteous Among the Nations", as no French region except for the commune Le Chambon-sur-Lignon in Haute-Loire carries this title. Their case is being investigated . Since the middle of the 20th century, Ajaccio has seen significant development. The city has seen population growth and considerable urban sprawl. Today Ajaccio is the capital of Corsica and the main town of the island and seeks to establish itself as a true regional centre."French Cities" by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000. Ajaccio was a hotspot for violence during the violent unrest in March 2022. ==Economy== thumb|250px|right|View of the old city of Ajaccio thumb|right|250px|The Palace of congress of Ajaccio The city is, with Bastia, the economic, commercial and administrative centre of Corsica. Its urban area of nearly 90,000 inhabitants is spread over a large part of the Corse-du-Sud, on either side of the Gulf of Ajaccio and up the valley of the Gravona. Its business is primarily oriented towards the services sector. The services sector is by far the main source of employment in the city. Ajaccio is an administrative centre comprising communal, intercommunal, departmental, regional, and prefectural services. It is also a shopping centre with the commercial streets of the city centre and the areas of peripheral activities such as that of Mezzavia (hypermarket Géant Casino) and along the ring road (hypermarket Carrefour and E. Leclerc). Tourism is one of the most vital aspects of the economy, split between the seaside tourism of summer, cultural tourism, and fishing. A number of hotels, varying from one star to five star, are present across the commune. Ajaccio is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Ajaccio and Corsica South. It manages the ports of Ajaccio, Bonifacio, Porto-Vecchio, Propriano and the Tino Rossi marina. It also manages Ajaccio airportCCI of Ajaccio: Airport and Figari airport as well as the convention centre and the Centre of Ricanto. Secondary industry is underdeveloped, apart from the aeronautical company Corsica Aerospace Composites CCA, the largest company on the island with 135 employees at two sites. The storage sites of GDF Suez (formerly Gaz de France) and Antargaz in the district of Vazzio are classified as high risk. ===Energy=== The Centrale EDF du Vazzio, a heavy oil power station, provides the south of the island with electricity. The Gravona Canal delivers water for consumption by the city. ==Transport== ===Road access=== thumb|Rue du Cardinal Fesch By road, the city is accessible from National Route NR194 from Bastia and NR193 via NR196 from Bonifacio. These two main axes, as well as the roads leading to suburban villages, connect Ajaccio from the north - the site of Ajaccio forming a dead end blocked by the sea to the south. Only the Cours Napoleon and the Boulevard du Roi Jerome cross the city. Along with the high urban density, this explains the major traffic and parking problems especially during peak hours and during the summer tourist season. A bypass through several neighbourhoods is nearing completion. ===Communal bus services=== The Muvistrada provide services on 21 urban routes, one "city" route for local links and 20 suburban lines. The frequency varies according to demand with intervals of 30 minutes for the most important routes: A park and ride with 300 spaces was built at Mezzana in the neighbouring commune of Sarrola-Carcopino in order to promote intermodality between cars and public transport.Communauté d'Agglomération of Pays Ajaccien It was inaugurated on 12 July 2010.www.ca-ajaccien.fr and ===Airport=== thumb|Ajaccio Airport The city is served by an Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport which is the headquarters of Air Corsica, a Corsican airline. It connects Ajaccio to a number of cities in mainland France (including Paris, Marseille, Nice, and Brive) and to places in Europe to serve the tourist industry. The airline CCM Airlines also has its head office on the grounds of the Airport."Relations Clientèle ." CCM Airlines. Retrieved 12 February 2010. ===Port=== right|thumb|250px|View of the Port The port of Ajaccio is connected to the French mainland on an almost daily basis (Marseille, Toulon, Nice). There are also occasional links to the Italian mainland (Livorno) and to Sardinia, as well as a seasonal service serving Calvi and Propriano. The two major shipping companies providing these links are Corsica Linea and Corsica Ferries. thumb|left|200px|Ferries Ajaccio has also become a stopover for cruises with a total of 418,086 passengers in 2007by far the largest in Corsica and the second-largest in France (after Marseille, but ahead of Nice/Villefranche-sur-Mer and Cannes). The goal is for Ajaccio to eventually become the premier French port for cruises as well as being a main departure point. thumb|right|The Fishing Port The Port function of the city is also served by the commercial, pleasure craft, and artisanal fisheries (3 ports). ===Railways=== The railway station in Ajaccio belongs to Chemins de fer de la Corse and is located near the port at the Square Pierre Griffi. It connects Ajaccio to Corte, Bastia (3 h 25 min) and Calvi. There are two optional stops: *Salines Halt north of the city in the district of the same name *Campo dell'Oro Halt near the airport In addition, the municipality has introduced an additional commuter service between Mezzana station in the suburbs and Ajaccio station located in the centre. ==Administration== thumb|The Préfecture Ajaccio was successively: *Capital of the district of the department of Corsica in 1790 to 1793 *Capital of the department of Liamone from 1793 to 1811 *Capital of the department of Corsica from 1811 to 1975 *Capital of the region and the collectivité territoriale de Corse since 1970 and the department of Corse-du- Sud since 1976 ===Policy=== Ajaccio remained (with some interruptions) an electoral stronghold of the Bonapartist (CCB) party until the municipal elections of 2001. The outgoing municipality was then beaten by a left-wing coalition led by Simon Renucci which gathered Social Democrats, Communists, and Charles Napoleon - the pretender to the imperial throne. List of Successive Mayors of Ajaccio Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 From To Name Party Position 1790 1790 Jean Jèrome Levie 1791 1796 Vincenté Guitera 1796 1796 Lodovico Ornano 1798 1798 François Marie Levie 1798 1798 Thomas Tavera 1798 1798 Antoine Tagliafico 1799 1800 J. B. Pozzo di Borgo 1800 1801 Jean Jèrome Levie 1801 1805 Pierre Stephanopoli 1805 1815 François Levie 1815 1815 Jean Noël Martinenghi 1815 1816 François Levie 1816 1817 Georges Stephanopoli 1817 1819 Adorno de Baciocchi 1819 1822 J. B. Colonna de Bozzi 1822 1826 J. B. Spotorno 1826 1832 Constantin Stephanopoli 1832 1837 Cunéo d'Ornano 1837 1848 Paul François Peraldi 1848 1848 Bernardin Poli 1848 1855 Laurent Zevaco 1855 1860 Antoine Decosmi 1860 1867 François Xavier Braccini 1867 1870 Louis Nyer 1870 1870 Joseph Fil 1870 1871 Nicolas Peraldi 1871 1871 Joseph Fil 1871 1873 Nicolas Peraldi 1873 1876 F. X. Forcioli Conti 1876 1877 Nicolas Peraldi 1877 1877 Joseph Fil 1877 1884 Nicolas Peraldi Republicain 1884 1893 Joseph Pugliesi CCBComité central bonapartiste 1893 1896 Pierre Petreto CCB 1896 1900 Joseph Pugliesi CCB 1900 1904 Pierre Bodoy CCB 1904 1919 Dominique Pugliesi Conti CCB 1919 1925 Jérôme Peri Radical 1925 1931 Dominique Paoli CCB 1931 1931 Joseph Marie François Spoturno 1931 1934 François Coty CCB 1934 1935 Hyacinthe Campiglia CCB Mayors from 1935 Mayors from 1935 Mayors from 1935 Mayors from 1935 Mayors from 1935 From To Name Party Position 1935 1943 Dominique Paoli CCB 1943 1945 Eugène Macchini CCB 1945 1947 Arthur Giovoni PCF 1947 1949 Nicéphore Stephanopoli de Commene CCB 1949 1953 Antoine Serafini CCB 1953 1959 François Maglioli CCB 1959 1964 Antoine Serafini CCB 1964 1975 Pascal Rossini CCB 1975 1994 Charles Napoléon Ornano CCB 1994 2001 Marc Marcangeli CCB Doctor 2001 2014 Simon Renucci CSDCorse social-democrate Doctor 2014 2014 Laurent Marcangeli 2014 2015 vacant 2015 2022 Laurent Marcangeli 2022 2026 Stéphane Sbraggia ===Quarters=== 10 Quarters are recognized by the municipality. *Cannes-Binda: an area north of the city, consisting of Housing estates, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Salines, subject to a policy of urban renewal *Centre Ville: The tourist heart of the city consisting of shopping streets and major thoroughfares *Casone: a bourgeois neighbourhood with an affluent population located in the former winter resort on the heights of the southern city. *Les Jardins de l'Empereur: a neighbourhood classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) on the heights of the city, consisting of housing estates overlooking the city *Mezzavia: northern quarter of the town with several subdivisions and areas of business and economic activities *Octroi-Sainte Lucie: constitutes the northern part of the city centre near the port and the railway station *Pietralba: quarter northeast of the city, classified ZUS *Résidence des Îles: quarter to the south of the city near the tourist route of Sanguinaires in a quality environment *Saint-Jean: collection of buildings for a population with low incomes, close to the historic urban core of the city, classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) *Saline: quarter north of the city, consisting of large apartment blocks, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Cannes, subject to a policy of urban renewal *Vazzio: quarter northeast of the city, near the airport, the EDF Central, and the Francois Coty stadium. ===Intercommunality=== Since December 2001, Ajaccio has been part of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien with nine other communes: Afa, Alata, Appietto, Cuttoli-Corticchiato, Peri, Sarrola-Carcopino, Tavaco, Valle- di-Mezzana, and Villanova. ===Origins=== The geopolitical arrangements of the commune are slightly different from those typical of Corsica and France. Usually an arrondissement includes cantons and a canton includes one to several communes including the chef-lieu, "chief place", from which the canton takes its name. The city of Ajaccio is one commune, but it contains four cantons, Cantons 1–4, and a fraction of Canton 5. The latter contains three other communes: Bastelicaccia, Alata and Villanova, making a total of four communes for the five cantons of Ajaccio. Each canton contains a certain number of quartiers, "quarters". Cantons 1, 2, 3, 4 are located along the Gulf of Ajaccio from west to east, while 5 is a little further up the valleys of the Gravona and the Prunelli Rivers. These political divisions subdivide the population of Ajaccio into units that can be more democratically served but they do not give a true picture of the size of Ajaccio. In general language, "greater Ajaccio" includes about 100,000 people with all the medical, educational, utility and transportational facilities of a big city. Up until World War II it was still possible to regard the city as being a settlement of narrow streets localized to a part of the harbour or the Gulf of Ajaccio: such bucolic descriptions do not fit the city of today, and travelogues intended for mountain or coastal recreational areas do not generally apply to Corsica's few big cities. The arrondissement contains other cantons that extend generally up the two rivers into central Corsica. ==Twin towns – sister cities== Ajaccio is twinned with: * La Maddalena, Italy (1991) ==Population== The population of Ajaccio increased sharply after 1960 due to migration from rural areas and the coming of "Pied-Noirs" (French Algerians), immigrants from the Maghreb and French from mainland France. ==Health== Ajaccio has three hospital sites: *the Misericordia Hospital, built in 1950, is located on the heights of the city centre. This is the main medical facility in the region. *The Annex Eugenie. *the Psychiatric Hospital of Castelluccio is west of the city centre and is also home of cancer services and long-stay patients.Castelluccio - Public Establishment of Health ==Education== Ajaccio is the headquarters of the Academy of Corsica. The city of Ajaccio has: *18 nursery schools (16 public and 2 private) *17 primary schools (15 public and 2 private) *6 colleges **5 Public Schools: *** Collège Arthur-Giovoni *** Collège des Padule *** Collège Laetitia Bonaparte *** Collège Fesch *** EREA ** 1 Private School: Institution Saint Paul * 3 sixth-form colleges/senior high schools ** 2 public schools: *** Lycée Laetitia Bonaparte *** Lycée Fesch ** 1 private: Institution Saint Paul * 2 LEP (vocational high schools) ** Lycée Finosello ** Lycée Jules Antonini Higher education is undeveloped except for a few BTS and IFSI, the University of Corsica Pascal Paoli is located in Corte. A research facility of INRA is also located on Ajaccio.French Cities" by Fabriès-Verfaillie et Stragiotti, 2000 ==Culture and heritage== Ajaccio has a varied tourism potential, with both a cultural framework in the centre of the city and a natural heritage around the coves and beaches of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Natura 2000 reserve of the îles Sanguinaires. ===Civil heritage=== thumb|The Bonaparte House The commune has many buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments: *The Monument to General Abbatucci in the Place Abbatucci (1854)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Monument to Napoleon I in the Place d'Austerlitz (20th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Baciocchi Family Mansion at 9 Rue Bonaparte (18th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Fesch Palace at 48 bis Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1827)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Monument to the First Consul in the Place Foch (1850)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Peraldi House at 18 Rue Forcioli-Conti (1820)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Grand Hotel at Cours Grandval (1869)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The old Château Conti at Cours Grandval (19th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Monument to Napoleon and his brothers in the Place du General de Gaulle (1864)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Monument to Cardinal Fesch at the Cour du Musée Fesch (1856)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The old Alban Factory at 89 Cours Napoleon (1913)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Milelli House in the Saint-Antoine Quarter (17th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Hotel Palace-Cyrnos (1880),Ministry of Culture, Mérimée an old Luxury Hotel from the 19th century and a famous palace of the old days in the quarter "for foreigners" now converted into housing. *The Lantivy Palace (1837),Ministry of Culture, Mérimée an Italian palace now headquarters of the prefecture of Corsica. *The Hotel de Ville (1836)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *Napoleon Bonaparte's House (17th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée now a national museum: the Maison Bonaparte *The old Lazaretto of Aspretto (1843)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Citadel (1554)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Sawmill at Les Salines (1944)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Lighthouse on the Sanguinaires Islands (1844)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée ;Other sites of interest *The Monument in the Place du Casone *The old town and the Borgu are typically Mediterranean with their narrow streets and picturesque buildings *The Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town. *The Musée Fesch houses a large collection of Italian Renaissance paintings *The Bandera Museum, a History Museum of Mediterranean Corsica *The Municipal library, in the north wing of Musée Fesch, has early printed books from as early as the 14th century *The area known as the Foreigners' Quarter has a number of old palaces, villas, and buildings once built for the wintering British in the Belle Époque such as the Anglican Church and the Grand Hotel Continental. Some of the buildings are in bad condition and very degraded, others were destroyed for the construction of modern buildings. *The Genoese towers: Torra di Capu di Fenu, Torra di a Parata, and Torra di Castelluchju in the Îles Sanguinaires archipelago *The Square Pierre Griffi (in front of the railway station), hero of the Corsican Resistance, one of the members of the Pearl Harbour secret mission,See "Mission secrète Pearl Harbour" in the French Wikipedia the first operation launched in occupied Corsica to coordinate resistance. *The Statue of Commandant Jean L'Herminier (in front of the ferry terminal), commander of the French submarine Casabianca (1935) which actively participated in the struggle for the liberation of Corsica in September 1943. ==Religious heritage== The town is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763. The commune has several religious buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments: *The former Episcopal Palace at 24 Rue Bonaparte (1622)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Oratory of Saint Roch at Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1599)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Chapel of Saint Erasme or Sant'Erasmu at 22 Rue Forcioli-Conti (17th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Oratory of Saint John the Baptist at Rue du Roi-de-Dome (1565)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta at Rue Saint-Charles (1582)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée from the Renaissance which depended on the diocese of Ajaccio and where Napoleon was baptized with its organ from Cavaillé-Coll.Ajaccio Cathedral, Organ of the Cathedral of Cavaillé-Coll (1849) - Cicchero (1997) *The Chapel of the Greeks on the Route des Sanguiunaires (1619)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Early Christian Baptistery of Saint John (6th century)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée *The Imperial Chapel (1857)Ministry of Culture, Mérimée houses the graves of Napoleon's parents and his brothers and sisters. thumb|Church of Saint-Roch, on the Cours Napoléon ;Other religious sites of interest *The Church of Saint Roch, Neoclassical architecture by Ajaccien project architect Barthélémy Maglioli (1885) ==Environmental heritage== *Sanguinaires Archipelago: **The Route des Sanguinaires runs along the southern coast of the city after the Saint François Beach. It is lined with villas and coves and beaches. Along the road is the Ajaccio cemetery with the grave of Corsican singer Tino Rossi. **At the mouth of the Route des Sanguinaires is the Pointe de la Parata near the archipelago and the lighthouse. File:Ajaccio Plage.jpg|The Saint François Beach File:Ajaccio Golfe1JPG.jpg|Gulf of Ajaccio File:PSajaccio8440tonemapped.jpg|The iles sanguinaires and views of la Parata from the sentier des crêtes File:PSajaccio8432tonemapped.jpg|Along the sentier des crêtes: Skull Rock *The Sentier des Crêtes (Crest Trail) starts from the city centre and is an easy hike offering splendid views of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The shores of the Gulf are dotted with a multitude of small coves and beaches ideal for swimming and scuba diving. *Many small paths traversing the maquis (high ground covered in thick vegetation) in the commune from which the Maquis resistance network was named. ==Interests== *The city has two marinas and a casino. *The main activities are concentrated in the city centre on the Route des Sanguinaires (cinemas, bars, clubs etc.). ==In popular culture== Films made in Ajaccio include: *Napoléon, one of the last successful French silent films by Abel Gance in 1927. *Les Radonneurs, a French film directed by Philippe Harel in 1997. *Les Sanguinaires, a film by Laurent Cantet in 1998. *The Amazing Race, an American TV series by Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster in 2001 (season 6 episode 9). *L'Enquête Corse, directed by Alain Berberian in 2004. *Trois petites filles, a French film directed by Jean-Loup Hubert in 2004. *Joueuse (Queen to Play), a French film directed by Caroline Bottaro in 2009. ==Sports== There are various sports facilities developed throughout the city. *AC Ajaccio is a French Ligue 1 football club which plays at the Stade François Coty (13,500 seats) in the north-east of the city *Gazélec Football Club Ajaccio, in Championnat National, football club which plays at the Stade Ange Casanova located at Mezzavia, 2,900 seats. *GFCO Ajaccio handball *GFCO Ajaccio Volleyball *GFCO Ajaccio Basketball *Vignetta Racecourse ==Notable people== *Carlo Buonaparte (1746–1785), politician, father of Napoleon Bonaparte *Felice Pasquale Baciocchi (1762–1841), general of the armies of the Revolution and the Empire, brother in law of the Emperor Napoleon 1st, Grand Duke of Tuscany *Joseph Fesch (1763–1839), cardinal *Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844), French statesman, King of Naples, King of Spain *Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of France *Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840), Prince of Canino and Musignano, Interior Minister of France *Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand Duchess of Tuscany *Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland *Pauline Bonaparte (1780-1825), Duchess of Guastalla, Princess Consort of Sulmona and Rossano *Caroline Bonaparte (1782–1839), Queen Consort of Naples and Sicily *Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia *François Coty (1874–1934), perfumer, businessman, newspaper publisher and politician *Irène Bordoni (1895–1953), singer and actress *Tino Rossi (1907–1983), singer and actor *Michel Giacometti (1929–1990), ethnomusicologist *François Duprat (1941–1978), writer *Michel Ferracci-Porri (born 1949), writer *Jean-Michel Cavalli (born 1959), football player and manager *Alizée (born 1984), singer ==Military== Units that were stationed in Ajaccio: *163rd Infantry Regiment, 1906 *173rd Infantry Regiment *The Aspretto naval airbase for seaplanes 1938–1993 ==Gallery== File:Ajaccio.jpg|1914 city map File:Ajaccio Bon Sta.jpg|Statue of Napoleon in Roman garb File:Ajaccio MN1JPG.jpg|Napoleon's birth house ==See also== *Diocese of Ajaccio *Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department ==References== ==External links== *Official website *The Communauté d'Agglomération du Pays Ajaccien (CAPA) website *Tourism Office of Ajaccio website Category:Communes of Corse-du-Sud Category:Prefectures in France
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A plotting board was a mechanical device used by the U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps as part of their fire control system to track the observed course of a target (typically a moving ship), project its future position, and derive the uncorrected data on azimuth (or direction) and range needed to direct the fire of the guns of a battery to hit that target. Plotting boards of this sort were first employed by the Coast Artillery around 1905, and were the primary means of calculating firing data until WW2. Towards the end of WW2 these boards were largely replaced by radar and electro-mechanical gun data computers, and were relegated to a back-up role. Although several different types of plotting boards were used by the Coast Artillery over the years, the example described here is the Whistler-Hearn Plotting Board, Model of 1904 which was widely employed by the Coast Artillery between about 1905 and 1925. This description is primarily derived from two manuals of the period, each of which leaves certain aspects of the board's design and use unexplained."Training Manual No. 1669: Description of the Whistler-Hearn Plotting Board (Model of 1904), Mortar Plotting Board (Model of 1906 and Model of 1906 MI), and Submarine Plotting Board (Model of 1906) and Instructions for Assembling, Adjusting, Caring the, Etc.," Ordnance Department, U.S. Army, Government Printing Office, Washington, April 24, 1907, Revised December 13, 1909. A 1940 manual also describes the Whistler-Hearn board.FM 4-15, Seacoast Artillery fire control and position finding, p. 84 ff. ==Overview== The Whistler-Hearn plotting board (see Plate XXV at right, top) was a semicircular wooden table about 7.5 feet in diameter with a mechanism on top that could be configured to represent the geography of the harbor area in which it was used, including the locations of the base end stations that observed targets for the gun battery it controlled and the location of the gun(s) of that battery. The guns were located with reference to their directing point, the point for which the firing data were calculated. Making the firing data relative to the position(s) of the gun(s) was called the relocation of these data. Relocation was part of the analog function of the plotting board and was enabled by adjustments to the gun arm center of the board (see plate and explanation below). thumb|alt=Photo of Plotting Board Table Top|Photo of plotting board table topHines & Ward, Plate XXV thumb|left|Relation between plotting board and the actual geography of the harbor The mechanism of radial arms and adjustable slides, arcs, and gears converted observations that had been telephoned in from the base end stations into firing data for the guns. thumb|Plotting room, with Whistler-Hearn board The plotting board for a given gun battery was located in the plotting room for that battery (shown at right, bottom), a space often attached to an observation post or protected within a reinforced concrete bunker or casemate. It was served by a large crew (often more than a dozen soldiers) who were part of the Range Section of the battery personnel. To locate a target, plotting board operators used two radial arms (called the primary and auxiliary arms), and "locked-in" the ends of these arms along on the notched azimuth scale that ran around the circumference of the board at the azimuths of the sightings that were telephoned in to them by the two base end stations. These locked arms and the baseline arm (along the base of the arc) then formed a triangle whose vertices were the two observation stations and the target. This located the target on the board, and its position was then marked by punching a hole in the paper placed over the plotting board. Next, another radial arm, called the gun arm, was swung over the plotted position of the target, and the resulting range and azimuth for firing were read off the gun arm and an azimuth scale on the gun arm center. These data were corrected or adjusted for some other variables, and telephoned to the gun(s). The figure at left shows the actual relationship between the distant target (at top), the two base end stations (at either end of the baseline), and the directing point of the battery's guns, as reflected onto the plotting board. The triangle formed by the B1 (primary) arm, the B2 (secondary) arm and the base line arm is the small triangle at the base of the plotting board, and the gun arm is shown swung over the intersection of the other two arms in order to read the range and azimuth to the target. Another helpful diagram is shown on the base end station page—the cutaway diagram of a battery's plotting room (with its plotting board), shown next to the two base end stations, and behind the directing point of the battery, between its two guns. ==Customizing the plotting board to its site== Before it was used, a Whistler-Hearn board had to be set up and customized to the geography of the area at which it was to be used and for the location of the guns in the battery it was to direct. First, the primary block (representing the primary base end station) was slid onto the bronze base-line arm (that extended all the way across the bottom diameter of the table) and secured at the exact center of that arm. Then, the secondary block (representing the secondary base end station) was slid onto the left or right end of the base-line arm (depending on the layout of the site) and set at a distance from the primary block that was equal to the (scaled) length of the base line at that site. Both the primary and the secondary block had a pintle, or pin, attached to it which represented (on the board) the surveyed position of the observing instrument in the primary or secondary base end station. The secondary arm was installed on the pintle of the secondary block. On the pintle of the primary block were installed the primary arm, the auxiliary arm, and the gun arm, as well as the complex gun arm center mechanism that was used to adjust the board for the location of the guns' directing point, to read the azimuth to the target, to adjust the firing data, and to tally the motion of the target between successive plotted positions. Plate XXVI (below, at right) shows a close-up of the gun arm center mechanism. The arc of the board was notched at one-degree intervals. To identify these notches with actual degrees of azimuth for a particular site, a zinc strip, with numbers of degrees of azimuth inscribed on it, was slipped into a slot on the surface of the board, towards its outer edge. The azimuth indicated by left edge of the base line arm was arbitrarily determined to be whatever azimuth fit the site, and adjusting screws with a vernier scale allowed for up to 0.5 degrees of "tweaking" of the base line arm's orientation. Next, two index boxes were slid onto the notched circumference edge of the board and the ends of the primary and auxiliary arms were inserted into these boxes. These boxes could be locked in position at whole-degree intervals (their teeth engaged the azimuth notches around the board), and each index box had a geared dial on its surface (with 100 teeth) that could be turned through one hundred parts of a degree, enabling each arm to be adjusted to within .01 degree of azimuth. Next, the gun arm center mechanism was slid from side to side and/or up and down with relation to the base line arm to account for the location of the battery's directing point to one side or the other of the primary base end station or behind or in front of the base line. These adjustments resulted in relocating (relating) the firing data sent to the guns to the actual (surveyed and calculated) positions of these guns. A further adjustment might need to be made by the gun crew to account for the distance of an individual gun from the battery's directing point, called its displacement. After these adjustments, the plotting board represented a true analog of the harbor being defended (see figure at left above) and was ready for use in fire control. This customization of the board to its site, however, was also a weakness. It meant that the battery's fire control system was limited to using only the one baseline and only the two base end stations associated with that baseline. If one of the two base end stations was put out of action (due to enemy fire or a communications casualty) the battery would have to switch to a less precise method of fire control, such as vertical base observation (using a depression position finder), the use of a self-contained rangefinder instrument, or aiming its guns directly, using their own telescopic sights. ==Using the plotting board== Using the plotting board required a team of five or six soldiers to handle the board itself, five or six more to handle equipment used to correct and adjust the resulting target coordinates and a minimum of four more in the two distant base end stations. Many of the plotting board functions described below were performed repeatedly, during several successive observation/firing intervals (see Figure 1 below, left) that were indicated throughout the harbor defense system by the ringing of time interval bells. thumb|upright=1|left|A series of observed positions (blue circles) established the likely track of the target. Using the plotting board, the set forward point was determined, based upon the target's observed course and speed and an assumption about when the gun was to be fired. The process began when a target (e.g., an enemy ship) was identified by the harbor command and assigned to a given gun battery. Observers in the two widely separated base end stations for the chosen battery tracked the target, using either azimuth scopes or more sophisticated depression position finders (DPFs). Azimuth scopes were only capable of locating the target in azimuth (bearing), while a DPF could be used for azimuth readings alone or could also measure the range from the base end station to the target. At the signal from the time interval bell, the reader in each base end station would read the azimuth of the target off of the instrument (to hundredths of a degree) and (using a headset phone) call this reading to the arm setter covering that station at the plotting board. Each of the two arm setters at the board moved his assigned arm (the primary or auxiliary arm) to the position on the notched azimuth scale (which ran around the circumference of the board) that corresponded to the azimuth reading (in whole degrees) he had just received by phone from his base end station. The arm setter then locked his arm at that position, using the index disk clamp at the end of the arm. Hundredths of a degree were indicated by turning the geared index disk, a wheel with 100 teeth that enabled adjusting the angle of the arm very precisely. With both arms set, a small block called the targ was slid up to the intersection of the arms and a mark was made on the plotting paper at the target's indicated position. This process of observing, setting the arms on the plotting board, and marking the target's position at the arms' intersection was repeated at the end of each observing interval for the battery. Since the firing of the gun(s) often occurred when the interval bell rang, the interval was also called a firing interval. The interval was usually set at 20 seconds. After tracking a target for a short time, there would a string of plotted positions indicated on the board (e.g., the blue circles shown in Figure 1 above, left). This would then be sufficient for the plotting room to "connect the dots" with a projected course line (the black line in Figure 1) and estimate the target's speed. Next, a slide rule-like device called a set forward rule was used to mark off the set forward point (the green square in Figure 1) for the target. The set forward point was the anticipated position of the target at the end of the dead time plus the time of flight (see Figure 1). The speed of the target was calculated from the time it took to cover the distances between the previously plotted points on its track. This type of fire control in the Coast Artillery was based upon the assumptions that the target steered in straight line and did not alter its speed during the 20-second (or longer) observing interval (or multiple intervals). thumb|alt=The mechanisms of the gun arm center of the plotting board.|Close-up of the mechanisms of the gun arm center, attached to the primary block of the plotting boardHines & Ward, Plate XXVIIt was the set forward point that the guns were targeted to hit. This was accomplished by bringing the gun arm of the plotting board over this point, and reading the range from the directing point to the target off the range scale on the edge of that arm and the azimuth from the directing point to the target off of azimuth circle of the gun arm center. To see how this and further steps in the fire control process were accomplished, our attention shifts to the mechanisms of the gun arm center, shown in Plate XXVI at the right. Plate XXVI shows the gun arm (although the range scale on its edge is not visible), which points here toward the top of the photo (in the 11:30 position). It also shows the window (labeled at bottom center) through which the azimuth of the gun arm was read. Many of the other features of the gun arm center were used in correcting the firing data. Corrections in range were applied by turning the knob attached to a gear wheel (labeled "pinion" in Plate XXVI) at the center of the correction box, which slid the gun arm towards its circumference or back, with the adjustments indicated by index numbers visible through the window to the left of the pinion. Corrections in azimuth were achieved by turning the knurled knob at the right edge of the worm gear located at the bottom of the gun arm, with its pointer being used to read off index numbers and turn the gun arm through its arc. The dials on the face of the gun arm center were used to calculate the angular travel (in degrees and hundredths) of the target between successive plotted points on the board, a quantity that could be corrected (using output from a deflection board) and then applied to calculating the set forward point. ==See also== * Coast Artillery fire control system * Base end station * Fire control tower * Seacoast defense in the United States * Harbor Defense Command * List of U.S. Army fire control and sighting material by supply catalog designation ==Notes== ==References== ===Bibliography=== * * ==External links== * Article from Popular Science, November 1941, describing Coast Artillery fire control, with illustrations Category:Coastal artillery Category:Artillery operation Category:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
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Henry Oliver Hansen (December 14, 1919 – March 1, 1945) was a United States Marine Corps sergeant who was killed in action during the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II. He was a member of the patrol that captured Mount Suribachi, where he helped raise the first U.S. flag on Iwo Jima on February 23, 1945. Rural Florida Living. CBS Radio interview by Dan Pryor with flag raiser Ernest "Boots" Thomas on February 25, 1945 aboard the . He was killed six days later. The first flag flown over the southern end of Iwo Jima was regarded to be too small to be seen by the thousands of Marines fighting on the other side of the mountain where the Japanese airfields and most of their troops were located, so it was replaced the same day with a larger flag. Although there were photographs taken of the first flag flying on Mount Suribachi and some which include Hansen, there is no photograph of Marines raising the first flag. Hansen also was photographed near the second flag. The second flag-raising by six Marines was photographed by Associated Press combat photographer Joe Rosenthal and became famous after copies of his photograph appeared in the newspapers two days later. He was incorrectly identified in Rosenthal's flag- raising photograph as the Marine at the base of the flagstaff until the Marine Corps announced in January 1947 after an investigation which was initiated by one of the flag-raisers, that Corporal Harlon Block was that Marine. Hansen is one of three men who were originally identified incorrectly as flag-raisers in the photograph (the others being John Bradley and Rene Gagnon). The Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia, is modeled after the historic photograph of six Marines raising the second flag on Iwo Jima. == Early life == Hansen was born in Somerville, Massachusetts, with one sister and three brothers. He graduated from Somerville High School in 1938 and joined the Marine Corps. == U.S. Marine Corps == === World War II === thumb|right|Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima. Hansen volunteered for the Paramarines, which were formed in 1942, and became a Marine parachutist. He fought in the Bougainville Campaign in 1943. In February 1944, the Paramarines were disbanded and he was transferred to Third Platoon, Company E, 2nd Battalion, 28th Marines, 5th Marine Division at Camp Pendleton, California. ==== Battle of Iwo Jima ==== Hansen landed with the 5th marine Division on Iwo Jima, on February 19, 1945. He landed with his rifle company and battalion at the southern end of Iwo Jima where Mount Suribachi is located. ==== First flag-raising ==== On February 23, 1945, Lieutenant Colonel Chandler W. Johnson, commander of the 2nd Battalion, 28th Marine Regiment, ordered a platoon-size patrol to climb up 556-foot Mount Suribachi. Captain Dave Severance, E Company's commander, assembled the remainder of his Third Platoon and other members of the battalion headquarters including two Navy corpsmen and stretcher bearers. First Lieutenant Harold Schrier, E Company's executive officer, was handed the Second Battalion's American flag from Lt. Colonel Johnson (or the battalion adjutant);The Man Who Carried the Flag on Iwo Jima, by G. Greeley Wells. New York Times, October 17, 1991, p. A 26 the flag measured 28 by 54 inches (137 by 71 cm) and had been taken from the attack transport on the way to Iwo Jima by First Lieutenant George G. Wells the Second Battalion's adjutant in charge of the battalion's flags."The Man Who Carried the Flag on Iwo Jima", by G. Greeley Wells, New York Times, October 17, 1991, p. A-26 Lt. Schrier was to it take a patrol with the flag up the mountain and raise the flag if possible at the summit to signal that Mount Suribachi was captured and the top secure. At 8:30 a.m., Lt. Schrier started climbing with the patrol up the mountain. Less than an hour later, the patrol, after receiving occasional Japanese sniper fire, reached the rim of the volcano. After a brief firefight there, Lt. Schrier and his men captured the summit. A section of a Japanese steel water pipe was found on the mountain and the battalion's flag Lt. Schrier carried was tied on to it by Lt. Schrier, Sgt. Hansen and Cpl. Charles Lindberg (Platoon Sergeant Ernest Thomas was watching inside the group with a grenade in his hand while Pvt. Phil Ward held the bottom of the pipe horizontally off the ground). The flagstaff was then carried to the highest part on the crater and raised by Lt. Schrier, Platoon Sgt. Thomas, Sgt. Hansen, and Cpl. Lindberg at approximately 10:30 a.m.Bradley, J. Powers, R. Flags of Our Fathers: Heroes of Iwo Jima. Seeing the national colors flying caused loud cheering with some gunfire from the Marines, sailors, and Coast Guardsmen on the beach below and from the men on the ships near and docked at the beach; ships' whistles and horns sounded too. There were strong winds on Mount Suribachi, so Hansen, Pvt. Ward, and Third Platoon corpsman John Bradley helped make the flagstaff stay in a vertical position. The men at, around, and holding the flagstaff which included Schrier's radioman Raymond Jacobs (assigned to patrol from F Company), were photographed several times by Staff Sgt. Louis R. Lowery, a photographer with Leatherneck magazine who accompanied the patrol up the mountain.Closing In: Marines in the Seizure of Iwo Jima, by Colonel Joseph H. Alexander, USMC (Retired), 1994, from the National Park Service.Picture of the first flag raising A firefight with some Japanese soldiers took place, and an enemy grenade caused Sgt. Lowery to fall several feet down the side of the crater, damaging his camera but not his film. On February 24, Lt. Schrier ordered Plt. Sgt. Thomas to report early the next morning to Marine Lieutenant General Holland Smith aboard Navy Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner's flagship the about the flag raising on Mount Suribachi. On February 25, Platoon Sgt. Thomas met with the two commanders and during an interview with a CBS news broadcaster aboard ship he named Lt. Schrier, Sgt. Hansen, and himself as the actual flag- raisers. Rosenthal's photograph of the second raising appeared in the newspapers the same day as Thomas's interview. Platoon Sgt. Thomas was killed on March 3 and Sgt. Hansen was killed on March 1. ==== Second flag-raising ==== Lt. Col. Johnson determined that a larger flag should replace the original flag, which was too small to be seen on the north side of Mount Suribachi where thousands of Marines were fighting most of the Japanese. A 96 by 56 inch flag was obtained from a ship docked on shore and brought up to the top of Mount Suribachi by Pfc. Rene Gagnon, the Second Battalion's runner (messenger) for E Company. At the same time, Sgt. Michael Strank, Cpl. Harlon Block, Pfc. Franklin Sousley, and Pfc. Ira Hayes from Second Platoon, E Company, were sent to take communication wire (or supplies) up to the Third Platoon and raise the second flag. Once on top, the flag was attached to another Japanese steel pipe. Shortly before 1 p.m., Lt. Schrier ordered the second flag raised and the first flag lowered. The four Marines and Pfc. Harold SchultzUSMC Statement on Marine Corps Flag Raisers, Office of U.S. Marine Corps Communication, 23 June 2016 and Pfc. Harold Keller (both members of Lt. Schrier's patrol) raised the larger flag at the same time three Marines and Pfc. Gagnon lowered the first flagstaff. Afterwards, Pfc. Gagnon removed the flag and took it down the mountain to the battalion adjutant. The Marines who captured Mount Suribachi and those who raised the first flag generally did not receive national recognition even though the first flag raising had received some public recognition first. The black-and-white photograph of the second flag raising by Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press became world- famous after appearing in the newspapers as the flag raising on Iwo Jima. Marine combat photographer Sergeant William Genaust, who had accompanied Rosenthal and Marine photographer Pvt. Robert Campbell up Mount Suribachi, filmed the second flag raising in color and it was used in newsreels.You Tube, Smithsonian Channel, 2008 Documentary (Genaust films) "Shooting Iwo Jima" Retrieved March 31, 2020 Other combat photographers ascended the mountain after the first flag was raised and the mountaintop secured. These photographers including Rosenthal and Pfc. George Burns an army photographer who was assigned to cover Marine amphibious landings for Yank Magazine, took photos of Marines (including Sgt. Hansen), corpsmen, and themselves around both of the flags. The second flag-raisers received national recognition. After the replacement flag was raised, sixteen Marines, including Schrier and Hansen, and two Navy corpsmen (John Bradley and Gerald Ziehme from the 40-man patrol) posed together for Rosenthal around the base of the flagstaff. On March 14, an American flag was officially raised up a flagpole by orders of Lieutenant General Holland Smith at the V Amphibious Corps command post on the other side of Mount Suribachi where the 3rd Marine Division troops were located, and the second flag which was raised on February 23 on Mount Suribachi came down. Lt. Col. Johnson was killed in action on March 2. Sgt. Genaust was killed on March 4 in a Japanese cave on Iwo Jima, and his remains are still missing. Sgt. Strank and Cpl. Block were killed on March 1, and Pfc. Sousley was killed on March 21. ==== Death ==== Sgt. Hansen was killed in action on Iwo Jima on March 1. Sgt. Hansen, Platoon Sgt. Thomas, and the three second flag-raisers who were killed on Iwo Jima were buried in the 5th Marine Division cemetery on the island. The battle of Iwo Jima officially ended on March 26, 1945, and the next day the 28th Marines left the island for Hawaii. Hansen's final burial was at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific near Honolulu on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. == Second flag-raiser corrections == thumb|Second flag-raising photograph On March 20, 1945, President Roosevelt ordered the flag-raisers in Rosenthal's photograph to Washington D.C. after the battle. Pfc. Gagnon was ordered to Marine Headquarters in Washington on April 3 and arrived on April 7. He was questioned the same day by a Marine public information officer about the identities of the six flag raisers in the photograph. Gagnon identified the six flag raisers as Sgt. Strank, Pfc. Sousley, Navy corpsman John Bradley, Pfc. Ira Hayes, and Sgt. Henry Hansen, and himself. He also said Sgt. Strank, Sgt. Hansen, and Pfc. Sousley were killed on Iwo Jima. After Pfc. Gagnon was questioned, Pfc. Hayes and PhM2c. Bradley were ordered to Marine Headquarters in Washington D.C. Bradley, who was recovering from his wounds at Oakland Naval Hospital in Oakland, California, was transferred to Bethesda Naval Hospital at Bethesda, Maryland, where he was shown Rosenthal's flag-raising photograph and was told he was in it. Both Bradley (on crutches) and Hayes arrived in Washington on April 19. They both reported to the same Marine officer as Pfc. Gagnon and were questioned separately. Bradley agreed with all of the identities of the flag-raisers named by Gagnon in the photograph including his own. Pfc. Hayes agreed with all of the identities named by Pfc. Gagnon except Sgt. Hansen, who was at the base of the flagstaff in the photo. Hayes said that person was Cpl. Block. The Marine lieutenant colonel told Pfc. Hayes that the identities were made public on April 8 and would not be changed, and to not say anything about it anymore (the officer later denied that Pfc. Hayes ever told him that Cpl. Block was in the photograph).Bradley, James. Flags of Our Fathers. p. 417. A Marine Corps investigation of the identities of the six second flag-raisers began in December 1946 and concluded in January 1947 that it was Cpl. Block and not Sgt. Hansen at the base of the flagstaff in the Rosenthal photograph, and that no blame was to be placed on anyone in this matter. The identities of the other five second flag-raisers were confirmed. The Marine Corps review board looked once more into the identities of the six second flag-raisers in Rosenthal's photograph, this time concluding in June 2016 that Harold Schultz was in the photograph and John Bradley was not.USMC Statement on Marine Corps Flag Raisers, Office of U.S. Marine Corps Communication, 23 June 2016 Franklin Sousley, not Schultz, is now in the position initially ascribed to Bradley (fourth from left) in the photograph and Schultz is now in Sousley's former position (second from left) in the photograph. The identities of the other five flag-raisers were confirmed. Schultz did not ever say publicly that he was a flag-raiser or in the photograph.https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/marines-confirm- identity-man-misidentified-iconic-iwo-jima-photo-180959542/ Smithsonian Magazine, 2nd Paragraph, "the marine never publicly revealed his role"https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/world/2016/06/23/flag-raiser-marine- iwo-jima-photo/86254440/ "went through life without publicly revealing his role" A third Marine Corps investigation into the identities of the six second flag-raisers concluded in October 2019, that Harold Keller was in the Rosenthal's photograph in place of Rene Gagnon (fifth from left). Gagnon who carried the larger second flag up Mount Suribachi, helped lower the first flagstaff and removed the first flag at the time the second flag was raised. The identities of the other five flag raisers were confirmed. Like Schultz, Keller did not ever say publicly he was a flag-raiser or that he was in the photograph. == Marine Corps War Memorial == The Marine Corps War Memorial (also known as the Iwo Jima Memorial) in Arlington, Virginia, which was inspired by Joe Rosenthal's photograph of the second flag-raising on Mount Suribachi by six Marines on February 23, 1945, was dedicated on November 10, 1954 (179th anniversary of the Marine Corps).Marine Corps War Memorial Marine Barracks Washington, D.C. Harold Schrier, Charles Lindberg, and Lou Lowery, from the patrol that raised the first flag on Mount Suribachi, attended the dedication ceremony as guests. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sat upfront during the dedication ceremony with Vice President Richard Nixon, Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson, Deputy Secretary of Defense Robert Anderson, and General Lemuel C. Shepherd, the 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Ira Hayes, one of the three surviving flag raisers depicted on the monument, was also seated upfront with John Bradley (incorrectly identified as a flag raiser until June 2016),USMC Statement on Marine Corps Flag Raisers, Office of U.S. Marine Corps Communication, 23 June 2016 Rene Gagnon (incorrectly identified as a flag raiser until October 16, 2019), Mrs Martha Strank, Mrs. Ada Belle Block, and Mrs. Goldie Price (mother of Franklin Sousley). Those giving remarks at the dedication included Robert Anderson, Chairman of Day; Colonel J.W. Moreau, U.S. Marine Corps (Retired), President, Marine Corps War Memorial Foundation; General Shepherd, who presented the memorial to the American people; Felix de Weldon, sculptor; and Richard Nixon, who gave the dedication address. Inscribed on the memorial are the following words: :In Honor And Memory Of The Men of The United States Marine Corps Who Have Given Their Lives To Their Country Since 10 November 1775 ==Military awards== Hansen's military decorations and awards include: Purple Heart Combat Action Ribbon Navy Presidential Unit Citation with " silver participation star Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal Asiatic- Pacific Campaign Medal with two bronze campaign stars World War II Victory Medal *Parachutist Badge (silver type) *Sharpshooter Badge (Rifle) == Public recognition== Sergeant Henry O. Hansen Park, in his hometown of Somerville, was named in his honor in June 2004.https://thesomervillenewsweekly.blog/2015/02/18/henry-hansen-an-american- hero-from-somerville/comment-page-1/ https://i0.wp.com/thesomervillenewsweekly.blog/wp- content/uploads/2015/02/20150218-000936.jpg == Portrayal in film == Hank Hansen is featured in the 2006 Clint Eastwood movie Flags of Our Fathers, where he is played by American actor Paul Walker. The movie is based on the book of the same title. == See also == * Shadow of Suribachi: Raising The Flags on Iwo Jima * Flags of Our Fathers == References == Category:1919 births Category:1945 deaths Category:United States Marine Corps personnel killed in World War II Category:Battle of Iwo Jima Category:Paramarines Category:People from Somerville, Massachusetts Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers Category:Burials in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific
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Patrick John Hillery (; 2 May 1923 – 12 April 2008) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served as the sixth president of Ireland from December 1976 to December 1990. He also served as vice-president of the European Commission and European commissioner for Social Affairs from 1973 to 1976, minister for External Affairs from 1969 to 1973, minister for Labour from 1966 to 1969, minister for Industry and Commerce from 1965 to 1969 and minister for Education from 1959 to 1965. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Clare constituency from 1951 to 1973. In 1973, he was appointed Ireland's first European Commissioner, upon Ireland's accession to the European Economic Community, serving until 1976, when he became President of Ireland. He served two terms in the presidency. Though seen as a somewhat lacklustre president, he was credited with bringing stability and dignity to the office, and won widespread admiration when it emerged that he had withstood political pressure from his own Fianna Fáil party during a political crisis in 1982. ==Early and private life== thumb|upright|left|Hillery's Pub on Main Street, Milltown Malbay Patrick John Hillery, more popularly known as Paddy Hillery, was born in Spanish Point, County Clare, in 1923. The son of Michael Joseph Hillery, a local doctor, and Ellen McMahon, a district nurse, he was educated locally at Milltown Malbay National School, before later attending Rockwell College. At third level, Hillery attended University College Dublin, where he qualified with a degree in medicine. Upon his conferral in 1947, he returned to his native town where he followed in his father's footsteps as a doctor. Hillery's medical career in the 1950s, saw him serve as a member of the National Health Council and as Medical Officer for the Milltown Malbay Dispensary District. He also spent a year working as coroner for West Clare. Hillery married Maeve Finnegan, on 27 October 1955. Together they had a son, John, and a daughter, Vivienne, who died after a long illness in 1987, shortly before her eighteenth birthday. ==Domestic political career== Hillery, though not himself political, agreed under pressure from Clare's senior Fianna Fáil TD, party leader and former Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, to become his running mate at the 1951 general election. Hillery received enough transfers from de Valera to be elected. De Valera was elected as president of Ireland in 1959, and was succeeded as Taoiseach by Seán Lemass. Under Lemass, many party elders such as James Ryan, Seán MacEntee and Paddy Smith, retired and a new generation of politicians were introduced to government, such as Brian Lenihan, Donogh O'Malley, Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney. Key among this new breed of politician was Hillery, who was given his first position in cabinet as Minister for Education in 1959, succeeding Jack Lynch in that post. ===Government minister 1959–1973=== As Minister for Education, Hillery was responsible for much innovative thinking in a department which would become very important under Lemass's leadership. In 1963, he made a major policy speech in which he outlined many of the educational reforms that were to be introduced over the next decade. These included increased educational opportunities for many, the establishment of comprehensive schools and Regional Technical Colleges. He also proposed access by students to all public examinations. As Minister for Education, Hillery laid the groundwork for successive Ministers to advance the reforms and initiatives he had begun. While Donogh O'Malley, has received much of the credit for introducing free education, it was in fact Hillery who laid much of the groundwork before this landmark announcement. In 1965, Hillery succeeded Lynch again by taking over as Minister for Industry and Commerce. This department was considered one of the most important in kick-starting Ireland's economy. Hillery only remained in this position for just over a year, becoming the country's first Minister for Labour in 1966, as industrial disputes began to take their toll. This new department had been an ambition of Lemass's for several years. Lemass resigned as Taoiseach and leader of Fianna Fáil in November 1966, a shock to many of his political friends. Hillery was invited by Lemass to allow his name to go forward for the leadership of the party, however, he declined explaining that he had no interest. Jack Lynch succeeded Lemass after a leadership contest with George Colley. Hillery retained his post as Minister for Labour in Lynch's cabinet, serving until 1969. Following a further victory for Fianna Fáil at the 1969 general election, Hillery was appointed Minister for External Affairs (renamed Foreign Affairs in 1971), one of the most prestigious of cabinet posts. He earned an international profile when, in the aftermath of the killing of fourteen unarmed civilians in Derry, by British paratroopers (known as Bloody Sunday), he travelled to the United Nations to demand UN involvement in peace-keeping on the streets of Northern Ireland. The trip to the UN achieved very little, other than to draw the attention of the world to the worsening situation in Northern Ireland. During the whole period Hillery remained one of Jack Lynch's staunchest allies in pursuing peaceful means with regard to the possibility of a civil war breaking out. Although considered a mild-mannered politician, Hillery showed his mettle at the 1971 Fianna Fáil Ard Fheis when Kevin Boland, an opponent of Lynch's Northern policy, stormed a nearby podium and launched a very public and vocal attack on the Fianna Fáil leadership. While some of his supporters started chanting "We want Boland", Hillery, who by this stage had grabbed the nearest microphone, shouted down the Boland faction with the line "Ye can have Boland but ye can't have Fianna Fáil." As well as affairs in Northern Ireland, as Minister for Foreign Affairs, Hillery also negotiated Irish membership of the European Economic Community (EEC), a process that was completed in 1973. ==European Commissioner 1973–1976== Following Ireland's successful entry into European Economic Community (ECC), Hillery was rewarded by becoming the first Irish politician to serve on the European Commission. He was appointed Vice-President of the European Commission and European Commissioner for Social Affairs. While Europe had gained one of Ireland's most capable and respected politicians, Jack Lynch had lost one of his allies, and someone who may have been in line to take over the leadership following Lynch's retirement. As Social Affairs Commissioner, Hillery's most famous policy initiative was to force EEC member states to give equal pay to women. However, in 1976, the then Irish government, the Fine Gael–Labour Party National Coalition, under Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave, informed him that he was not being re-appointed to the Commission. He considered returning to medicine, perhaps moving with his wife, Maeve (also a doctor) to Africa. However, fate took a turn, when the then Minister for Defence, Paddy Donegan, launched a ferocious verbal attack on the then president, Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, calling him "a thundering disgrace" for referring anti-terrorist legislation to the Supreme Court of Ireland to test its constitutionality.How 'thundering disgrace' led to President resigning , Irish Independent, December 29, 2006 When Ó Dálaigh resigned, a deeply reluctant Hillery agreed to become the Fianna Fáil candidate for the presidency. Fine Gael and Labour decided it was unwise to nominate a candidate, in light of the row over Ó Dálaigh's resignation and the part the government played in the affair. As a result, Hillery was elected unopposed, becoming President of Ireland on 3 December 1976. ==President of Ireland== ===The fake "sex scandal" during the papal visit=== Though once voted the world's sexiest head of state by readers of the German Der Spiegel magazine, few expected Hillery to become embroiled in a sex scandal as president. Yet, one occurred in September 1979, when the international press corps, travelling to Ireland for the visit of Pope John Paul II, told their Irish colleagues that Europe was "awash" with rumours that Hillery had a mistress living with him in Áras an Uachtaráin (the presidential residence), that he and his wife were divorcing and he was considering resigning from the presidency. However, the story was untrue. Once the Pope had left, Hillery held a press conference where he told a shocked nation that there was no mistress, no divorce and no resignation. In reality, few people had even heard of the rumours. Critics questioned why he chose to comment on a rumour that few outside media and political circles had heard. Hillery, however, defended his action by saying that it was important to kill off the story for the good of the presidency, rather than allow the rumour to circulate and be accepted as fact in the absence of a denial. In that, he was supported by the then Taoiseach, Jack Lynch, whom he consulted before making the decision, he also got the support of Leader of the Opposition, Garret FitzGerald, of Fine Gael and Frank Cluskey, of the Labour Party. In 2008, Historian John Walsh claimed that within Irish political circles, the source of the rumours about Hillery were widely believed to have been planted by the leader of Fianna Fáil Charles Haughey, who was attempting to force Hillery to resign from office. Hillery also hit the headlines when, on the advice of then Taoiseach, Charles Haughey, he declined Queen Elizabeth II's invitation to attend the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer in 1981. ===Phone calls to Áras an Uachtaráin=== However, it was in 1982, that Hillery's reputation as President was arguably made. In January 1982, the Fine Gael- Labour Party coalition government of Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald lost a budget vote in Dáil Éireann. Since this was a loss of supply, FitzGerald travelled to Áras an Uachtaráin, to ask for a dissolution of the Dáil. Under Article 13.2.2°, If Hillery refused FitzGerald's request for a dissolution, FitzGerald would have had to resign. Had this happened, Haughey, Leader of the Opposition, would have been the next contender to form a new government. To this a series of phone calls (some published reports claim seven, others eight) was made by senior opposition figures urging Hillery to refuse FitzGerald a dissolution, so allowing Haughey to form a government. Hillery regarded such pressure as gross misconduct, and ordered one of his aides de camp, Captain Anthony Barber, not to pass on any telephone calls from opposition figures. He might also have been motivated by a conflict between the English and Irish versions of the Constitution. While the English version vests the President with certain powers that he uses "in his absolute discretion," the Irish version states that these powers are used , which usually translates to "under his own counsel". While "absolute discretion" implies that presidents have some latitude in whether to initiate contact with the opposition under these circumstances, "under his own counsel" has been understood to mean that no contact whatsoever can take place with the opposition. Whenever there is a conflict between the Irish and English versions, the Irish one takes precedence. In the end, Hillery granted the dissolution. (No Irish president to date has ever refused such a request.) By 1990, Hillery's term seemed to be reaching a quiet end, until the events of 1982 returned, changing the course of the history of the presidency, Ireland and Hillery forever. Three candidates had been nominated in the 1990 presidential election: the then Tánaiste, Brian Lenihan from Fianna Fáil (widely viewed as the certain winner), Austin Currie from Fine Gael and Mary Robinson from the Labour Party. In May 1990, in an on the record interview with Jim Duffy, a post-graduate student researching the Irish presidency, Lenihan had confirmed that he had been one of those phoning President Hillery in January 1982. He confirmed that Haughey too had made phone calls. Jim Duffy mentioned the information in a newspaper article on the history of the Irish presidency on 28 September 1990 in The Irish Times. In October 1990, Lenihan changed his story, claiming (even though he had said the opposite for eight years) that he had played "no hand, act or part" in pressurising President Hillery that night. He made these denials in an interview in The Irish Press (a Fianna Fáil–leaning newspaper) and on Questions and Answers, an RTÉ 1 political show,. When it was realised that he had said the opposite in an on- the-record interview in May 1990, his campaign panicked and tried to pressurise Duffy into not revealing the information. Their pressure backfired, particularly when his campaign manager, Bertie Ahern, named Duffy as the person to whom he had given the interview in a radio broadcast, prompting Duffy to release the relevant segment of his interview with Lenihan. In the aftermath, the minority party in the coalition government, the Progressive Democrats, indicated that unless Lenihan resigned from cabinet, they would resign from government and support an opposition motion of no confidence in Dáil Éireann, bringing down the government and causing a general election. Publicly, Haughey insisted that it was entirely a matter for Lenihan, his "friend of thirty years" and that he was putting no pressure on him. In reality, under pressure from the PDs, Haughey gave Lenihan a letter of resignation to sign. When Lenihan refused, Haughey formally advised President Hillery to sack Lenihan from cabinet. As required by Article 13.1.3 of the Constitution, Hillery did so. Lenihan's campaign never recovered, and he became the first candidate from his party to lose a presidential election, having begun the campaign as the favourite. Instead Labour's Mary Robinson became the first elected President of Ireland from outside Fianna Fáil, and the first woman to hold the office. The revelations, and the discovery that Hillery had stood up to pressure in 1982 from former cabinet colleagues, including his close friend Brian Lenihan, substantially increased Hillery's standing. From a low-key, modest presidency that had been seen as mediocre, his presidency came to be seen as embodying the highest standards of integrity. His reputation rose further when opposition leaders under parliamentary privilege alleged that Haughey, who in January 1982, had been Leader of the Opposition, had not merely rung the President's Office but to end the career of the army officer who took the call and who, on Hillery's instructions, had refused to put through the call to the president. Haughey angrily denied the charge, though Lenihan, in his subsequently published account of the affair, noted that Haughey had denied "insulting" the officer, whereas the allegation was that he had "threatened" him. Hillery, it was revealed, had called in the Irish Army's Chief of Staff the following day and as Commander-in-Chief of the Army had ordered the Chief of Staff to ensure that no politician ever interfered with the career of the young army officer. About ten years after the incident, RTÉ attempted to interview the young officer with regard to the allegations but as a serving officer he was unable to comment. Having been re-elected unopposed in 1983, Hillery (until then) shared the distinction with Seán T. O'Kelly and Éamon de Valera of serving two full terms as President of Ireland. He was one of three holders of the office of President who did not face popular election for the office, the others being Douglas Hyde and Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh. Hillery left office in 1990, serving the maximum two terms, widely applauded for his integrity, honesty and devotion to duty. The previous image of Hillery, as low key, dull and unexciting (except for the bizarre sex rumours), had been somewhat undermined. President Hillery retired from public life. He re-entered public life in 2002, during the second referendum on the Nice Treaty, when he urged a yes vote. ==Foreign assessment== In 2002, state papers released by the British Public Record Office under the thirty-year rule, published in the Irish media, revealed how Hillery was viewed. A briefing paper - prepared for the Foreign Secretary, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, and the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, William Whitelaw - observed about Hillery, then Minister for Foreign Affairs: ==Death== Patrick Hillery died on 12 April 2008, in his Dublin home, following a short illness. His family agreed to a full state funeral for the former president. He was buried at St. Fintan's Cemetery, Sutton, Dublin.Ex- president Hillery laid to rest in Dublin, The Irish Times, April 16, 2008 In tributes, President Mary McAleese said "He was involved in every facet of policy-making that paved the way to a new, modern Ireland. Today, we detect his foresight and pioneering agenda everywhere – a free education system, a dynamic, well-educated people, a successful economy and a thriving membership of the European Union, one of the single most transformative events for this country." Taoiseach Bertie Ahern said he "was a man of great integrity, decency and intelligence, who contributed massively to the progress of our country and he is assured of an honoured place in Ireland's history". In the Dáil and Seanad, he was praised by all political leaders and parties during expressions of sympathy on 15 April 2008. In the graveside oration, Tánaiste Brian Cowen said Hillery was "A humble man of simple tastes, he has been variously described as honourable, decent, intelligent, courteous, warm and engaging. He was all of those things and more." In April 2023 a stamp to mark 100th anniversary of his birth was issued. ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * Collins, Stephen (2000) – The Power Game: Ireland Under Fianna Fáil (Dublin: O'Brien Press) * Walsh, John (2008) – "Patrick Hillery: The Official Biography" (Dublin: New Island) . ==External links== *Biography at Áras an Uachtaráin website *Profile of Patrick Hillery Category:1923 births Category:2008 deaths Category:Alumni of University College Dublin Category:Fianna Fáil TDs Category:Irish European Commissioners Category:Members of the 14th Dáil Category:Members of the 15th Dáil Category:Members of the 16th Dáil Category:Members of the 17th Dáil Category:Members of the 18th Dáil Category:Members of the 19th Dáil Category:Ministers for Education (Ireland) Category:Ministers for Foreign Affairs (Ireland) Category:People educated at Rockwell College Category:Politicians from County Clare Category:Presidents of Ireland Category:European Commissioners 1973–1977 Category:Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment Category:People from Milltown Malbay Category:Medical doctors from County Clare Category:20th-century Irish medical doctors
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Statues, also known as Red Light, Green Light in North America, and Grandma's/Grandmother's Footsteps or Fairy Footsteps in the United Kingdom is a popular children's game, often played in different countries. There are variations of play throughout different regions of the world. == General rules == # A person starts out as the "curator" (It, Granny, Pooh, etc.) and stands at the end of a field. Everyone else playing stands at the far end (distance depends upon playing area selected). The objective of the game is for a "statue" to tag the curator, thereby becoming the curator and resetting the game. # The curator turns their back to the field, and the "statues" attempt to race across and tag the curator. # Whenever the curator turns around, the statues must freeze in position and hold that for as long as the curator looks at them. The curator may even be allowed to walk around the statues, examining them. However, the curator needs to be careful - whenever the curator's back is turned, statues are allowed to move. # If a statue is caught moving, they are sent back to the starting line to begin again or eliminated. == Variations == === Red Light, Green Light === Red Light, Green Light is a variation of Statues played throughout North America. The title of the game refers to the colors of a traffic light. * Like Statues, Red Light, Green Light is played in a field or another long space. * One player, the Caller, stands at one end of the field and calls out to the rest of the players who line up at the other end. * The Caller turns around, looking away from the rest of the players and calls out "green light!" * While the Caller is looking away, the other players are permitted to move, and they attempt to advance on the Caller. The objective is to get close enough to the Caller to tag them. * At any point while the Caller is turned away, they can call “red light!” and turn back around to face the players. When this is called, the players must freeze in place. If the Caller observes any player moving, they send them back to the start. * This repeats until another player tags the Caller. * The caller may recite “red light!” and “green light!” as fast or slow as they would like in order to catch the other players while they are still moving. * The first player to tag the Caller without being caught becomes the new Caller, and all other players return to the start to begin another round. There are different levels of stringency in regard to how much movement the Caller may observe to send a player back to the start. Some allow general movement as long as the players are not moving their feet from the ground, while others restrict any large bodily movements, such as swaying of the arms or even smiling. Blinking and breathing are generally permitted. In the Dutch version, instead of "green light!" the Caller sings in a slow voice "Annemaria", followed by a quick and loud "Koekoek!" ("Cuckoo!") when they turn around (like "red light!"). "Koekoek!" is also the Dutch equivalent of a Peekaboo game played with babies, where the parents hide their face with their hands, then reveal themselves whilst saying "Peek-a-boo!" (also known in Dutch as "Kiekeboe!"). The Flemish version of the game is called "1, 2, 3 Piano", in which the Caller shouts "één, twee, drie, piano!" (translating to one, two, three, piano in English) before turning around to the other players. Only during the time this sentence is being shouted, the participants are allowed to move. === Winnie the Pooh === Winnie the Pooh is a variation of Statues where the person playing "Pooh" (the Curator) usually leans against a wall and has to shout "1, 2, 3, Winnie the Pooh, stop!" (so it is long enough for the players to reach some distance and because of the rhyme it provides in Bulgarian, where this version comes from) before turning to face the players. Whenever a player tags Pooh they have to run so it doesn't catch them. If they manage to go back to the wall where Pooh was leaning before it catches them, they become Pooh and the game starts over. In this variation the role of Pooh is more desirable. === Team building exercise === Another variation of the game was altered as a team building exercise. It follows the Red Light, Green Light rules with exception that if anybody moves after the red light the whole team must return to the starting line. Also, the object of the game is for the players to "steal" an "object" positioned near the "it" person and return with it to the other side of the field. Once the "object" is moved it has to stay hidden from "it" who has several guesses as to who has it at the moment. If guessed successfully then the whole team must return to the starting line. Hemlock Overlook - Red light Green light - 03.jpg|Red light Hemlock Overlook - Red light Green light - 04.jpg|Green light Hemlock Overlook - Red light Green light - 05.jpg|Guessing who is hiding the "object" ==Other names== ; Argentina : "Uno, dos, tres, cigarrillo cuarenta y tres" (tr. "One, two, three, cigarette forty three") ; Australia : "Hot Chocolate" ; Austria : "Donner, Wetter, Blitz!" (tr. "Thunder, weather, lightning!") : "Zimmer, Küche, Kabinett, hinterm Ofen steht ein Bett!" (tr. "Room, kitchen, cabinet, behind the oven there is a bed!") ; Bangladesh : "Statue!" : "এলন্ডি লন্ডন, ঘড়ি বাজে টনটন, এক, দুই, তিন!" (Ēlanḍi lanḍana, ghaṛi bājē ṭanaṭana, ēka, du'i, tina! tr. "L-O-N-D London, bells ring ton-ton, 1 2 3!") ; Belgium : "Eén, twee, drie, piano!" (Dutch/Flemish) : "Un, deux, trois, piano!" or "Un, deux, trois, soleil!" (French) ; Brazil : "Batatinha frita, um, dois, três!" (tr. "Little french fry, one, two, three!") ; Bulgaria : "Winnie the Pooh" (Мечо Пух; Mecho Pukh, lit. "Pooh Bear") : "Indian Eye" (Индианско Око; Indiansko Oko, lit. "Native American Eye") ; Canada : "Go, go, stop!" (British Columbia) : "Un, deux trois, soleil" (tr. "One, two, three, sun") (Quebec) : "Bleu, blanc, rouge!" (tr. "Blue, white, red!") (Quebec) : "Un, deux trois, statue!" (tr. "One, two, three, statue!") (Quebec) ; Chile : "Un, dos, tres, momia es" (tr. "One, two, three, it's a mummy") ; China : "红灯绿灯小白灯" (Hóng dēng lǜ dēng xiǎo bái dēng. tr. "Red light, green light, little white light") : "一二三，紅綠燈，過馬路，要小心" (Yāt yih sāam, hùhng luhk dāng, gwo máh louh, yiu síu sām. tr. "One Two Three, Red light green light, careful when you cross the road") (Hong Kong) : "一，二，三，我们都是木头人！" (Yī, èr, sān, wǒ mēn dōu shì mù tóu rén. tr. "One, two, three, we are all wooden men") ; Costa Rica : "Un, dos, tres, quesito stop" (tr. "One, two, three, stop little cheese") ; Croatia : "Crna kraljica, jedan, dva, tri" (tr. "Black queen, one, two, three") ; Czech Republic : "Cukr, káva, limonáda... čaj, rum, bum!" (tr. "Sugar, coffee, lemonade... tea, rum, boom!") – The words rhyme, and the latter are easier to say quickly. ; Denmark : "rød gul grøn stop" ("red yellow green stop") ; Estonia : "Heeringas, heeringas, üks, kaks, kolm" (tr. "Herring, herring, one, two, three") ; Finland : "Peili" (tr. "Mirror") ; France : "Un, deux trois, soleil" (tr. "One, two, three, sun") : ; Germany : "Eins, zwei, drei, Ochs am Berg" (tr. "One, two, three, ox at the mountain") ; Greece : "Αγαλματάκια ακούνητα, αμίλητα, αγέλαστα... Μέρα ή νύχτα;" (Agalmatákia akoúnita, amílita, agélasta... Méra í nýchta? tr. "Statues that don't move, don't speak, don't laugh... Day or night?") ; Iceland : "Einn, tveir, þrír, fjórir, fimm, dimmalimm" (tr. "One, two, three, four, five, 'dimmalimm') ; India : "Statue!" : "Apple, Apple, Banana" ; Indonesia : "Patung" (tr. "Statue") ; Israel : "Dag Maluah" (דג מלוח, lit. "Salted fish", tr. Pickled herring; "Ahat shtayim shalosh [one two three] dag maluah!") ; Italy : "Un, due, tre, stella!" (tr. "One, two, three, star!") ; Japan : Instead of calling out the phrase, "Daruma-san ga koronda", you may countdown from 10 to 1. ; Korea : "Mugunghwa kkochi pieotseumnida" (무궁화꽃이 피었습니다, lit. "The Rose of Sharon has bloomed") ; Malaysia : "Pukul Berapa Datuk Harimau?" (tr. "What time is it Grandpa Tiger?") ; Mexico : "Un, dos, tres, calabaza" (tr. "One, two, three, pumpkin") ; Nepal : "L-O-N-D-O-N London, S-T-O-P Stop!!" or just "L-O-N-D-O-N London!" ; Netherlands : "Annemaria Koekoek!" ; New Zealand : "Sneak up Granny" ; Norway : "En, to, tre, Rødt lys!" (tr. "One, two, three, Red light!") ;Pakistan :"P-O-L-O S-T-O-P stop, Polo Stop!" :"L-O-N-D-O-N London Stop!" ; Panama : "Un, dos, tres, pan con queso!" (tr. "One, two, three, grilled cheese!") ; Philippines : "Pepsi 7-Up" ; Poland : "Raz, dwa, trzy, Baba Jaga patrzy!" (tr. "One, two, three, Baba Yaga is looking!") ; Portugal : "Um, dois, três, macaquinho do chinês!" (tr. "One, two, three, little monkey of the chinese!") ; Romania : "Unu, doi, trei, la perete stai" (tr. "One, two, three, you're staying at the wall") ; Russia : "Море волнуется — раз!" (More volnuyetsya — raz! lit. "Sea has waves — one!") : "Тише едешь — дальше будешь!" (Tishe yedesh' — dal'she budesh'! lit. The quieter you go, the further you'll get!) ; Serbia : "Лукава лисица, СТОП!" (Lukava lisica, STOP! tr. "Sneaky fox, stop!") ; Singapore : "A, E, I, O, U" ; Slovenia : "Mati, koliko je ura?" (tr. "Mother, what time is it?") : "Ljubljana – Zagreb – Beograd. Stop!" ; Spain : "Uno, dos, tres, toca la pared" : "Un, dos, tres, el escondite inglés" (tr. "One, two, three, English hide and seek") : "Un, dos, tres, pollito inglés!" (tr. "One, two, three, little English chicken!") : "Pica paret" or "Un, dos, tres, pica paret" (tr. "Knock the wall" or "One, two, three, knock the wall") (Catalonia) ; Sweden : "Ett, Två, Tre, Ost!" (tr. "One, two, three, cheese!") : "Ett, Två, Tre, Rött Ljus!" (tr. "One, Two, Three, Red Light!") ; Switzerland : "Ziitig läse" (tr. "Reading the Newspaper") (German side) : "Un, due, tre, stella!" (tr. "One, two, three, star!") (Italian side) ; Taiwan : "Yī, èr, sān, mù tou rén" (一, 二, 三, 木頭人, lit. "One, two, three, wooden man") ; Thailand : "A E I O U" ; Turkey : "Davul, Zurna, Bir, İki, Üç" (tr. "Davul, Zurna, one, two, three") ; United Kingdom : "Hot chocolate" : "Granny's Footsteps" ; United States : "Un, dos, tres, pescao" (tr. "One, two, three, fish") (Puerto Rico) : "One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish" : What time is it, Mr. Fox? ; Venezuela : "Un, dos, tres, pollito inglés!" (tr. "One, two, three, little English chicken!") ; Vietnam : "Em bé tập đi" (lit. "The baby learns to walk") : "Ngựa Gỗ" (tr. "Wooden Horse") : "Một, Hai, Ba" (tr. "One two three") : "Hổ đã quay lại làng" (lit ."A tiger has returned to our village") ==In popular culture== * Doctor Who writer Russell T Davies said that the statue role in Grandmother's Footsteps was a concept for the Weeping Angel, a recurring monster on the 2005–present show. * In The Railway Series story Percy and the Trousers, Percy tries to play Grandmother's Footsteps with the coaches, but hits a trolley of trousers. * Folk music trio Peter, Paul and Mary adapted this game into a song called "Rocky Road" on their 1963 album, In the Wind. * Hajime Syacho, the most popular YouTuber in Japan and participants, 740 in all, played Daruma-san ga koronda at Industrial Development Center in Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture on 24 October 2015 which has been listed in the Guinness World Records. * In the 1942 Merrie Melodies short The Case of the Missing Hare, Bugs plays a statues game on the magician while Ala Bahma charges at Bugs to kill him. * In the 1987 film RoboCop, the titular character is seen playing the game with elementary school children in footage shown during an in-film news report. * In the Japanese manga As the Gods Will and its 2014 film adaptation, it is one of the games the students are forced to play with a Daruma doll. * In the 2021 Netflix series Squid Game, it was the first game of the competition. Contestants played the game with a large doll resembling Young-hee, a young girl from a Korean book series. The game played was a deadlier iteration, where anyone caught moving even by a millimeter would be shot dead. * Crab Game, a 2021 game based on the popular Netflix series Squid Game, features the game as portrayed in the show—only in this version, players explode rather than being shot when they lose. * In the 2022 game Poppy Playtime: Chapter 2 - Fly in a Web, there is a section somewhat similar to this game where the player must navigate through an obstacle course while being chased by a large caterpillar toy. When a light comes on, they must stand still and cannot move until it goes off again. * The third chapter of the 2017 game Faith: The Unholy Trinity features this game as a method to obtain the key to progress. The player must collect the key and return without being caught by the cultist and the gray demon. Failing to comply will result in death. ==See also== * What's the time, Mr Wolf? ==References== == Further reading == * Category:Children's games Category:Outdoor games Category:Japanese games
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American rapper Busta Rhymes has released ten studio albums, three compilation albums, eight mixtapes, ninety-two singles (including fifty as a featured artist), fourteen promotional singles and fifty-six music videos. Busta Rhymes signed his first recording contract with Elektra Records at the age of just 17, as a member of hip-hop group Leaders of the New School. Though the group would disband in 1994, a number of well-received guest appearances on songs by artists including A Tribe Called Quest and Mary J. Blige led Elektra to offer Busta Rhymes a solo contract in 1995. His debut studio album, The Coming, was released the following year, with lead single "Woo Hah!! Got You All in Check" reaching number eight on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of 2019 Busta Rhymes has sold around 9,000,000 albums. ==Studio albums== List of studio albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications Title Album details Peak chart positions Sales figures Certifications US US R&B; AUS Peak chart positions for albums in Australia: * Genesis: * The Big Bang: CAN Peak chart positions for albums in Canada: * The Coming: * When Disaster Strikes...: * E.L.E. (Extinction Level Event): The Final World Front: * Anarchy: *Genesis: *It Ain't Safe No More...: * The Big Bang, Blessed and Back on My B.S.: FRA GER NLD NZ SWI UK The Coming * Released: March 26, 1996 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 6 1 — 9 — 80 — — — 48 * US: 797,000 * RIAA: Platinum * MC: Gold When Disaster Strikes... * Released: September 16, 1997 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 3 1 — 21 — 62 73 — — 34 * US: 1,677,000 * RIAA: Platinum * BPI: Gold Extinction Level Event: The Final World Front * Released: December 15, 1998 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 12 2 — 34 — 45 56 — — 54 * US: 1,648,000 * RIAA: Platinum * BPI: Gold Anarchy * Released: June 20, 2000 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 4 1 — 26 54 63 87 50 65 38 * US: 684,000 * RIAA: Platinum Genesis * Released: November 27, 2001 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, J * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 7 2 62 36 42 27 47 — 44 58 * US: 1,339,000 * RIAA: Platinum * BPI: Silver It Ain't Safe No More... * Released: November 26, 2002 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, J * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 43 10 — 85 50 82 61 — 70 78 * US: 678,000 * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver The Big Bang * Released: June 13, 2006 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Aftermath, Interscope * Formats: CD, LP, digital download 1 1 42 6 18 10 27 11 6 19 * US: 626,000 * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver Back on My B.S. * Released: May 19, 2009 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Universal Motown * Formats: CD, DVD, LP, digital download 5 2 — 18 20 94 — — 15 92 * US: 156,000 Year of the Dragon * Released: August 21, 2012 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download — — — — — — — — — — Extinction Level Event 2: The Wrath of God * Released: October 30, 2020 * Label: Conglomerate, Empire * Format: CD, LP, digital download 7 4 — 26 144 — — — 32 99 "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Collaborative albums== List of collaborative studio albums, with selected chart positions Title Album details Peak chart positions US US R&B; UK A Future Without a Past... (as part of the Leaders of the New School) * Released: July 2, 1991 * Label: Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette 128 53 — T.I.M.E. (The Inner Mind's Eye) (as part of the Leaders of the New School) * Released: October 12, 1993 * Label: Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette 66 15 — The Imperial (as part of the Flipmode Squad) * Released: September 1, 1998 * Label: Elektra, Flipmode * Formats: CD, LP, cassette 15 3 85 "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Compilation albums== List of compilation albums, with selected chart positions and certifications Title Album details Peak chart positions Certifications US R&B; US Rap UK Total Devastation: The Best of Busta Rhymes * Released: October 2, 2001 (US) * Labels: Flipmode, Elektra * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download 97 20 44 Turn It Up! The Very Best of Busta Rhymes * Released: April 2, 2002 (US) * Label: Warner * Formats: CD, LP, cassette, digital download — — — * BPI: Silver The Artist Collection: Busta Rhymes * Released: October 12, 2004 (US) * Label: BMG * Format: CD, LP, cassette, digital download — — — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Mixtapes== List of mixtapes Title Album details Surrender (with DJ Whoo Kid) * Released: 2004 * Label: Flipmode * Format: CD, digital download The Countdown to The Big Bang (with DJ Kay Slay) * Released: 2006 * Labels: Flipmode, Streetsweepers * Format: CD, digital download I Bullshit You Not * Released: May 5, 2009 * Label: Flipmode * Format: Digital download Anarchy 2 * Released: May 15, 2012 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download Catastrophic (with Reek da Villian and J-Doe) * Released: December 21, 2012 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download The Abstract and The Dragon (with Q-Tip) * Released: December 12, 2013 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download Catastrophic 2 (with O.T. Genasis and J-Doe) * Released: August 7, 2014 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download The Return of the Dragon (The Abstract Went on Vacation) * Released: December 25, 2015 * Label: Conglomerate * Format: Digital download ==EPs== List of EPs Title Album details The Fuse Is Lit * Released: November 18, 2022 * Label: Conglomerate, Empire * Format: Digital download ==Singles== ===As lead artist=== List of singles as lead artist, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name Title Year Peak chart positions Certifications Album US US R&B; US Rap Peak chart positions for singles on the Hot Rap Songs and Hot Rap Singles charts: * All peak chart positions prior to June 8, 2002: * All peak chart positions after June 8, 2002: AUS Peak chart positions for singles in Australia: *Top 50 peaks: *Top 100 peaks to December 2010: *"Woo Hah Got You All in Check": N.B. The HP column displays the single's highest position. *"Make It Clap": *"Light Your Ass on Fire": *"Thank You": GER Peak chart positions for singles in Germany: *All except "Rumble in the Jungle", "Curious" and "Ante Up" (Remix): *"Rumble in the Jungle": *"Curious": * "Ante Up" (Remix): NLD NZ SWE SWI UK Peak chart positions for singles in the United Kingdom: * All except "Oh My God", "Rumble in the Jungle", "Curious" and "Ante Up" (Remix): * "Oh My God": * "Rumble in the Jungle": * "Curious": * "Ante Up" (Remix): "Woo-Hah Got You All in Check" (solo or featuring Ol' Dirty Bastard) 1996 8 6 1 96 42 20 8 13 — 8 * RIAA: Platinum The Coming "It's a Party" (featuring Zhané) 52 27 7 — — — 34 — — 23 "Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)" (with B-Real, Coolio, LL Cool J and Method Man) 1997 — — — — 14 5 17 10 11 8 Space Jam soundtrack "Do My Thing" — — — — — — — — — 39 The Coming "Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See" — — — — — — — — — 16 When Disaster Strikes... "Dangerous" 9 4 1 92 65 84 11 — — 32 * RIAA: Gold "One" (featuring Erykah Badu) 1998 — — — — — — 17 — — 23 "Turn It Up (Remix) / Fire It Up" 10 7 1 88 7 3 1 30 6 2 * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver * RMNZ: Platinum "Tear da Roof Off" — 75 — — — — — — — — Extinction Level Event: The Final World Front "Gimme Some More" — 29 — — 52 19 14 50 — 5 "Party Is Goin' on Over Here" — 72 — — — — — — — — "What's It Gonna Be?!" (featuring Janet Jackson) 1999 3 1 1 65 42 29 7 58 41 6 * RIAA: Gold "Get Out " 2000 — 35 — — — — — — — 57 Anarchy "Fire" — 67 24 — — — — — — 60 "What It Is" (featuring Kelis) 2001 63 20 4 — 70 — — — — — Violator: The Album, V2.0 and Genesis "Break Ya Neck" 26 10 9 13 17 27 — — 20 11 * ARIA: Gold * BPI: Silver * BVMI: Gold Genesis "As I Come Back" — 91 7 — — — — — — — "Pass the Courvoisier, Part II" (featuring P. Diddy and Pharrell) 2002 11 4 3 43 27 47 — — 58 16 "Make It Clap" (featuring Sean Paul and Spliff Star) 2003 46 17 14 61 50 15 — — — 16 It Ain't Safe No More... "I Know What You Want" (with Mariah Carey, featuring The Flipmode Squad) 3 2 3 3 9 4 7 11 5 3 * RIAA: Platinum * ARIA: Platinum * BPI: Silver * RMNZ: Gold "Light Your Ass on Fire" (featuring Pharrell) 58 23 12 52 86 — — — 40 62 Clones "Shorty (Put It on the Floor)" (with Fat Joe, Chingy and Nick Cannon) — — — — — — — — — — Love Don't Cost a Thing soundtrack "Where's Your Money" (featuring Ol' Dirty Bastard) 2005 — 65 — — — — — — — — "Touch It" 2006 16 3 2 14 24 34 1 — 23 6 * RIAA: Gold * RMNZ: Gold The Big Bang "I Love My Bitch" (featuring Kelis and will.i.am) 41 18 8 22 38 43 8 — 22 8 "New York Shit" (featuring Swizz Beatz) — 77 — — — — — — — — "In the Ghetto" (featuring Rick James) — 50 24 — — — — — — — "Don't Touch Me (Throw da Water on 'Em)" 2008 — 83 — — — — — — — — rowspan="2" "We Made It" (featuring Linkin Park) 65 — — 13 11 — 37 24 17 10 "Arab Money" (featuring Ron Browz) 86 31 9 — — — — — — — Back on My B.S. "Hustler's Anthem '09" (featuring T-Pain) 2009 — 51 19 — — — — — — — "Respect My Conglomerate" (featuring Jadakiss and Lil Wayne) — 82 — — — — — — — — "World Go Round" (featuring Estelle) — — — — — — — — — 66 "Stop the Party (Iron Man)" (featuring Swizz Beatz) 2010 — 87 — — — — — — — — Anarchy 2 "Why Stop Now" (featuring Chris Brown) 2011 — 79 — — — — — — — — "King Tut" (featuring Reek da Villian and J-Doe) 2012 — — — — — — — — — — Year of the Dragon "#TwerkIt" (solo or featuring Nicki Minaj) 2013 — — — — — — — — — — rowspan="2" "Thank You" (featuring Q-Tip, Kanye West and Lil Wayne) — — — 52 — — — — — 13 * BPI: Silver "Calm Down" (featuring Eminem) 2014 94 29 16 — — — — — — 63 Extinction Level Event 2: The Wrath of God "AAAHHHH !" (featuring Swizz Beatz) 2016 — — — — — — — — — — rowspan="3" "Girlfriend" (featuring Vybz Kartel and Tory Lanez) 2017 — — — — — — — — — — "Get It" (featuring Missy Elliott and Kelly Rowland) 2018 — — — — — — — — — — "The Don & the Boss" (featuring Vybz Kartel) 2020 — — — — — — — — — — Extinction Level Event 2: The Wrath of God "Yuuuu" (with Anderson .Paak) — — — — — — — — — — "Where I Belong" (featuring Mariah Carey) 2021 — — — — — — — — — — "Slap" (with Big Daddy Kane and Conway the Machine) 2022 — — — — — — — — — — The Fuse Is Lit "Beach Ball" (featuring BIA) 2023 — — — — — — — — — — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ===As featured artist=== List of singles as featured artist, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name Title Year Peak chart positions Certifications Album US Peak chart positions for singles as a featured artist in the United States: * "Victory": * "What It Is": * "Don't Cha": * "Look at Me Now": US R&B; Peak chart positions for singles as a featured artist on the Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs chart: * "Oh My God": * "The Points": * "Victory": * "Da Goodness": * "Imperial": * "What It Is" and "Keep Doin' It": * "Tonight I'm Gonna Let Go": * "Fire (Yes, Yes Y'all)": * "What's Happenin'": * "Don't Cha": * "For the Nasty": * "Hurt": * "Look at Me Now": * "Turn't Up": * "The Woman You Love": * "Pride N Joy": US Rap Peak chart positions for singles as a featured artist on the Hot Rap Singles and Hot Rap Songs charts: * "Oh My God": * "Victory": * "Da Goodness": * "Imperial": * "What It Is": * "Look At Me Now": AUS GER NLD NZ SWE SWI UK "Oh My God" (A Tribe Called Quest featuring Busta Rhymes) 1994 — 69 15 — — — — — — 81 Midnight Marauders "Flava in Ya Ear (Remix)" (Craig Mack featuring the Notorious B.I.G., Rampage, LL Cool J and Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — "The Points" (with various artists) 1995 — 80 — — — — — — — — Panther soundtrack "Wild for da Night" (Rampage featuring Busta Rhymes) 1997 — — — — — — — — — — Scout's Honor… by Way of Blood "Rumble in the Jungle" (Fugees featuring A Tribe Called Quest, John Forté and Busta Rhymes) — — — — 85 — 13 36 — 3 When We Were Kings soundtrack "The After Party (The Theme II)" (Tracey Lee featuring Busta Rhymes and Pirate) — — — — — — — — — — Many Facez "Curious" (LSG featuring LL Cool J, Busta Rhymes and MC Lyte) 1998 — — — — 70 — — — — 23 Levert.Sweat.Gill "Victory" (Puff Daddy featuring the Notorious B.I.G. and Busta Rhymes) 19 13 2 — 67 — 19 — — — * RIAA: Gold No Way Out "Da Goodness" (Redman featuring Busta Rhymes) 1999 — 50 9 — — — — — — — Doc's da Name 2000 "Everybody Come On" (DJ Skribble featuring Busta Rhymes, Rampage, Spliff Star, Consequence and Ed Lover) — — — — — — 30 — — — Traffic Jams "Imperial" (Rah Digga featuring Busta Rhymes) — 59 16 — — — — — — — Dirty Harriet "Ante Up" (Remix) (M.O.P. featuring Busta Rhymes, Remy Ma and Teflon) 2001 — — — — 21 33 — — 15 7 "Tonight I'm Gonna Let Go" (Syleena Johnson featuring Busta Rhymes, Rampage, Sham and Spliff Star) 2002 — 53 — — — — — — — — Chapter 2: The Voice "So Gone" (Remix) (Monica featuring Busta Rhymes) 2003 — — — — — — — — — — "Fire (Yes, Yes Y'all)" (Joe Budden featuring Busta Rhymes) — 48 — — — — — — — — Joe Budden "Get By" (Remix) (Talib Kweli featuring Jay-Z, Mos Def, Kanye West and Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — "Get Low" (Remix) (Lil Jon & The East Side Boyz featuring Busta Rhymes, Elephant Man and Ying Yang Twins) — — — 23 11 — 28 — 44 — Part II "Keep Doin' It" (Violator featuring Mystikal, Dirtbag and Busta Rhymes) — 92 — — — — — — — — Violator 3 Album V3: The Good, the Bad & the Ugly "What's Happenin'" (Method Man featuring Busta Rhymes) 2004 — 65 — — 82 — — — — 15 Tical 0: The Prequel "Don't Cha" (The Pussycat Dolls featuring Busta Rhymes) 2005 2 8 — 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 * RIAA: Platinum * ARIA: 2× Platinum * BPI: 2× Platinum * BVMI: Platinum * IFPI SWE: Gold * IFPI SWI: Gold * RMNZ: Gold PCD "For the Nasty" (Q-Tip featuring Busta Rhymes) — 86 — — — — — — — — rowspan="2" "Wanna Love You Girl" (Remix) (Robin Thicke featuring Busta Rhymes and Pharrell) 2006 — — — — — — — — — — "Hurt" (T.I. featuring Alfamega and Busta Rhymes) 2007 — 89 — — — — — — — — T.I. vs. T.I.P. "I'm So Hood" (Remix) (DJ Khaled featuring Young Jeezy, Ludacris, Busta Rhymes, Big Boi, Lil Wayne, Fat Joe, Birdman and Rick Ross) — — — — — — — — — — We the Best "Run the Show" (Kat DeLuna featuring Busta Rhymes) 2008 — — — — 73 26 — 18 29 41 9 Lives "Feedback" (So So Def Remix) (Janet Jackson featuring Busta Rhymes, Ciara and Fabolous) — — — — — — — — — — "Peace Sign/Index Down" (Gym Class Heroes featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — The Quilt "Rotate" (Capone-N-Noreaga featuring Ron Browz and Busta Rhymes) 2009 — — — — — — — — — — Channel 10 "Blockstars" (DJ Kay Slay featuring Plies, Ray J, Jim Jones and Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — More Than Just a DJ "Love You" (Timati featuring Busta Rhymes and Mariya) — — — — — — — — — — The Boss and SWAGG "Euphoria" (Rakim featuring Busta Rhymes, Cocoa Chanelle, Jadakiss and Styles P) 2010 — — — — — — — — — — The Seventh Seal "All I Do Is Win" (Remix) (DJ Khaled featuring T-Pain, Diddy, Nicki Minaj, Rick Ross, Busta Rhymes, Fabolous, Jadakiss, Fat Joe and Swizz Beatz) — — — — — — — — — — "Look at Me Now" (Chris Brown featuring Busta Rhymes and Lil Wayne) 2011 6 1 1 46 — — 37 — — 44 * RIAA: 8× Platinum * ARIA: 2× Platinum * BPI: Gold F.A.M.E. "C'mon (Catch 'Em by Surprise)" (Tiësto vs. Diplo featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — 68 8 — — 68 12 * BPI: Silver rowspan="2" "Far Away" (Remix) (Marsha Ambrosius featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — "Worldwide Choppers" (Tech N9ne featuring Busta Rhymes, Ceza, D-Loc, JL of B. Hood, Twista, Twisted Insane, U$O and Yelawolf) — — — — — — — — — — * RIAA: Platinum All 6's and 7's "Harsh" (Styles P featuring Rick Ross and Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — Master of Ceremonies "Strut" (I.C. Green featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — "Turn't Up" (Lil Twist featuring Busta Rhymes) — 88 — — — — — — — — Don't Get It Twisted "The Woman You Love" (Ashanti featuring Busta Rhymes) — 59 — — — — — — — — rowspan="2" "60 Second Assassins" (DJ Kay Slay featuring Busta Rhymes, Layzie Bone, Twista and Jaz-O) — — — — — — — — — — "Lehhhgooo" (N.O.R.E. featuring Waka Flocka Flame, Busta Rhymes and Game) 2012 — — — — — — — — — — Crack on Steroids "Pride N Joy" (Fat Joe featuring Kanye West, Miguel, Jadakiss, Mos Def, DJ Khaled, Roscoe Dash and Busta Rhymes) — 81 — — — — — — — — rowspan="6" "Take You There" (Jodie Connor featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — "I'm Drinking" / "Rum & Redbull" (Remix) (Beenie Man and Fambo featuring Busta Rhymes) 2013 — — — — — — — — — — "Shabba" (Remix) (ASAP Ferg featuring Shabba Ranks, Busta Rhymes and Migos) — — — — — — — — — — "Manners" (N.O.R.E. featuring Busta Rhymes) 2014 — — — — — — — — — — "Touchdown" (Remix) (O.T. Genasis featuring Busta Rhymes and French Montana) — — — — — — — — — — "Broad Daylight" (M.O.P. featuring Busta Rhymes) — — — — — — — — — — Street Certified "Devil" (Cash Cash featuring Busta Rhymes, B.o.B and Neon Hitch) 2015 — — — — — — — — — — Blood, Sweat & 3 Years "Pleasure or Pain" (Stephen Marley featuring Busta Rhymes and Konshens) 2016 — — — — — — — — — — Revelation Pt. 2 – The Fruit of Life "You Should Know" — — — — — — — — — — "Nutshell Pt. 2" Bubbl. "One Two Shit" (A Tribe Called Quest featuring Busta Rhymes) 1994 — "Do My Thing" 1996 — The Coming "Abandon Ship" (featuring Rampage The Last Boy Scout) — "Everything Remains Raw" — "Ill Vibe" (featuring Q-Tip) — "Live to Regret" — Set It Off: Music From the New Line Cinema Motion Picture "You Won't Tell, I Won't Tell" (featuring Greg Nice) 1997 — rowspan="2" "Coming Off" — "Rhymes Galore" 1998 — When Disaster Strikes... "There's No Problem My Squad Can't Fix" (featuring Jamal) — "Do It Like Never Before" — "Do the Bus a Bus" 43 Extinction Level Event: The Final World Front "Grinch 2000" (with Jim Carrey) 2000 — Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas soundtrack "Fallin' (Remix)" (Alicia Keys featuring Busta Rhymes and Rampage) 2001 — Songs in A Minor "We Goin' to Do It to Ya" 2002 19 It Ain't Safe No More... "Gimme the Light" (Pass the Dro-Voisier Remix) (Sean Paul featuring Busta Rhymes) — Dutty Rock "Don't Get Carried Away" (featuring Nas) 2006 — The Big Bang "They're Out to Get Me" (featuring Mr. Porter) — "East Coast" (Remix) (ASAP Ferg featuring Busta Rhymes, ASAP Rocky, Dave East, French Montana, Rick Ross and Snoop Dogg) 2017 — Still Striving ==Other charted songs== List of other charted songs, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album name Title Year Peak chart positions Certifications Album US US R&B; Peak chart positions for other charted songs on the Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs chart: * "Hail Mary": * "Victory 2004": US Rap CAN "Pass the Courvoisier" (featuring P. Diddy) 2001 — — — — Genesis "Hail Mary" (with Eminem and 50 Cent) 2003 — 33 18 — Invasion Part II: Conspiracy Theory "Victory 2004" (with P. Diddy, The Notorious B.I.G., 50 Cent and Lloyd Banks) 2004 — 61 — — Bad Boy's 10th Anniversary... The Hits "I'll Hurt You" (featuring Eminem) 2005 — — — — "La La" (Lil Wayne featuring Brisco and Busta Rhymes) 2008 — — — — Tha Carter III "Decision" (featuring Jamie Foxx, Mary J. Blige, John Legend and Common) 2009 — — — — Back on My B.S. "Let's Go" (Travis Barker featuring Yelawolf, Twista, Busta Rhymes and Lil Jon) 2011 — — — — Give the Drummer Some "Outro" (Lil Wayne featuring Bun B, Nas, Shyne and Busta Rhymes) — — — — Tha Carter IV "Drummer Boy" (Justin Bieber featuring Busta Rhymes) 99 — — 86 * RIAA: Gold Under the Mistletoe "My Shot (Rise Up Remix)" (Justin Bieber featuring Busta Rhymes) 2016 — — — — The Hamilton Mixtape "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Discography with Flipmode Squad== Albums: The Imperial (1998, Elektra) Mixtapes: The Facelift (2007) Singles: "Cha Cha Cha" (1998) "Everybody On The Line Outside" / "Run For Cover" (1998) "Here We Go" (2002) "Just Chill" (2002) "Ain't Nothin' To Fuck With" (2003) ==Guest appearances== List of non-single guest appearances, with other performing artists, showing year released and album name Title Year Other artist(s) Album "Nitty Gritty" (Dog Spelled Backwards Mix) 1991 KMD, Brand Nubian "Come on Down" Big Daddy Kane, Q-Tip Prince of Darkness "Intro Talk" 1992 Mary J. Blige What's the 411? "A Buncha Niggas" 1993 Heavy D & the Boyz, 3rd Eye, The Notorious B.I.G., Rob-O Blue Funk "Wicked Act" Buju Banton Voice of Jamaica "Keep Steppin' On" Another Bad Creation It Ain't What U Wear, It's How U Play It "Come Wit da Git Down" (Remix) 1994 Artifacts Between a Rock and a Hard Place "Alladat" Brand Nubian Everything Is Everything "Can I Get a Witness (Interlude)" TLC CrazySexyCool "Representin' Uniondale" 1995 Doo Wop '95 Live: The Classic Collection "Build Ya Skillz" KRS-One KRS-One "Vibin' (The New Flava)" Boyz II Men, Treach, Craig Mack, Method Man The Remix Collection "Freestyle" Funkmaster Flex The Mix Tape, Vol. 1 "Milk" 1996 Young Zee, KRS-One Musical Meltdown "Change Like the Weather" Bounty Killer, Junior Reid My Xperience "Yeah" Keith Murray, Jamal, Redman, Erick Sermon Enigma "Wild Hot" 1997 A Tribe Called Quest Rhyme & Reason soundtrack "Pay Ya Dues" Frankie Cutlass, Keith Murray, Cocoa Brovaz Politics & Bullshit "Driver's Seat" Capone-N-Noreaga, Imam T.H.U.G. The War Report "Busta's Intro" Missy Elliott Supa Dupa Fly "Busta's Outro" "Flipmode Iz da Squad" Rampage Scout's Honor… by Way of Blood "Get Money and Dip" "Intro" Diamond D, Kid Capri Hatred, Passions and Infidelity "This One" Diamond D "Starsky & Hutch" LL Cool J Phenomenon "I'll Be Right There" Jagged Edge A Jagged Era "Niggaz Wanna Act" Mase Harlem World "Loco Como Rodman" Boricua Guerrero, Jahvia First Combat "Parental Discretion" 1998 Big Pun Capital Punishment "Get Money" 8Ball Lost "The Assignment" Noreaga, Spliff Star, Maze N.O.R.E. "Whacha Want Whacha Need" Mystikal Ghetto Fabulous "Do It to Me" E-40 The Element of Surprise "Freestyle" Funkmaster Flex, Flipmode Squad The Mix Tape, Vol. III "Get Contact" Missy Elliott Why Do Fools Fall in Love soundtrack "Steppin' It Up" A Tribe Called Quest, Redman The Love Movement "Let's Dance" Brand Nubian Foundation "On Your Marks, Get Set, Ready, Go!" The Rugrats Movie soundtrack "The Hit-Off" Kid Capri, Spliff Star Soundtrack to the Streets "The Onslaught" 1999 Black Moon War Zone "More Dangerous" Lil' Cease, G. Dep, Mr. Bristal The Wonderful World of Cease A Leo "Rap Is Still Outta Control" EPMD Out of Business "What My Niggaz Want" Cam'ron Violator: The Album "Bus-A-Bus" (Remix) "Violators" L Boogie, Sonya Blade, Noreaga, Mysonne, Prodigy "Reverse" Puff Daddy, G. Dep, Sauce Money, Shyne, Redman, Cee Lo Green Forever "Do It Now" Mos Def Black on Both Sides "The New Shit" Pharoahe Monch Internal Affairs "Simon Says" (Remix) Pharoahe Monch, Lady Luck, Redman, Method Man, Shabaam Sahdeeq "Rastaman Chant" Bob Marley, Flipmode Squad Chant Down Babylon "N.T." Q-Tip Amplified "Dangerous MC's" The Notorious B.I.G., Mark Curry, Snoop Dogg Born Again "Bongo Break" 2000 The Madd Rapper Tell 'Em Why U Madd "Holla Holla" (Remix) Ja Rule, Jay-Z, Vita, Black Child, Tah Murdah, Memphis Bleek Irv Gotti Presents: The Murderers "What It's All About" Slum Village Fantastic, Vol. 2 "Fright Night" Ruff Ryders, Swizz Beatz Ryde or Die Vol. 2 "I.C. Y'all" De La Soul Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump "Things" Keith Sweat, Rah Digga Didn't See Me Coming "The Monument" Wu-Tang Clan The W "Getting It" 2001 DJ Clue?, Rah Digga The Professional 2 "Gutter 2 The Fancy Ish" Angie Martinez Up Close and Personal "Bus-a-Bus Interlude" Missy Elliott Miss E... So Addictive "What It Is, Pt. 2" Flipmode Squad, Kelis Dr. Dolittle 2 soundtrack "Bully Foot" Tha Alkaholiks X.O. Experience "When Bus Callz (Insert)" Bad Azz Personal Business "Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life" Mariah Carey, Fabolous, DJ Clue?, De La Soul Glitter soundtrack "Holla" The Wash soundtrack "We Thuggin'" (Remix) Fat Joe, Noreaga, R. Kelly, Remy Ma Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.) "The One" 2002 Silkk the Shocker, Dub Pistols Blade II: The Soundtrack "Bad Boy for Life" (Remix) P. Diddy, M.O.P. We Invented the Remix "Freaks Come Out at Night" Uncle Kracker Scooby-Doo soundtrack "Figadoh" (Remix) Benzino, M.O.P. The Benzino Remix Project "Holla Back Slime" N.O.R.E., Jadakiss God's Favorite "On" Large Professor 1st Class "Endalay" Swizz Beatz Swizz Beatz Presents G.H.E.T.T.O. Stories "Throw Your Shit Up" 2003 DJ Envy, Rah Digga The Desert Storm Mixtape: Blok Party, Vol. 1 "Hail Mary" Eminem, 50 Cent Invasion Part II: Conspiracy Theory "Lovely Day" Luther Vandross Dance with My Father "Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)" (Remix) Lumidee, Fabolous Almost Famous "On Smash" Keith Murray, Kell-Vicious He's Keith Murray "Oh!" Obie Trice Cheers "Forget About It Bout It" Lordz of Brooklyn Grafitti Roc "Revolution" 2Pac Rap Phenomenon II "Gunz on My Side" 2Pac, Lil Jon, E.D.I. Mean "R U Ready 4 This" 2004 Pitch Black Pitch Black Law "Victory 2004" P. Diddy, The Notorious B.I.G., 50 Cent, Lloyd Banks Bad Boy's 10th Anniversary... The Hits "Throw an Elbow" DJ Muggs, Chace Infinite, Sixx John Last Assassin "Suicide Bounce" Nas Street's Disciple "Tough Guy" Xzibit Weapons of Mass Destruction "Like Father, Like Son" 2005 The Game The Documentary "Whatchalike" Kardinal Offishall Fire and Glory "Geek Down" 2006 J Dilla The Shining "March" Hi-Tek Hi-Teknology²: The Chip "Music for Life" "Doctor's Advocate" The Game Doctor's Advocate "In the Ghetto" (Remix) Ludacris, Rick James Pre-Release Therapy "Passing the Torch..." Willie the Kid Divide and Conquer "Walk Witt Me" 2007 Freeway, Jadakiss Free at Last "Running Your Mouth" The Notorious B.I.G., Fabolous, Snoop Dogg Greatest Hits "Uh Huh" Free rowspan="3" "Let It Go" (Remix) Keyshia Cole, Missy Elliott, Lil' Kim "Crying Out for Me" (Remix) Mario, Lil Wayne "Where's My Money" Grand Theft Auto IV "Can't Tell Me Nothing" (Remix) Kanye West, Lil Wayne, Young Jeezy rowspan="2" "Set It Off" (Remix) N.O.R.E., Swizz Beatz, Red Café, Cassidy, Talib Kweli "Shine" 2008 Focus..., Bishop Lamont Dedicated "Speedin'" (We the Best Remix) Rick Ross, R. Kelly, DJ Khaled, Plies, Birdman, DJ Drama, Webbie, Gorilla Zoe, Fat Joe, Torch, Gunplay, DJ Bigga Rankin', Flo Rida, Brisco, Lil Wayne rowspan="2" "Music for Love" (Remix) Mario "The Way We Roll" (Remix) Elephant Man, Shaggy Let's Get Physical "La La" Lil Wayne, Brisco Tha Carter III "Head Banger" Alfamega Street Runnaz "Fried Chicken" Nas Untitled "She's like a Star" (Remix) Taio Cruz, Sugababes rowspan="3" "Side Effects" (Remix) Mariah Carey "Let's Ride" (Remix) Josh-Z-Antus, Red Cafe, Jadakiss "She's Fine" DJ Khaled, Sean Paul, Missy Elliott We Global "Kissin' the Curb" Jake One, Bishop Lamont White Van Music "Black President" (Remix Part 1) DJ Green Lantern, David Banner, Talib Kweli Yes We Can: The Mixtape "Turnin Me On" (Remix) Keri Hilson "Dat Shit" Marsha Ambrosius Yours Truly "How to Be a Boss" 2009 Jim Jones, Ludacris, NOE Pray IV Reign "G-Stro" Fast & Furious soundtrack "Lion's Roar" Asher Roth, New Kingdom Asleep in the Bread Aisle "We Must Be Heard" DJ Drama, Ludacris, Willie the Kid Gangsta Grillz: The Album (Vol. 2) "Billionaire" Twista Category F5 "Director's Cut" Uncle Murda Summer Time Shootouts "About Me" Raekwon Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Pt. II "Dinner Time" Royce da 5'9" Street Hop "Intro" 2010 DJ Kay Slay More Than Just a DJ "Blockstars" (Remix) DJ Kay Slay, Sheek Louch, Rick Ross, Papoose, Cam'ron, Vado, Ray J "I'll Kill" Ace Mac "Lowrider" Game The Red Room "Intro" DJ Khaled, Diddy Victory "Killing Me" DJ Khaled, Buju Banton, Bounty Killer "Brake Lights" Game Brake Lights "Cold Blood" Game, Dre "Crane Style" 2011 Raekwon Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang "H•A•M" (Remix) "Let the Dogs Loose" Papoose, Raekwon, Sheek Louch, Styles P The 2nd Coming "Let's Go" Travis Barker, Yelawolf, Twista, Lil Jon Give the Drummer Some "Coke, Dope, Crack, Smack" J-Doe "Take It to the Hole" LMFAO Sorry for Party Rocking "Sleep When I'm Gone" DJ Khaled, Cee Lo Green, Game We the Best Forever "Welcome to My Hood" (Remix) DJ Khaled, Ludacris, T-Pain, Mavado, Twista, Birdman, Ace Hood, Fat Joe, Jadakiss, Bun B, Game, Waka Flocka Flame "Go n Get It" (Remix) Ace Hood, Beanie Sigel, Pusha T, Styles P Blood, Sweat & Tears "Fall Out" (Remix) Reek da Villain, Roscoe Dash, Ace Hood, Akon, Bun B rowspan="2" "Coke, Dope, Crack, Smack" (Remix) J-Doe, David Banner, T-Pain "Outro" Bun B, Nas, Shyne Tha Carter IV "Drummer Boy" Justin Bieber Under the Mistletoe "Grow Up" Cher Lloyd Sticks and Stones "Rigamortis" (Remix) Kendrick Lamar "Wrestler" OJ da Juiceman The Lord of the Rings "Shit Done Got Real" Ace Hood, Yelawolf The Statement 2 "The Money" DJ Pharris, R. Kelly, Fabolous, Fat Joe "MTV Cribs" 2012 Raekwon Unexpected Victory "Bottles & Rockin' J's" Game, DJ Khaled, Rick Ross, Fabolous, Lil Wayne, Teyana Taylor California Republic "Got Damn" (Remix) DJ Kay Slay, Torch, Gunplay, French Montana, 2 Chainz "Earthquake" (All-Stars Remix) Labrinth, Tinie Tempah, Kano, Wretch 32 Electronic Earth "Different Cloth" Wiz Khalifa "Coffin" Slaughterhouse Welcome to: Our House "Mobbin" (Remix) Maino, Jim Jones, Gucci Mane, Yo Gotti, Trae Tha Truth The Mafia "I Can’t Take It" (Remix) DJ Paul, DJ Kay Slay "Play Dirty" Termanology, Lil' Fame, Styles P Fizzyology "Violent Music" DJ Kay Slay, DJ Paul, Vado Grown Man Hip-Hop "You Wonder" 2013 Future, Rocko F.B.G.: The Movie "They My Juniors" Consequence Movies on Demand 4 "Come and Get It" T-Pain, Ace Hood "Violent Music" (Remix) DJ Kay Slay, DJ Paul, Bun B, Vado, Gunplay Grown Man Hip Hop Part 2 (Sleepin' With The Enemy) "Self Made" Bow Wow, Tyga Greenlight 5 "Grave Digga" Gudda Gudda, Mr. Blac REDRUM "Faces of Death" N.O.R.E., French Montana, Swizz Beatz, Raekwon Student of the Game "Shake It" Funkmaster Flex, Future, Trey Songz Who You Mad At? Me or Yourself? "Remedy" Snoop Lion, Chris Brown Reincarnated "Rocket Ships" Talib Kweli Prisoner of Conscious "Never Get Over You" PJ Morton New Orleans "Kobe or Ginobili" (Remix) Mack Maine, Rick Ross, French Montana, Ace Hood "Hold That" Tony Touch, J-Doe, Reek da Villain, Roc Marciano The Piece Maker 3: Return of the 50 MC's "Kan't See Me" Cory Gunz Datz WTF I'm Talkin Bout "Everyday" Cory Gunz, Birdman, Mystikal Rich Gang "Break of Dawn" Jay Sean Neon "Sweet Caroline" Chris Brown X Files "How We Survive" Sean Kingston Back 2 Life "Partition" (Remix) 2014 Beyoncé, Azealia Banks rowspan="2" "Hot Nigga" (Remix) Bobby Shmurda, Fabolous, Jadakiss, Chris Brown, Rowdy Rebel, Yo Gotti "Wall to Wall" 2015 Raekwon, French Montana Fly International Luxurious Art "Beast" (Southpaw Remix) Rob Bailey & The Hustle Standard, KXNG Crooked, Tech N9ne Southpaw: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack "Fly on the Wall" Jay Rock, Macy Gray 90059 "Out the Trunk (Remix)" Fashawn "Like Father, Like Son 2" The Game The Documentary 2.5 "Final Hour" 2016 Hodgy Fireplace: TheNotTheOtherSide "Don't Ever Play Yourself" DJ Khaled, Jadakiss, Fabolous, Fat Joe, Kent Jones Major Key "Solid Wall of Sound" A Tribe Called Quest, Jack White, Elton John We Got It from Here... Thank You 4 Your Service "Dis Generation" A Tribe Called Quest "Mobius" A Tribe Called Quest, Consequence "The Donald" A Tribe Called Quest, Katia Cadet "My Shot" (Rise Up Remix) The Roots, Joell Ortiz, Nate Ruess The Hamilton Mixtape "Somebody Knows" 2017 The Notorious B.I.G., Faith Evans The King & I "Hear My Cry" AD Blue 89 C2 "Ça va trop vite" Bigflo & Oli La vraie vie "Brossface Bripper" 2018 Westside Gunn, Benny The Butcher Supreme Blientele "Line Em Up" 2020 Russ CHOMP ==Music videos== ===As lead artist=== List of music videos as lead artist, with directors, showing year released Title Year Director(s) "Woo Hah Got You All in Check" 1996 Hype Williams "It's a Party" (featuring Zhané) Marcus Raboy "Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)" (with B-Real, Coolio, LL Cool J and Method Man) Hype Williams "Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See" 1997 "Dangerous" "Turn It Up" (Remix) / "Fire It Up" 1998 Paul Hunter "Gimme Some More" Hype Williams "Tear da Roof Off" / "Party Going On Over Here" 1999 "What's It Gonna Be?!" (featuring Janet Jackson) "Get Out " 2000 "Fire" "What It Is" (featuring Kelis) 2001 "Break Ya Neck" "Pass the Courvoisier, Part II" (featuring Diddy and Pharrell) 2002 Chris Robinson "Make It Clap" (featuring Spliff Star) "Make It Clap" (version 2) (featuring Sean Paul and Spliff Star) Erik White "I Know What You Want" (featuring Mariah Carey and Flipmode Squad) 2003 Chris Robinson "Light Your Ass on Fire" (featuring Pharrell) Joseph Kahn "Shorty (Put It on the Floor)" (featuring Fat Joe, Chingy and Nick Cannon) 2004 Gregory Dark "Touch It" 2005 Benny Boom, Busta Rhymes "Touch It" (Remix) (featuring Mary J. Blige, Rah Digga, Missy Elliott, Lloyd Banks, Papoose and DMX) 2006 Benny Boom "I Love My Bitch" (featuring Kelis and will.i.am) "New York Shit" (featuring Swizz Beatz) Benny Boom, Justin Francis "In the Ghetto" (featuring Rick James) Chris Robinson "We Made It" (featuring Linkin Park) 2008 "Don't Touch Me (Throw da Water on 'em)" Rage, Busta Rhymes "I Got Bass" Vid Arroyo "Arab Money" (featuring Ron Browz) Rik Cordero "Arab Money" (Remix) (featuring Diddy, Ron Browz, Swizz Beatz, Akon and Lil Wayne) 2009 "Arab Money" (Remix Pt. 2) (featuring Ron Browz, Rick Ross, Spliff Star, N.O.R.E. and Red Café) "Hustler's Anthem '09" (featuring T-Pain) Hype Williams "Respect My Conglomerate" (featuring Lil Wayne and Jadakiss) Chris Robinson "If You Don’t Know, Now You Know" (featuring Big Tigger) Aristotle, Tin Chien "World Go Round" (featuring Estelle) Jason Goldwatch "Why Stop Now" (featuring Chris Brown) 2012 Hype Williams, Busta Rhymes "King Tut" (featuring Reek da Villian and J-Doe) Daniel Czernilofsky "Doin' It Again" (featuring Reek da Villian and Chanel Nicole) "Movie" (featuring J-Doe) "#TwerkIt" (featuring Nicki Minaj) 2013 Director X "Thank You" (featuring Q-Tip, Kanye West and Lil Wayne) 2014 "God's Plan" (featuring O.T. Genasis and J-Doe) 2015 Busta Rhymes "Girlfriend" (featuring Vybz Kartel and Tory Lanez) 2017 Busta Rhymes, Benny Boom "The Don & The Boss" (featuring Vybz Kartel) 2020 Benny Boom " YUUUU" (featuring Anderson .Paak) Busta Rhymes, Benny Boom " Master Fard Muhammad" (featuring Rick Ross) Busta Rhymes, Dre Films " Czar" (featuring M.O.P.) Busta Rhymes, Benny Boom "Boomp!" ===As featured artist=== List of music videos as featured artist, with directors, showing year released Title Year Director(s) "Rumble in the Jungle" (Fugees featuring A Tribe Called Quest, John Forté and Busta Rhymes) 1997 Marc Smerling, Mark Woollen "Wild for da Night" (Rampage featuring Busta Rhymes) Steve Carr "Victory" (Puff Daddy featuring The Notorious B.I.G. and Busta Rhymes) 1998 Marcus Nispel "Holla Holla" (Remix) (Ja Rule featuring Jay-Z, Vita, Black Child, Tah Murdah, Memphis Bleek and Busta Rhymes) 1999 Hype Williams "Imperial" (Rah Digga featuring Busta Rhymes) 2000 Diane Martel "Ante Up" (Remix) (M.O.P. featuring Busta Rhymes, Remy Ma and Teflon) 2001 Chris Robinson, Jessy Terrero "Fire (Yes, Yes Y'all)" (Joe Budden featuring Busta Rhymes) 2003 Paul Hunter, Kevin Hunter "Get Low" (Remix) (Lil Jon & The East Side Boyz featuring Busta Rhymes, Elephant Man and Ying Yang Twins) Gil Green "Don't Cha" (The Pussycat Dolls featuring Busta Rhymes) 2005 Paul Hunter "Wanna Love You Girl" (Remix) (Robin Thicke featuring Busta Rhymes and Pharrell) 2006 Paul Brown "Run the Show" (Kat DeLuna featuring Busta Rhymes) 2008 Ray Kay "All I Do Is Win" (Remix) (DJ Khaled featuring T-Pain, Diddy, Nicki Minaj, Rick Ross, Busta Rhymes, Fabolous, Jadakiss, Fat Joe and Swizz Beatz) 2010 Gil Green "Look At Me Now" (Chris Brown featuring Busta Rhymes and Lil Wayne) 2011 Colin Tilley "The Woman You Love" (Ashanti featuring Busta Rhymes) Sean Coles, Ashanti "Pride N Joy" (Fat Joe featuring Kanye West, Miguel, Jadakiss, Ashanti, DJ Khaled, Roscoe Dash and Busta Rhymes) 2012 Hype Williams "Broad Daylight" (M.O.P. featuring Busta Rhymes) 2014 Mo Shines, Jay Parris "Henny (Remix)" (Mack Wilds featuring French Montana, Mobb Deep and Busta Rhymes) G Wonders == See also == * Flipmode Squad discography * Leaders of the New School discography ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:Hip hop discographies Category:Discographies of American artists
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Acorn Computers Ltd. was a British computer company established in Cambridge, England, in 1978. The company produced a number of computers which were especially popular in the UK, including the Acorn Electron and the Acorn Archimedes. Acorn's computer dominated the UK educational computer market during the 1980s. Though the company was acquired and largely dismantled in early 1999, with various activities being dispersed amongst new and established companies, its legacy includes the development of reduced instruction set computing (RISC) personal computers. One of its operating systems, , continues to be developed by RISC OS Open. Some activities established by Acorn lived on: technology developed by Arm, created by Acorn as a joint venture with Apple and VLSI in 1990, is dominant in the mobile phone and personal digital assistant (PDA) microprocessor market. Acorn is sometimes referred to as the "British Apple"Report on Network Computer Technology . Simon Booth, European Commission, 1999. and has been compared to Fairchild Semiconductor for being a catalyst for start-ups. In 2010, the company was listed by David Meyer in ZDNet as number nine in a feature of top ten "Dead IT giants". Many British IT professionals gained their early experiences on Acorns, which were often more technically advanced than commercially successful US hardware. ==History== ===Early history=== On 25 July 1961, Clive Sinclair founded Sinclair Radionics to develop and sell electronic devices such as calculators. The failure of the Black Watch wristwatch and the calculator market's move from LEDs to LCDs led to financial problems, and Sinclair approached government body the National Enterprise Board (NEB) for help. After losing control of the company to the NEB, Sinclair encouraged Chris Curry to leave Radionics and get Science of Cambridge (SoC—an early name for Sinclair Research) up and running. In June 1978, SoC launched a microcomputer kit, the Mk 14, that Curry wanted to develop further, but Sinclair could not be persuaded so Curry resigned. During the development of the Mk 14, Hermann Hauser, a friend of Curry's, had been visiting SoC's offices and had grown interested in the product. ====CPU Ltd. (1978–1983)==== Curry and Hauser decided to pursue their joint interest in microcomputers and, on 5 December 1978, they set up Cambridge Processor Unit Ltd. (CPU) as the vehicle with which to do this. CPU soon obtained a consultancy contract to develop a microprocessor-based controller for a fruit machine for Ace Coin Equipment (ACE) of Wales. The ACE project was started at office space obtained at 4a Market Hill in Cambridge. Initially, the ACE controller was based on a National Semiconductor SC/MP microprocessor, but soon the switch to a MOS Technology 6502 was made. ====The microcomputer systems==== CPU had financed the development of a SC/MP based microcomputer system using the income from its design-and-build consultancy. This system was launched in January 1979 as the first product of Acorn Computer Ltd., a trading name used by CPU to keep the risks of the two different lines of business separate. The microcomputer kit was named as Acorn System 75. Acorn was chosen because the microcomputer system was to be expandable and growth-oriented. It also had the attraction of appearing before "Apple Computer" in a telephone directory. thumb|upright|left|March 1979 price list Around this time, CPU and Andy Hopper set up Orbis Ltd. to commercialise the Cambridge Ring networking system Hopper had worked on for his PhD, but it was soon decided to bring him into CPU as a director because he could promote CPU's interests at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. CPU purchased Orbis, and Hopper's Orbis shares were exchanged for shares in CPU Ltd. CPU's role gradually changed as its Acorn brand grew, and soon CPU was simply the holding company and Acorn was responsible for development work. At some point, Curry had a disagreement with Sinclair and formally left Science of Cambridge, but did not join the other Acorn employees at Market Hill until a little while later. The Acorn Microcomputer, later renamed the Acorn System 1, was designed by Sophie Wilson (then Roger Wilson). It was a semi-professional system aimed at engineering and laboratory users, but its price was low enough, at around £80 (), to appeal to the more serious enthusiast as well. It was a very small machine built on two cards, one with an LED display, keypad, and cassette interface (the circuitry to the left of the keypad), and the other with the rest of the computer (including the CPU). Almost all CPU signals were accessible via a Eurocard connector. The System 2 made it easier to expand the system by putting the CPU card from the System 1 in a Eurocard rack that allowed a number of optional additions. The System 2 typically shipped with keyboard controller, external keyboard, a text display interface, and a cassette operating system with built-in BASIC interpreter. The System 3 moved on by adding floppy disk support, and the System 4 by including a larger case with a second drive. The System 5 was largely similar to the System 4, but included a newer 2 MHz version of the 6502. ====The Atom==== thumb|The Acorn Atom Development of the Sinclair ZX80 started at Science of Cambridge in May 1979. Learning of this probably prompted Curry to conceive the Atom project to target the consumer market. Curry and another designer, Nick Toop, worked from Curry's home in the Fens on the development of this machine. It was at this time that Acorn Computers Ltd. was incorporated and Curry moved to Acorn full- time. It was Curry who wanted to target the consumer market. Other factions within Acorn, including the engineers, were happy to be out of that market, considering a home computer to be a rather frivolous product for a company operating in the laboratory equipment market. To keep costs down and not give the doubters reason to object to the Atom, Curry asked industrial designer Allen Boothroyd to design a case that could also function as an external keyboard for the microcomputer systems. The internals of the System 3 were placed inside the keyboard, creating a quite typical set-up for an inexpensive home computer of the early 1980s: the relatively successful Acorn Atom. To facilitate software development, a proprietary local area network had been installed at Market Hill. It was decided to include this, the Econet, in the Atom, and at its launch at a computer show in March 1980, eight networked Atoms were demonstrated with functions that allowed files to be shared, screens to be remotely viewed and keyboards to be remotely slaved. ====BBC Micro and the Electron==== thumb|The BBC micro released by Acorn in 1981 After the Atom had been released into the market, Acorn contemplated building modern 16-bit processors to replace the Atom. After a great deal of discussion, Hauser suggested a compromise—an improved 6502-based machine with far greater expansion capabilities: the Proton. Acorn's technical staff had not wanted to do the Atom and they now saw the Proton as their opportunity to "do it right". One of the developments proposed for the Proton was the Tube, a proprietary interface allowing a second processor to be added. This compromise would make for an affordable 6502 machine for the mass market which could be expanded with more sophisticated and expensive processors. The Tube enabled processing to be farmed out to the second processor leaving the 6502 to perform data input/output (I/O). The Tube would later be instrumental in the development of Acorn's ARM processor. In early 1980, the BBC Further Education department conceived the idea of a computer literacy programme, mostly as a follow-up to an ITV documentary, The Mighty Micro, in which Dr Christopher Evans from the UK National Physical Laboratory predicted the coming microcomputer revolution. It was a very influential documentary—so much so that questions were asked in Parliament. As a result of these questions, the Department of Industry (DoI) became interested in the programme, as did BBC Enterprises, which saw an opportunity to sell a machine to go with the series. BBC Engineering was instructed to draw up an objective specification for a computer to accompany the series. Eventually, under some pressure from the DoI to choose a British system, the BBC chose the NewBrain from Newbury Laboratories. This selection revealed the extent of the pressure brought to bear on the supposedly independent BBC's computer literacy project—Newbury was owned by the National Enterprise Board, a government agency operating in close collaboration with the DoI. The choice was also somewhat ironic given that the NewBrain started life as a Sinclair Radionics project, and it was Sinclair's preference for developing it over Science of Cambridge's MK14 that led to Curry leaving SoC to found CPU with Hauser. The NEB moved the NewBrain to Newbury after Sinclair left Radionics and went to SoC. In 1980–1982, the British Department of Education and Science (DES) had begun the Microelectronics Education Programme to introduce microprocessing concepts and educational materials. In 1981, through to 1986, the DoI allocated funding to assist UK local education authorities to supply their schools with a range of computers, the being one of the most popular. Schools were offered 50% of the cost of computers, providing they chose one of three models: BBC Micro, or Research Machines 380Z. In parallel, the DES continued to fund more materials for the computers, such as software and applied computing projects, plus teacher training. Although the NewBrain was under heavy development by Newbury, it soon became clear that they were not going to be able to produce it—certainly not in time for the literacy programme nor to the BBC's specification. The BBC's programmes, initially scheduled for autumn 1981, were moved back to spring 1982. After Curry and Sinclair found out about the BBC's plans, the BBC allowed other manufacturers to submit their proposals. Hauser quickly drafted in Steve Furber (who had been working for Acorn on a voluntary basis since the ACE fruit machine project) and Sophie Wilson to help complete a revised version of the Proton which met the BBC's specifications. BBC visited Acorn and were given a demonstration of the Proton. Shortly afterwards, the literacy programme computer contract was awarded to Acorn, and the Proton was launched in December 1981 as the BBC Micro. In April 1984, Acorn won the Queen's Award for Technology for the BBC Micro. The award paid special tribute to the BBC Micro's advanced design, and it commended Acorn "for the development of a microcomputer system with many innovative features". thumb|Principal creators of the BBC micro in 2008, some 26 years after its release In April 1982, Sinclair launched the ZX Spectrum. Curry conceived of the Electron as Acorn's sub-£200 competitor. In many ways a cut-down BBC Micro, it used one Acorn- designed uncommitted logic array (ULA) to reproduce most of the functionality. But problems in producing the ULAs led to short supply, and the Electron, although launched in August 1983, was not on the market in sufficient numbers to capitalise on the 1983 Christmas sales period. Acorn resolved to avoid this problem in 1984 and negotiated new production contracts. Acorn became more known for its than for its other products. In 2008, the Computer Conservation Society organised an event at London's Science Museum to mark the legacy of the BBC Micro. A number of the BBC Micro's principal creators were present, and Sophie Wilson recounted to the BBC how Hermann Hauser tricked her and Steve Furber to agree to create the physical prototype in less than five days. Also in 2008 a number of former staff organised a reunion event to mark the 30th anniversary of the company's formation. ===1983–1985: Acorn Computer Group=== The BBC Micro sold well—so much so that Acorn's profits rose from £3000 in 1979 to £8.6 million in July 1983. In September 1983, CPU shares were liquidated and Acorn was floated on the Unlisted Securities Market as Acorn Computer Group plc, with Acorn Computers Ltd. as the microcomputer division. With a minimum tender price of 120p, the group came into existence with a market capitalisation of about £135 million. CPU founders Hermann Hauser and Chris Curry's stakes in the new company were worth £64m and £51m, respectively. Ten percent of the equity was placed on the market, with the money raised from the flotation "mainly" directed towards establishing US and German subsidiaries (the flotation raising around £13.4 million), although some was directed towards research and product development. By the end of 1984, Acorn Computer Group was organised into several subsidiary companies. Acorn Computers Limited was responsible for the management of the microcomputer business, research and development, and UK sales and marketing, whereas Acorn Computer Corporation and Acorn Computers International Limited dealt with sales to the US and to other international markets respectively. Acorn Computers (Far East) Limited focused on component procurement and manufacturing with some distribution responsibilities in local markets. Acornsoft Limited was responsible for development, production and marketing of software for Acorn's computer range. Vector Marketing Limited was established to handle distribution-related logistics and the increasing customer support burden. As part of Acorn's office automation aspirations, conducting "advanced software research and development", Acorn Research Center Incorporated was established in Palo Alto, California. Acorn Leasing Limited rounded out the portfolio. ====New RISC architecture==== Even from the time of Acorn's earliest systems, the company was considering how to move on from the 6502 processor, introducing a Motorola 6809 processor card for its System 3 and System 4 models. Several years later in 1985, the Acorn Communicator employed the 16-bit 65816 processor as a step up from the 6502. The IBM PC was launched on 12 August 1981. Although a version of that machine was aimed at the enthusiast market much like the BBC Micro, its real area of success was business. The successor to the PC, the XT (eXtended Technology) was introduced in early 1983. The success of these machines and the variety of Z80-based CP/M machines in the business sector demonstrated that it was a viable market, especially given that sector's ability to cope with premium prices. The development of a business machine looked like a good idea to Acorn. A development programme was started to create a business computer using Acorn's existing technology—the BBC Micro mainboard, the Tube and second processors to give CP/M, MS-DOS and Unix (Xenix) workstations. This Acorn Business Computer (ABC) plan required a number of second processors to be made to work with the BBC Micro platform. In developing these, Acorn had to implement the Tube protocols on each processor chosen, in the process finding out, during 1983, that there were no obvious candidates to replace the 6502. Because of many- cycle uninterruptible instructions, for example, the interrupt response times of the Motorola 68000 were too slow to handle the communication protocol that the host 6502-based BBC Micro coped with easily. The National Semiconductor 32016-based model of the ABC range, was developed and later sold in 1985 as the Cambridge Workstation (using the Panos operating system). Advertising for this machine in 1986 included an illustration of an office worker using the workstation. The advert claimed mainframe power at a price of £3,480 (excluding VAT). The main text of the advertisement referred to available mainframe languages, communication capabilities and the alternative option of upgrading a BBC Micro using a coprocessor. The machine had shown Sophie Wilson and Steve Furber the value of memory bandwidth. It also showed that an 8 MHz 32016 was completely trounced in performance terms by a 4 MHz 6502. Furthermore, the Apple Lisa had shown the Acorn engineers that they needed to develop a windowing system—and this was not going to be easy with a 2–4 MHz 6502-based system doing the graphics. Acorn would need a new architecture. Acorn had investigated all of the readily available processors and found them wanting or unavailable to them. After testing all of the available processors and finding them lacking, Acorn decided that it needed a new architecture. Inspired by white papers on the Berkeley RISC project, Acorn seriously considered designing its own processor. A visit to the Western Design Center in Phoenix, where the 6502 was being updated by what was effectively a single- person company, showed Acorn engineers Steve Furber and Sophie Wilson they did not need massive resources and state-of-the-art research and development facilities. Sophie Wilson set about developing the instruction set, writing a simulation of the processor in that ran on a with a 6502 second processor. It convinced the Acorn engineers that they were on the right track. Before they could go any further, however, they would need more resources. It was time for Wilson to approach Hauser and explain what was afoot. Once the go-ahead had been given, a small team was put together to implement Wilson's model in hardware. The official Acorn RISC Machine project started in October 1983, with Acorn spending on it by 1987. VLSI Technology, Inc were chosen as silicon partner, since they already supplied Acorn with ROMs and some custom chips. VLSI produced the first ARM silicon on 26 April 1985—it worked first time and came to be known as ARM1. Its first practical application was as a second processor to the BBC Micro, where it was used to develop the simulation software to finish work on the support chips (VIDC, IOC, MEMC) and to speed up the operation of the CAD software used in developing ARM2. The ARM evaluation system was promoted as a means for developers to try the system for themselves. This system was used with a BBC Micro and a PC compatible version was also planned. Advertising was aimed at those with technical expertise, rather than consumers and the education market, with a number of technical specifications listed in the main text of the adverts. Wilson subsequently coded in ARM assembly language, and the in-depth knowledge obtained from designing the instruction set allowed the code to be very dense, making ARM BBC BASIC an extremely good test for any ARM emulator. Such was the secrecy surrounding the ARM CPU project that when Olivetti were negotiating to take a controlling share of Acorn in 1985, they were not told about the development team until after the negotiations had been finalised. In 1992, Acorn once more won the Queen's Award for Technology for the ARM. Acorn's development of their operating system required around 200 OS development staff at its peak. Acorn C/C++ was released commercially by Acorn, for developers to use to compile their own applications. ====Financial problems==== Having become a publicly traded company in 1983 during the home computer boom, Acorn's commercial performance in 1984 proved to be consequential. Many home computer manufacturers struggled to maintain customer enthusiasm, some offering unconvincing follow-up products that failed to appeal to buyers. The more successful manufacturers, like Amstrad, emphasised the bundling of computers with essential peripherals such as monitors and cassette recorders along with value for money. The collapse of the market from the manufacturers' perspective, it was argued, was due to the "neglect of the market by the manufacturers". Market adversity had led to Atari being sold, and Apple nearly went bankrupt. The Electron had been launched in 1983, but problems with the supply of its ULA meant that Acorn was not able to capitalise on the 1983 Christmas selling period.Chris's Acorns Acorn Electron - Release and ULA supply issues. A successful advertising campaign, including TV advertisements, had led to 300,000 orders, but the Malaysian suppliers were only able to supply 30,000 machines. The apparently strong demand for Electrons proved to be ephemeral: rather than wait, parents bought Commodore 64 or ZX Spectrum for their children's presents. Ferranti solved the production problem and in 1984, production reached its anticipated volumes, but the contracts Acorn had negotiated with its suppliers were not flexible enough to allow volumes to be reduced quickly in this unanticipated situation, and supplies of the Electron built up. At the time of the eventual financial rescue of Acorn in early 1985, it still had 100,000 unsold Electrons plus an inventory of components which had all been paid for and needed to be stored at additional expense. 40,000 BBC Micros also remained unsold. After a disappointing summer season in 1984, Acorn had evidently focused on making up for lost sales over the Christmas season, with the Electron being a particular focus. However, a refusal to discount the BBC Micro also appeared to inhibit sales of that machine, with some dealers expressing dissatisfaction to the point of considering abandoning the range altogether. With rumours of another, potentially cheaper, machine coming from Acorn, dealers eventually started to discount heavily after Christmas. For instance, high street retailer Rumbelows sought to clear unsold Christmas stocks of around 1500 machines priced at £299, offering a discount of around £100, also bundling them with a cassette recorder and software. The rumoured machine turned out to be the BBC Model B+ which was a relatively conservative upgrade and more, not less, expensive than the machine it replaced. It was speculated that the perception of a more competitive machine soon to be launched might well have kept potential purchasers away from the products that Acorn needed to sell. Acorn was also spending a large portion of its reserves on development: the BBC Master was being developed; the ARM project was underway; the Acorn Business Computer entailed a lot of development work but delivered few products, with only the 32016-based model ever being sold (as the Cambridge Workstation). The company's research and development staff had grown from around 100 in 1983 to around 150 in 1984, the latter out of a total of 450 employees. Meanwhile, Acorn's chosen method of expansion into West Germany and the United States through the establishment of subsidiaries involved a "major commitment of resources", in contrast with a less costly strategy that might have emphasised collaboration with local distributors. Localisation of the BBC Micro for the US market also involved more expenditure than it otherwise might have due to a failure to consider local market conditions and preferences, with "complex technical efforts" having been made to make the machine compatible with US television standards when local market information would have indicated that "US home computer users expect to use a dedicated personal computer monitor". Consequently, obtaining Federal approval for the BBC Micro in order to expand into the United States proved to be a drawn-out and expensive process that proved futile: all of the expansion devices that were intended to be sold with the BBC Micro had to be tested and radiation emissions had to be reduced. It was claimed that Acorn spent ($) on its US operation without this localised variant of the BBC Micro establishing a significant market share. The machine, however, did make an appearance in the school of Supergirl in the 1984 film Supergirl: The Movie. Acorn also made or attempted various acquisitions. The Computer Education in Schools division of ICL was acquired by Acorn in late 1983 "reportedly for less than £100,000", transferring a staff of six to Acorn's Maidenhead office to form Acorn's Educational Services division and to provide "the core of education support development within Acorn". Having had a close relationship with Torch Computers in the early 1980s, Acorn sought to acquire Torch in 1984 with the intention of making Torch "effectively the business arm" of Acorn, despite a lack of clarity about competing product lines and uncertainty about the future of Acorn's still-unreleased business machine within any rationalised product range, although this acquisition was never completed, with Torch having pulled out as Acorn's situation deteriorated. At around the same time, Acorn also bought into Torus Systems - a company developing a "graphics-controlled local network called Icon" for the IBM PC platform - to broaden Acorn's networking expertise, Icon being based on Ethernet as opposed to the Acorn-related Econet and Cambridge Ring technologies. Torus later released a network management solution called Tapestry, based on Icon and marketed by IBM for its own networking technologies. Torus also released support for the use of Novell's Advanced Netware product on its own networking hardware. The company eventually entered receivership in 1990 with Acorn reporting a £242,000 loss associated with the investment. Such were the ambitions of Acorn's management that a joint venture company was established in Hong Kong under the name Optical Information Systems, apparently engaging in the development of "digital, optical technology for computer data storage". Involving a Hong Kong turntable manufacturer, Better Sound Reproduction Ltd., Acorn were to set up a research and development facility in Palo Alto, California, to bring "compact laser disk drives designed as floppy disk drive replacements" to market within 18 months. In February 1985, speculation about the state of Acorn's finances intensified with the appointment of a temporary chief executive, Alexander Reid, to run the company, together with the announcement that Acorn had replaced its financial advisors, Lazards, and that the company's stockbrokers, Cazenove, had resigned, ultimately leading to the suspension of Acorn shares, these having fallen to a low of 23 pence per share. With these events reportedly being the result of disagreement between Acorn and Lazards over the measures needed to rescue the company, with Lazards favouring a sale or refinancing whereby the founders would lose control, Acorn and their replacement advisors, Close Brothers, were reported to be pursuing a "radical reorganisation of the company". Lazards had sought to attract financing from GEC but had failed to do so. Close Brothers also found themselves in the position of seeking a financing partner for Acorn, but in a significantly more urgent timeframe, making "financial institutions or a large computer company" the most likely candidates, these having the necessary resources and decision- making agility for a timely intervention. ===1985–1998: Olivetti subsidiary=== The dire financial situation was brought to a head in February 1985, when one of Acorn's creditors issued a winding-up petition. It would eventually emerge that Acorn owed £31.1 million to various creditors including manufacturers AB Electronics and Wong's Electronics. Wong's had been awarded a contract to produce the BBC Micro for the US market. During the search for potential financing partners, an Olivetti director had approached Close Brothers, ostensibly as part of Olivetti's strategy of acquiring technologically advanced small companies. After a short period of negotiations, Curry and Hauser signed an agreement with Olivetti on 20 February. With the founders relinquishing control of the company and seeing their combined stake fall from 85.7% to 36.5%, the Italian computer company took a 49.3% stake in Acorn for £10.39 million, which went some way to covering Acorn's £10.9 million losses in the previous six months, effectively valuing Acorn at around a tenth of its valuation of £216 million the year before. Acorn's share price collapse and the suspension of its listing was attributed by some news outlets to the company's failure to establish itself in the US market, with one source citing costs of $5.5 million related to that endeavour. In July 1985, Olivetti acquired an additional £4 million of Acorn shares, raising its ownership stake in the company to 79.8%. Major creditors agreed to write off £7.9 million in debts, and the BBC agreed to waive 50% of outstanding royalty payments worth a reported £2 million. This second refinancing left the Acorn founders with less than 15% ownership of the company. Meanwhile, the financial difficulties had reduced the number of employees at Acorn from a peak of 480 to around 270. With Brian Long appointed as managing director, Acorn were set to move forward with a new OEM-focused computer named the Communicator and the Cambridge Workstation, whose launch had been delayed until the end of July 1985 due to the suspension of Acorn's shares. Of subsequent significance, Hermann Hauser was also expected to announce a "VLSI chip design using a reduced instruction set". Unveiled towards the end of 1985, the Communicator was Acorn's answer to ICL's One Per Desk initiative. This Acorn machine was based around a 16-bit 65SC816 CPU, 128 KB RAM, expandable to 512 KB, plus additional battery-backed RAM. It had a new multi-tasking OS, four internal ROM sockets, and shipped with a software suite based on View and ViewSheet. It also had an attached telephone, communications software and auto-answer/auto-dial modem. However, with Acorn's finances having sustained the development cost of the Archimedes, and with the custom systems division having contributed substantially to the company's losses in 1987, a change in strategy took effect towards the end of 1987, moving away from "individual customers" and towards "volume products", resulting in 47 of Acorn's 300 staff being made redundant, the closure of the custom systems division, and the abandonment of the Communicator. In February 1986, Acorn announced that it was ceasing US sales operations, and sold its remaining US BBC Microcomputers for $1.25 million to a Texas company, Basic, which was a subsidiary of Datum, the Mexican manufacturer of the Spanish version of the BBC Microcomputer (with modified Spanish keyboards for the South American market). The sales office in Woburn, Massachusetts was closed at this time. Acorn was reported as having achieved "negligible U.S. sales". In 1990, in contrast, Acorn set up a sales and marketing operation in Australia and New Zealand by seeking to acquire long-time distributor Barson Computers Australasia, with Acorn managing director Sam Wauchope noting Acorn's presence in Australia since 1983 and being "the only computer manufacturer whose products are recommended by all Australian state education authorities". Acorn also sought once again to expand into Germany in the 1990s, identifying the market as the largest in Europe whose technically sophisticated computer retailers were looking for opportunities to sell higher-margin products than IBM PC compatibles, with a large enthusiast community amongst existing and potential customers. Efforts were made to establish a local marketing presence and to offer localised versions of Acorn's products. Despite optimistic projections of success, and with Acorn having initially invested £700,000 in the endeavour, the loss-making operation was closed in 1995 as part of broader cost-cutting and restructuring in response to a decline in revenue and difficulties experienced by various Acorn divisions. Ostensibly facilitated or catalysed by Olivetti's acquisition of Acorn, reports in late 1985 indicated plans for possible collaboration between Acorn, Olivetti and Thomson in the European education sector to define a standard for an educational microcomputer system analogous to the MSX computing architecture and to the established IBM PC compatible architecture. Deliberations continued into 1986, with Acorn proposing its own ARM processor architecture as the basis for the initiative, whereas Thomson had proposed the Motorola 68000. Expectations that Olivetti would actively market Acorn's machines in Europe were, however, frustrated by Olivetti's own assessment of Acorn's products as "too expensive" and the proprietary operating system offering "limited flexibility". Instead, Olivetti sought to promote its M19 personal computer for the European schools market, offering it to Acorn for sale in the UK (ultimately, as the rebadged Acorn M19). Olivetti would eventually offer both Acorn's Master Compact and the Thomson MO6 to the Italian market with its Prodest branding. Collaboration involving Acorn, Olivetti and Thomson (subsequently as SGS-Thomson) continued in the context of research projects, with a consortium of vendors including AEG, Bull, Philips and ICL participating in the Multiworks initiative to develop Unix workstations as part of the European ESPRIT framework. Acorn's particular role in Multiworks concerned a low-cost workstation featuring the ARM chipset, alongside a "high-cost authoring workstation" based on Olivetti's CP486 workstation. The Chorus system was to be used as the basis of the Unix operating system provided. Olivetti would eventually relinquish majority control of Acorn in early 1996, selling shares to US and UK investment groups to leave the company with a shareholding in Acorn of around 45%. In July 1996, Olivetti announced that it had sold 14.7% of the group to Lehman Brothers, reducing its stake at that time to 31.2%. Lehman said it planned to resell the shares to investors. ====BBC Master and Archimedes==== The BBC Master was launched in February 1986 and met with great success. From 1986 to 1989, about 200,000 systems were sold, each costing £499, mainly to UK schools and universities. A number of enhanced versions were launched—for example, the Master 512, which had 512 KB of RAM and an internal 80186 processor for MS-DOS compatibility, and the Master Turbo, which had a 65C102 second processor. The first commercial use of the ARM architecture was in the ARM Development System, a Tube-linked second processor for the BBC Master which allowed one to write programs for the new system. It sold for £4,500 and included the ARM processor, 4 MB of RAM and a set of development tools with an enhanced version of . This system did not include the three support chips—VIDC, MEMC, and IOC—which were later to form part of the Archimedes system. They made their first appearance in the A500 second processor, which was used internally within Acorn as a development platform, and had a similar form-factor to the ARM development system. The second ARM-based product was the Acorn Archimedes desktop-computer, released in mid-1987, some 18 months after IBM launched their RISC-based RT PC. The first RISC-based home computer, using the ARM (Acorn RISC Machine) chip, the Archimedes was popular in the United Kingdom, Australasia and Ireland, and was considerably more powerful and advanced than most offerings of the day. The Archimedes was advertised in both printed and broadcast media. One example of such advertising is a mock-up of the RISC OS 2 desktop, showing some software application directories, with the advert text added within windows. However, the vast majority of home users opted for an Atari ST or Amiga when looking to upgrade their 8-bit micros. As with the BBC, the Archimedes instead flourished in schools and other educational settings but just a few years later in the early 1990s this market began stratifying into the PC-dominated world. Acorn continued to produce updated models of the Archimedes, including a laptop (the A4), and in 1994 launched the Risc PC, whose top specification would later include a 233 MHz StrongARM processor. These were sold mainly into education, specialist and enthusiast markets, such as professional composers using Sibelius 7. ====ARM Ltd.==== Acorn's silicon partner, VLSI, had been given the task of finding new applications for the ARM CPU and support chips. Hauser's Active Book company had been developing a handheld device and for this the ARM CPU developers had created a static version of their processor, the ARM2aS. Members of Apple's Advanced Technology Group (ATG) had made initial contact with Acorn over use of the ARM in an experimental Apple II (2) style prototype called Möbius. Experiments done in the Möbius project proved that the ARM RISC architecture could be highly attractive for certain types of future products. The Möbius project was briefly considered as the basis for a new line of Apple computers but was killed for fear it would compete with the Macintosh and confuse the market. However, the Möbius project evolved awareness of the ARM processor within Apple. The Möbius Team made minor changes to the ARM registers, and used their working prototype to demonstrate a variety of impressive performance benchmarks."The RISC for the Rest of Us" , Art Sobel, in Advanced RISC Technology (ART), 1996. ARM Evangelist. Later Apple was developing an entirely new computing platform for its Newton. Various requirements had been set for the processor in terms of power consumption, cost and performance, and there was also a need for fully static operation in which the clock could be stopped at any time. Only the Acorn RISC Machine came close to meeting all these demands, but there were still deficiencies. The ARM did not, for example, have an integral memory management unit, as this function was being provided by the MEMC support chip and Acorn did not have the resources to develop one.M. Culbert (1994). "Low power hardware for a high performance PDA". Low Power Electronics. Digest of Technical Papers. IEEE Symposium. Apple and Acorn began to collaborate on developing the ARM, and it was decided that this would be best achieved by a separate company. The bulk of the Advanced Research and Development section of Acorn that had developed the ARM CPU formed the basis of ARM Ltd. when that company was spun off in November 1990. Acorn Group and Apple Computer Inc. each had a 43% shareholding in ARM (in 1996),Acorn Group and Apple Computer Dedicate Joint Venture to Transform IT in UK Education , press release from Acorn Computers, 1996 while VLSI was an investor and first ARM licensee.ARM milestones , ARM website ====Acorn Pocket Book==== thumb|right|Acorn Pocket Book In 1993, Acorn decided to offer an Acorn branded Psion Series 3 PDA, badged as an Acorn Pocket Book, with a later variant branded the Acorn Pocket Book II. Essentially a rebadged OEM version of the Series 3 with slightly different on-board software, the device was marketed as an inexpensive computer for schoolchildren, rather than as an executive tool. The hardware was the same as the Series 3, but the integrated applications were different. For instance, the Pocket Book omitted the Agenda diary and Spell dictionary applications, which became an optional application, supplied on ROM SSD which could be inserted into either of the ROM bays underneath the device. Other programs were renamed: System became Desktop, Word became Write, Sheet became Abacus and Data became Cards. ====Set-top boxes==== In 1994, Acorn established a new division, Online Media, focusing on interactive multimedia client hardware. Online Media aimed to exploit the projected video- on-demand (VOD) boom, an interactive television system which would allow users to select and watch video content over a network. In September 1994 the Cambridge Digital Interactive Television Trial of video-on-demand services was set up by Online Media, Anglia Television, Cambridge Cable (now part of Virgin Media) and Advanced Telecommunication Modules Ltd (ATML). The trial involved creating a wide area ATM network linking TV-company to subscribers' homes and delivering services such as home shopping, online education, software downloaded on-demand and the World Wide Web. The wide area network used a combination of fibre and coaxial cable, and the switches were housed in the roadside cabinets of Cambridge Cable's existing network.Lessons in Learning , white paper, Mediation Technology, last modified 18 June 1999 Olivetti Research Laboratory developed the technology used by the trial. An ICL video server provided the service via ATM switches manufactured by ATML, another company set up by Hauser and Hopper. The trial commenced at a speed of 2 Mbit/s to the home, subsequently increased to 25 Mbit/s.Cambridge Corners the Future in Networking , TUANZ Topics, Volume 05, No. 10, November 1995 Subscribers used Acorn Online Media Set Top Boxes. For the first six months the trial involved 10 VOD terminals; the second phase was expanded to cover 100 homes and eight schools with a further 150 terminals in test labs. A number of other organisations gradually joined in, including the National Westminster Bank (NatWest), the BBC, the Post Office, Tesco, and the local education authority. Having initially deployed set-top boxes based on Risc PC hardware, a second generation of the hardware, STB2, featured the ARM7500 system-on-a-chip, this having been manufactured for Online Media by VLSI, and integrated MPEG video decoding hardware. (The C-Cube Microsystems CL450 part is evident on the STB20 circuit board, this product being an MPEG-1 decoder introduced in May 1992.) Plans were announced to expand the initiative from 250 homes to 1000, to support NatWest's cable television banking and shopping services, with video on demand provision being strengthened through the deployment of a digital video server from ICL having "a maximum capacity of several hundred gigabytes of fast hard disc storage", connected via a 155 Mbit/s link and supplementing Olivetti Research Disc Bricks already acting as smaller capacity video servers. Industry support for the Online Media platform was also announced by Oracle and Macromedia. BBC Education tested delivery of radio-on-demand programmes to primary schools, and a new educational service, Education Online, was established to deliver material such as Open University television programmes and educational software. Netherhall School was provided with an inexpensive video server and operated as a provider of trial services, with Anglia Polytechnic University taking up a similar role some time later. It was hoped that Online Media could be floated as a separate company, and a share issue raising of additional capital was announced in 1995, this to finance the division and "underpin Acorn Group finances" against a backdrop of deteriorating financial results partly caused by an increasingly uncompetitive lower-end product range. Having entered into a deal with Lightspan Partnership Inc. to supply set-top boxes for the US education market, the order was cancelled and put pressure on Acorn's already straitened financial situation. Various other factors ensured that the predicted video-on-demand boom never really materialised as anticipated. Acorn subsequently planned to incorporate set-top box technology into its product range, launching an initiative entitled "No Limits to Learning" and previewing a range of products under the MediaRange brand, with the MediaSurfer being "essentially an Online Media STB with a World Wide Web browser built in", and with other products in the range being based on "focused applications" of established Acorn products. Evolution of the technology continued with the launch of the STB22 model, described as "a cross between an NC (Network Computer) and a STB". This model combined set- top box features such as ATM25 networking for interactive video with more general Internet features such as Web browsing and Java application support. Described as "the icing on the cake", MPEG2 video decoding hardware was provided by a chipset from LSI. Although Acorn were reportedly hoping for the interactive television market to "eventually take off" and initiate "mass deployment" by traditional telecoms operators, corporate intranet applications were also seen as a target market. With more conservative deployments in mind, the ATM25 interface in the product could be replaced by an Ethernet interface. ====NewsPad==== thumb|right|Risc User: NewsPad – covered in the October 1996 issue In 1994, the EU initiated the NewsPad programme, with the aim of developing a common mechanism to author and deliver news electronically to consumer devices. The programme's name and format were inspired by the devices described and depicted in Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Acorn won a contract to develop a consumer device / receiver, and duly supplied a RISC OS-based touch-screen tablet computer for the pilot.http://adrenaline.ucsd.edu/onr/annotation%20devices.html#newspad Annotation devices The device measured and was being tried in 1996 in Spain by Ediciones Primera Plana. The Barcelona-based pilot ended in 1997, but the tablet format and ARM architecture may have influenced Intel's 1999 WebPad / Web Tablet program. ====SchoolServer==== Although Acorn had largely focused on its ARM-based product range offering RISC OS (and, for a time, RISC iX), albeit with an increasing emphasis on DOS and Windows compatibility through its PC card products, the emergence of larger networks in education connecting systems based on different computing platforms—typically Acorn, PC and Apple Macintosh—motivated the introduction of the SchoolServer product range in 1995. The range consisted of server systems manufactured by IBM running Windows NT Server (specifically Windows NT 3.5), employing a single 100 MHz PowerPC processor, with 24 MB or 32 MB of RAM, one or two 1 GB hard drives, and built-in Ethernet interfaces. Acorn bundled ANT Limited's OmniClient software to provide the connectivity support required for Acorn's own computers to access the SchoolServer's facilities, these being based on Microsoft's own SchoolServer platform and proprietary networking technologies. The adoption of such hardware and software platforms, motivated by concerns about the capabilities of Acorn's existing products (such as the Risc PC) in the server role, even apparently led to Acorn becoming a Microsoft Solution Provider despite having been "very vocal critics" of Microsoft and its technologies in the past. Other companies in the educational market introduced similar products to the SchoolServer. For instance, Datathorn Systems introduced a solution called Super Server based on the Motorola PowerStack server system, which was a PowerPC-based machine capable of running Windows NT 3.51 or AIX 4.1, with the Super Server project reportedly being "the product of research at both Oxford and Cambridge universities". Having approval from Acorn and offering interoperability between Acorn and PC platforms, the solution was deployed at several sites. ====Xemplar Education==== In 1996, Acorn entered into a joint venture with Apple Computer UK called Xemplar to provide computers and services to the UK education market.Acorn Press Release Acorn/Apple press release on joint venture Described as "the unthinkable" and a "marriage of convenience", the alliance sought to reverse the declining fortunes of both Acorn and Apple in the sector, also prompting speculation that Apple's own strategy based on adoption of the PowerPC platform might lead Acorn along the same path, with Acorn already having expressed some interest in PowerPC and having introduced a PowerPC-based product in the form of its SchoolServer offering. The deal was regarded as benefiting Apple more strongly, with Acorn developers being encouraged to port their software to Mac OS, and with RISC OS effectively being sidelined to Acorn's set-top box and network computing products. Xemplar initially resisted the demand for PC- compatible products in classrooms, limiting its PC offerings to school administration. A survey in 1998 found that Apple and Acorn systems at that time accounted for 47% and of computers in UK primary and secondary schools respectively. However, in 1999, with Acorn undergoing restructuring, the company's remaining stake in Xemplar was sold to Apple for . By this time, Xemplar had become "a significant supplier of Wintel PCs" out of commercial necessity, with Acorn's Network Computer being the only product from its former co-owner still actively marketed by Xemplar. Despite Acorn's own upheavals, Xemplar remained committed to selling Acorn products in its portfolio. Renamed to Apple Xemplar Education, the operation was wound up in 2014.Companies House Webcheck service, search for previous company names Acorn Education and later Xemplar Education were heavily involved in Tesco's "Computers for Schools" programme in the UK, providing hardware and software in exchange for vouchers collected from Tesco purchases. The Welsh Office Multimedia/Portables Initiative (WOMPI), launched in 1996 to provide primary schools with computer equipment, prescribed that Welsh schools choosing the multimedia option received multimedia PCs exclusively supplied by RM. This upset other suppliers such as Xemplar and members of the National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education (NAACE), with complaints including those about the imposition of an incompatible computing platform on small schools who were already committed to the RISC OS platform, these schools being potentially incapable of managing "a mix of machines", and the lack of appropriate Welsh language software for the Windows platform, this being of particular concern in schools where lessons were "conducted exclusively in Welsh" and where an "excellent working relationship with British software houses" had cultivated the availability of major RISC OS applications in Welsh. The range of multimedia software offered in the initiative was also criticised: "none of the scheme's CD-Roms" were in Welsh, and Acorn machines also needed additional software, at an estimated £300 in extra costs, to "make effective use" of the software titles. ====Network computers==== When BBC2's The Money Programme screened an interview with Larry Ellison in October 1995, Acorn Online Media Managing Director Malcolm Bird realised that Ellison's network computer was, basically, an Acorn set-top box.Five Go Nuts in Cambridge , Wired UK magazine 2.09, September 1996 After initial discussions between Oracle Corporation and Olivetti, Hauser and Acorn a few weeks later, Bird was dispatched to San Francisco with Acorn's latest Set Top Box. Oracle had already talked seriously with computer manufacturers including Sun and Apple about the contract for putting together the NC blueprint machine; there were also rumours in the industry that said Oracle itself was working on the reference design. After Bird's visit to Oracle, Ellison visited Acorn and a deal was reached: Acorn would define the NC Reference Standard. Ellison was expecting to announce the NC in February 1996. Sophie Wilson was put in charge of the NC project, and by mid-November a draft NC specification was ready. By January 1996 the formal details of the contract between Acorn and Oracle had been worked out, and the PCB was designed and ready to be put into production. In February 1996, Acorn Network Computing was founded. In August 1996 it launched the Acorn Network Computer. thumb|An Acorn NetStation NC It was hoped that the Network Computer would create a significant new sector in which Acorn Network Computing would be a major player, either selling its own products or earning money from licence fees paid by other manufacturers for the right to produce their own NCs. To that end, two of Acorn's major projects were the creation of a new 'consumer device' operating system named Galileo, and, in conjunction with Digital Semiconductor and ARM, a new StrongARM chipset consisting of the SA-1500 and SA-1501. Galileo's main feature was a guarantee of a certain quality of service to each process in which the resources (CPU, memory, etc.) required to ensure reliable operation would be kept available regardless of the behaviour of other processes.Acorn Looks to the Stars With New Galileo Operating System , Acorn Computer Group press release, 10 February 1997 The SA-1500 sported higher clock rates than existing StrongARM CPUs and, more importantly, a media-focussed coprocessor (the Attached Media Processor or AMP). The SA-1500 was to be the first release target for Galileo. After having incorporated its STB and NC business areas as separate companies, Acorn created a new wholly owned subsidiary, Acorn RISC Technologies (ART). ART focused on the development of other software and hardware technologies built on top of ARM processors. ===1998–1999: Element 14 and MSDW acquisition=== During the first half of 1998 Acorn's management were heavily involved in the initial public offering of ARM Holdings plc which raised £18 million for Acorn throughout 1998. In June 1998, Stan Boland took over as CEO of Acorn Computers from David Lee, initiating a review of Acorn's core business. The company had losses of £9 million in the first nine months of the year and in September 1998 the results of the review led to a significant restructuring of the company. The Workstation division was to close, a forty percent reduction in staff, and the Risc PC 2 code-named Phoebe that was nearing completion was cancelled. These actions allowed the company to reduce ongoing losses and focus on other activities. Acorn concentrated on development of digital TV set-top boxes and high performance media centric DSP (silicon and software). It also produced a reference design for a Windows NT thin client using a Cirrus Logic system on a chip. ====Refocusing and discontinuation of activities==== To concentrate on these two activities Acorn hired a group of former STMicroelectronics silicon-design engineers and they formed the basis of a silicon-design centre that Acorn set up in Bristol. They also started to dispose of some of their interests in the former workstation market and in January 1999 sold their 50% interest in Xemplar Education to Apple Computer. Attempts were made to secure the rights to Acorn's desktop products including network computers and "various associated technologies", RISC OS, and the abandoned Phoebe workstation project by a consortium of Acorn market interests, and a memorandum of understanding was reportedly signed by both Stan Boland, representing Acorn, and former Acorn executive Peter Bondar, representing the consortium. However, Acorn pulled out of this tentative deal amidst accusations of attempts to sideline the consortium and to negotiate directly with its financial backers. It was reported that Stephen Streater of Eidos may have made a bid for the rights to the PC range, but in October 1998 the distribution rights to the existing designs of machines were granted to Castle Technology to supply Acorn's dealer network. In March 1999, RISCOS Ltd acquired a licence to develop and release RISC OS. By January 1999, Acorn Computers Limited had renamed to Element 14 Limited (though still owned by Acorn Group plc), referring to the element silicon with atomic number 14; this change was to reflect the changed nature of the business and to distance itself from the education market that Acorn Computers was most known for. Other names had been considered by the company, but the domain name e-14.com had been registered before the official announcement. ====Acquisition and asset disposal==== Ultimately, the widely anticipated issues around releasing Acorn's 24% shareholding in ARM, with a need for "minimising the massive tax burden posed by disposing the holding", were resolved through "creative accounting courtesy of Morgan Stanley", with an offshore subsidiary of the bank acquiring Acorn, releasing the shareholding "using the purchase as a tax loss and swapping Acorn investors' shares for ARM shares", and with the bank retaining an estimated shareholding in ARM as a consequence. As part of the process leading to the acquisition of Acorn by the Morgan Stanley subsidiary, MSDW Investment Holdings Limited, with the intention to "minimise the liabilities" of the group through the disposal of assets, Pace Micro Technology agreed to acquire Acorn's set-top box division for approximately £200,000, also obtaining Acorn's rights and obligations with regard to RISC OS. In conjunction with the acquisition of Acorn, an offer was extended to a company "owned by Stan Boland and certain senior management to purchase ... the silicon and software design activity" for approximately £1 million. This distinct company (known as "New Jam Inc") effectively became the independent Element 14 venture, acquiring the name from the former Acorn Computers Limited which then became known as Cabot 2 Limited. A subsequent report put the sale price of this division of Acorn at £1.5 million, offering the prescient observation that this new business would itself be acquired for "several million pounds" by an established company in the industry, as it was. ===1999–2015: Legacy operations=== Acorn Computers, in its new guise of Cabot 2, would continue to administer the remaining assets of the business and to "tidy up remaining contractual and logistical obligations", these including the servicing of product warranties. In late 1999, Reflex Electronics signed a five-year contract to perform warranty work and technical support for Acorn- manufactured products, renewing an earlier arrangement with Acorn. Acorn Group – the parent company of Acorn Computers Limited – had itself been renamed from Acorn Computer Group in 1997, and the company was subsequently renamed Cabot 1 Limited and taken private by MSDW in February 2000. The company remained active until being dissolved in December 2015. ===Legacy=== The legacy of the company's work is evidenced in spin-off technologies, with the company being described in 2013 as "the most influential business in the innovation cluster's history". ===Revival of the Acorn trademark=== In early 2006, the dormant Acorn trademark was licensed from the French company Aristide & Co Antiquaire de Marques, by a new company based in Nottingham. This company was dissolved in late 2009. On 23 February 2018 the Acorn trademark made another return when a new company Acorn Inc. Ltd announced a brand new smartphone, the Acorn Micro C5. The Acorn Micro C5 has since been discontinued. ==Popular culture== In 2009, BBC4 screened Micro Men, a drama based on the rivalry between Acorn Computers and Sinclair's competing machines. ===TV series=== Acorn products featured prominently in a number of Educational television series, including: * The Computer Programme * Micro Live * Making the Most of the Micro * Computers in Control ===Magazines=== Acorn products spawned a series of dedicated publications, including: * Acorn User (named BBC Acorn User while its publisher was owned by the BBC) * The Micro User (initially BBC Micro User, renamed due to a trade mark objection) / Acorn Computing * Archive * BEEBUG / Risc User * Archimedes World * Electron User * A&B; Computing They also featured in dedicated sections of: * Computer Shopper * Personal Computer News * Personal Computer World * Computer Gamer * Home Computing Weekly * rem ==See also== * Acornsoft * Amber (processor core) * Arm (company) * List of Acorn Electron games * List of British computers * Microelectronics Education Programme * Olivetti * RISC OS ==Notes== ==References== * Personal Computer World review of the BBC Micro (including details of BBC contract), December 1981 Personal Computer World * "ARM's Way" (LISA influence, Berkeley RISC, Fabrication date), April 1988, Electronics Weekly * "The history of the ARM CPU", taken from 'The ARM RISC Chip: A Programmers' Guide' by Carol Atack and Alex van Someren, published 1993 by Addison-Wesley * "From Atom to ARC - The ups and downs of the development of Acorn", from October, November and December 1988 editions of Acorn User * "ARM's Race to Embedded World Domination" (Motorola 68000 was considered as a replacement to 6502), Paul DeMone, 2000 * "Sophie Wilson's most admired CPU" (32016 chip as example of "how to completely make a mess of things"), Sophie Wilson * Flotation of Acorn on Unlisted Securities Market, Electronics Times, 6 October 1983 ==External links== * The Acorn Atom pre-history * RISC OS and Acorn pages * Atom Review documentation of the Atom and many extensions made by Dutch Atom clubs * About Acorn computers and ARM processors * Acorn information from Retro Madness, the museum of home computing and gaming * RISC OS Ltd. develop Acorn's OS under licence from Castle * AdvantageSix develop computers and embedded systems for RISC OS * Castle Technology are the current owners of RISC OS * Acorn Computers The collection at The Centre for Computing History * Steve Furber Video Interview—at Manchester University on 17 August 2009 Category:Companies based in Cambridge Category:Computer companies disestablished in 2000 Category:Computer companies established in 1978 Category:Defunct companies based in Cambridgeshire Category:Defunct manufacturing companies of England Category:Defunct computer hardware companies Category:Defunct computer companies of the United Kingdom Category:History of Cambridge
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Michael Corleone is a fictional character and the protagonist of Mario Puzo's 1969 novel The Godfather. In the three Godfather films, directed by Francis Ford Coppola, Michael was portrayed by Al Pacino, for which he was twice- nominated for Academy Awards. Michael is the youngest son of Vito Corleone, a Sicilian immigrant who builds a Mafia empire. Upon his father's death, Michael succeeds him as the don of the Corleone crime family. In June 2003, Michael Corleone was recognized as the 11th most iconic villain in film history by the American Film Institute, although some critics consider him to be a tragic hero. The British film magazine Empire selected Michael Corleone as the 11th greatest movie character, with Pacino's performance as Michael Corleone widely regarded as one of the greatest performances in cinematic history. == Family == Born on March 23, 1920, to Mafia don Vito Corleone (Marlon Brando) and his wife Carmela (Morgana King), Michael has two older brothers, Santino "Sonny" Corleone (James Caan) and Frederico "Fredo" Corleone (John Cazale), and a younger sister, Constanzia "Connie" Corleone (Talia Shire). The family consigliere, Tom Hagen (Robert Duvall), is their informal adopted brother. == The Godfather == In his novel The Godfather, Mario Puzo introduces Michael with the following physical description: “He did not have the heavy, Cupid- shaped face of [his siblings], and his jet black hair was straight rather than curly. His skin was a clear olive-brown that would have been called beautiful in a girl. He was handsome in a delicate way.”The Godfather by Mario Puzo. (1972, Book Club Associates by arrangement with William Heinemann Ltd), p.17 Later in the novel, Puzo writes, “Michael was not tall or heavily built but his presence seemed to radiate danger.”The Godfather by Mario Puzo. (1972, Book Club Associates by arrangement with William Heinemann Ltd), p.135 Unlike his two older brothers, Michael wants nothing to do with the Corleone "family business", wanting instead to lead a more Americanized life. Vito does not want Michael to join the Corleone criminal empire either, hoping that his favorite son would go into politics. Michael was enrolled at Dartmouth College, but dropped out to enlist in the United States Marine Corps the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor. During World War II, he fights in the Pacific War, and is wounded in battle. For his bravery, he received a battlefield commission to the rank of Lieutenant, and was awarded the Silver Star and the Navy Cross. He was discharged as a Captain after V-J Day in the fall of 1945. His heroics during the war were featured in Life magazine. During the autumn of 1945, Michael is discharged from the Marines, unaware that Vito secretly arranged for his discharge, using his political influence. Michael returns home to attend his sister Connie's wedding, accompanied by Kay Adams (Diane Keaton), his college sweetheart. Michael stays for a few weeks, intending to re-enter college without telling his family. Just before Christmas 1945, Vito is critically wounded in an assassination attempt by drug kingpin Virgil Sollozzo (Al Lettieri), pushing a reluctant Michael into the Mafia world he has avoided for so long. Arriving at the hospital, he finds his bedridden father unprotected from potential attack. While awaiting Corleone reinforcements, Michael prevents a second assassination attempt on Vito by Sollozzo, then affirms his loyalty to his father. Captain Mark McCluskey (Sterling Hayden), a corrupt NYPD captain on Sollozzo's payroll, breaks Michael's jaw before more Corleone button men arrive. As Vito Corleone recuperates, Sollozzo requests that Michael broker a truce, but acting boss Sonny, suspecting a trap, refuses and demands the other Mafia families hand over Sollozzo to the Corleone family or else face war. Michael volunteers to meet Sollozzo in a public place and kill him and McCluskey. Hagen warns that killing McCluskey would violate a long-standing Mafia rule not to kill police officers, and says it would incite deadly backlash from rival Mafia families and law enforcement. Michael argues they can publicly expose McCluskey as a corrupt cop involved in the drug trade and serving as Sollozzo's bodyguard, contending that McCluskey has crossed into their world and is fair game. Sonny agrees and approves the hit. After careful preparation, Michael meets with Sollozzo and McCluskey at an Italian restaurant in The Bronx. He retrieves a handgun that Corleone caporegime Peter Clemenza (Richard Castellano) had planted beforehand in the bathroom and kills Sollozzo and McCluskey by shooting them at point-blank range. This ignites the New York underworld's first Mafia war in a decade. Michael escapes to Sicily and spends two years under Corleone ally Don Tommasino's (Corrado Gaipa) protection. Michael falls in love with and marries a young local woman named Apollonia Vitelli (Simonetta Stefanelli). Back in the United States, Sonny is murdered. After Michael is notified of Sonny's murder, he and Apollonia prepare to move to Siracusa, but she is killed by a car bomb meant for Michael, proving the other Mafia families know where he is hiding. Michael returns to the United States in 1950 and assumes Sonny's role as Vito's heir apparent. After Vito's suspicions are confirmed that Don Emilio Barzini (Richard Conte), his main rival in New York City, is the mastermind of his shooting and Sonny's murder, he and Michael begin a secret, complex plot to wipe out the other New York Dons. They deliberately allow their rivals to whittle away at Corleone interests to lull them into inaction. Meanwhile, Michael convinces his father that it is time to remove the family from crime. More than a year following his return, Michael reunites with Kay and they marry. He promises her the Corleone family will be completely legitimate in five years. Within three years, they have two children, Anthony and Mary. Vito semi-retires in 1954, and Michael becomes operating head of the family. He offers to buy out casino owner Moe Greene's (Alex Rocco) stake in the Las Vegas casino that the Corleones bankrolled, intending to move the family to Nevada as part of his effort to legitimize the Corleone interests; Greene refuses to sell. Corleone family caporegimes Salvatore Tessio (Abe Vigoda) and Clemenza request permission to begin operating their own families in Corleone territory. Michael, with Vito's support, advises them to be patient and wait until the move to Las Vegas is completed. Tessio and Clemenza agree, but are clearly dissatisfied. In 1955, Vito warns Michael that Barzini will likely attempt to assassinate Michael under the pretense of negotiating peace between the families, using a disloyal contact within the Corleone regime. Whoever approaches Michael about the meeting, Vito explains, will be the traitor within the family. Shortly thereafter, Vito dies of a heart attack while playing with his grandson Anthony in his tomato garden. At Vito's funeral, Tessio tells Michael that Barzini wants to arrange a meeting, confirming Vito's prediction. Michael sets his plan in motion to murder the other New York Mafia heads: Barzini, Philip Tattaglia (Victor Rendina), Carmine Cuneo (Rudy Bond), and Victor Stracci (Don Costello), as well as Greene. The plot unfolds on the same day Michael stands as godfather to Connie's newborn son. Later the same day, he has Tessio and Carlo Rizzi (Gianni Russo), Connie's abusive husband who conspired in Sonny's murder, executed. In one stroke, Michael re-establishes the Corleone family as the nation's most powerful crime family and establishes a reputation as being even more cunning and ruthless than his father. A few days later, Connie furiously accuses Michael of murdering Carlo. When challenged by Kay, Michael denies having ordered Carlo's murder. Kay, initially believing Michael, later observes him receiving his capos. Clemenza addresses Michael as "Don Corleone" and kisses his hand in the same manner that he did with Michael's father. Kay realizes Connie's accusations were true, and that Michael has become a powerful Don becoming his father's successor in every way. In the novel, Kay leaves Michael, but Hagen persuades her to return. == The Godfather Part II == The Godfather Part II is set in 1958 and 1959. The Corleone family has relocated to Nevada, while capo Frank Pentangeli (Michael V. Gazzo) runs the family's operations in New York, Clemenza having died a few years before. Although Michael is the most powerful Mafia leader in the nation, he still actively works to remove the Corleone family from crime. His efforts have been largely unsuccessful, however, as his many enemies and growing obsession with revenge keep him tethered to the criminal underworld. Michael plans to finally legitimize the family by negotiating with Hyman Roth (Lee Strasberg), his father's former business partner, over controlling casino operations in Cuba. Hours after Anthony's First Communion party, unseen gunmen shoot at the Corleone house, nearly killing Michael and Kay. Michael suspects Roth ordered the hit, and believes a mole within the Corleone family aided him. To uncover Roth's involvement, Michael maintains their business relationship, and orders Pentangeli to settle a dispute with Roth's business partners, the Rosato Brothers. When Pentangeli meets with them, they try to kill him, but he survives. Michael, Roth, and Fredo travel to Cuba to forge a partnership with Fulgencio Batista allowing them to operate casinos in Cuba without interference in exchange for generous payments to the Cuban government. Michael sends his bodyguard to eliminate Roth on New Year's Eve, but Cuban soldiers kill the bodyguard during the attempt. That same night, Fredo unintentionally reveals that he was the mole within the family; Michael confronts Fredo and gives him the Sicilian "kiss of death". During the New Year's Eve festivities, victorious rebel forces enter Havana, forcing Batista into exile and ruining Michael's plans. Fredo, afraid of his brother, runs off; Roth escapes to Miami. Meanwhile, Pentangeli, believing Michael had ordered a hit on him, prepares to testify against him in the Senate's investigation of organized crime. However, Michael has Pentangeli's brother Vincenzo (Salvatore Po) brought from Sicily. Just prior to the hearing, Vincenzo and Frank exchange glances. Understanding the threat, Pentangeli recants his earlier sworn statements, throwing the hearings into chaos and effectively destroying the government's case against Michael. Fredo confesses to Michael that Roth's right-hand man, Johnny Ola (Dominic Chianese), had promised to reward him for information about Michael. Fredo says that he resents being "passed over" to head the family in favor of Michael, and that he withheld key information about the Senate investigation. Michael disowns Fredo, and tells his personal assassin Al Neri that nothing is to happen to his brother while their mother is alive -- the implication being that Neri is to kill Fredo after she dies. Meanwhile, Kay decides to leave Michael and take their children with her, believing Michael will always live in a world of crime and violence. Michael asks her to reconsider, but Kay reveals she aborted their unborn son because she refused to bring another of his children into the world. Enraged, Michael hits Kay in the face and severs ties with her, taking custody of Anthony and Mary. Following their mother's death, and at Connie's behest, Michael seemingly forgives Fredo, but it is actually a ploy to draw him in closer in order to have him killed. Soon after, Neri murders Fredo on Michael's orders. At the same time, Michael sends Hagen to persuade Pentangeli to commit suicide to spare his family, and has caporegime Rocco Lampone (Tom Rosqui) kill a heavily guarded Roth at Idlewild Airport upon his return to the US. The film ends as Michael recalls a surprise birthday party for his father on December 7, 1941. In a flashback scene, Michael informs the family that he has dropped out of college to enlist in the Marines. Only Fredo supports Michael's decision. When Vito arrives off-screen, everyone goes to greet him except Michael, who sits alone. The film closes with Michael sitting alone in the Corleones' Lake Tahoe compound. == The Godfather Part III == The Godfather Part III is set in 1979 and 1980. Michael has moved back to New York, abandoned the Nevada estate, and taken great strides to remove the family from crime. He turns over his New York criminal interests to longtime enforcer Joey Zasa (Joe Mantegna). Ridden with guilt over his ruthless rise to power, particularly his order to eliminate Fredo, Michael uses his expanding wealth in an attempt to rehabilitate his reputation through numerous acts of charity, administered by a foundation named after his father. A decade earlier, he had given custody of his two children to Kay, who has since remarried. He sells his gambling interests to other Mafia families and reorganizes his vast legitimate business holdings as the "Corleone Group". The Holy See has named him a Commander of the Order of Saint Sebastian for his charitable works and large donations to Catholic institutions. At the ceremony, Michael and Kay have an uneasy reunion after nine years. Kay supports their son Anthony's (Franc D'Ambrosio) ambition to reject the "family business" and become an opera singer, and tells Michael that both she and Anthony know the truth about Fredo's death. Michael had previously wanted Anthony to either finish law school or join the family business, but now consents to Anthony going his own way. Michael's new connection to the Church provides an opportunity to take over the large property company, Immobiliare. He is already its largest shareholder, and offers to buy the Vatican's 25 percent share, which will give him controlling interest. He also takes in Sonny's illegitimate son Vincent Mancini (Andy Garcia), a soldier in Zasa's crew, as his protégé. Vincent is the son of Sonny Corleone and Lucy Mancini, conceived during the wedding reception which serves as the opening sequence of The Godfather. In a private meeting during Michael's reception following his acceptance of the St. Sebastian medal, Vincent accuses Zasa of working against Michael's interests. Michael attempts to defuse the conflict, but Vincent attacks Zasa directly, biting off part of his ear. Michael recognizes that Vincent has inherited Sonny's fiery temper and fears Vincent will suffer his father's fate, making crucial misjudgments fueled by anger. Michael's sister Connie Corleone, who has abandoned her jet-setting socialite lifestyle to live with Michael, now urges him to accept Vincent in Family operations and support him in conflicts against Zasa. Michael wryly observes Connie beginning to assume an active role in discussions of illegal family operations. (In The Godfather, Part II, Connie had still maintained ignorance of, or at least non- involvement in, the family's illegitimate activities.) Michael also disapproves of the romance developing between Vincent and Michael's daughter, Mary (Sofia Coppola). Apparently dismissing the incestuous aspects of the relationship (first cousins), Michael fears that Vincent's growing involvement in the Mafia will endanger Mary, just as it did Michael's first wife, Apollonia, ultimately leading to her death. On the night Michael announces he is dissolving his gambling empire, Zasa wipes out most of The Commission in a helicopter attack in Atlantic City. Michael escapes with help from Vincent and Neri. Just prior to the attack, Zasa bitterly confronts Michael, signaling open warfare among the mob families. Believing Zasa too limited to pull off such an ambitious assault, Michael realizes that old Corleone family friend, Don Altobello (Eli Wallach), is the brains behind the attempt on his life. Traumatized by the attack, Michael suffers a diabetic stroke, briefly incapacitating him. (Francis Ford Coppola reveals in his audio commentary that Michael is frequently seen drinking water in the first two films—subtle hints that he is a diabetic.) With Michael still bedridden, Connie (for the first time assuming a formal role in the Corleone Family's criminal activities) gives Vincent consent to assassinate Zasa. Disguised as an NYPD mounted officer, Vincent accomplishes this with a brazen horseback attack in the middle of an Italian street festival. Knowing that escalating mob violence runs the risk of endangering his plan to acquire Immobiliare, a now-recovering Michael is furious when receiving the news of the Zasa hit, and demands that no similar orders be issued while he is alive. Michael demands full acceptance to his authority in a hospital room meeting with Neri, Vincent and Connie—implicitly acknowledging Connie's stature as an active participant in Family affairs. A seemingly healthy Michael returns to Sicily for Anthony's operatic debut at the Teatro Massimo. Suspecting that Altobello may make another attempt on his life, he has Vincent infiltrate Altobello's regime under the pretense of defecting. Michael and Kay tour Sicily together, during which Michael asks for Kay's forgiveness. Kay admits she will always love him, and they begin to rekindle their relationship. Meanwhile, the Immobiliare deal has stalled, supposedly because the critically ill Pope Paul VI must personally approve it. Michael learns that the Immobiliare deal is an elaborate swindle concocted by Immobiliare chairman Licio Lucchesi (Enzo Robutti), who schemed with Vatican Bank head Archbishop Gilday (Donal Donnelly) and accountant Frederick Keinszig (Helmut Berger) to embezzle a fortune from the Vatican Bank, using Michael's "investment" to cover their tracks. Hoping to salvage the deal, Michael seeks Don Tommasino's assistance. He directs Michael to Cardinal Lamberto (Raf Vallone), the future Pope John Paul I. With Lamberto's prodding, Michael makes his first confession in 30 years, tearfully breaking down as he admits to ordering Fredo's murder. Lamberto tells Michael he deserves to suffer for his terrible sins, but that there is hope for his redemption. John Paul I dies soon after being elected pope, poisoned by Gilday. Michael learns that Altobello (in league with the conspirators) has hired an assassin named Mosca (Mario Donatone) to kill him. Mosca murders Tommasino, and Michael vows before his old friend's casket to sin no more. Vincent reports that Lucchesi, working with Altobello, is behind the assassination attempts on Michael. Weary of the bloody, lonely life of a Don, Michael retires, making Vincent his successor, but not before giving him permission to retaliate. In return, Vincent agrees to end his romance with Mary. That night, Michael, reconciled with Kay and Anthony, watches his son's performance in the opera Cavalleria Rusticana. Meanwhile, Vincent has Lucchesi, Gilday and Keinszig murdered; Lucchesi is stabbed to death in his office by Tommasino's longtime bodyguard, Calò, Gilday is shot to death by Neri on the cathedral stairs and Keinszig is abducted, suffocated and left to hang from a bridge, and Connie murders Altobello with a poisoned cannoli. After the performance, Mosca shoots Michael, wounding him, and a second bullet hits Mary, killing her. Mary's death breaks Michael's spirit, and he screams in agony over her body. In an epilogue scene set in 1997, an elderly Michael (age 77) lives alone in Don Tommasino's villa. Sitting in the same courtyard where he married Apollonia, he suddenly slumps over in his chair and falls to the ground. In the December 2020 release of The Godfather Coda: The Death of Michael Corleone, a recut of the third film, the final scene is re-edited to make Michael's death more indefinite and imply he might have lived even longer into old age in isolation, with many of his family members dead. == The Sicilian == Michael is a secondary character in Puzo's novel The Sicilian, which takes place during his first exile in Sicily. He learns from Clemenza about the legendary exploits of the novel's main character, Salvatore Guiliano (In the novel, the spelling of Salvatore Giuliano's name was intentionally changed by Puzo to "Guiliano".), and is eager to meet him, but Giuliano is murdered before the meeting can take place. ==Sequel novels== Michael appears in Mark Winegardner's sequel novels The Godfather Returns and The Godfather's Revenge. In Godfather Returns, set roughly during the time of Godfather Part II, Michael battles with a new rival, disgruntled Corleone capo Nick Geraci, while attempting to legitimize the family. In The Godfather's Revenge, set a few years after the second film, he moves to protect his criminal empire against Geraci and the machinations of a powerful political dynasty, while dealing with the collapse of his marriage and his guilt over having Fredo murdered. In the latter novel, he has a relationship with actress Marguerite "Rita" Duvall in the early 1960s, but he ends it upon realizing that he is still in love with Kay. == Family members == * Vito CorleoneMichael's father and head of the Corleone crime family, played by Marlon Brando in The Godfather, and by Robert De Niro in flashback scenes in Part II * Carmela CorleoneMother, played by Morgana King in The Godfather Part I and Part II, and by Francesca De Sapio in flashback scenes in Part II * Tom HagenAdopted brother and consigliere, played by Robert Duvall * Santino "Sonny" CorleoneEldest brother, underboss to Vito, played by James Caan in The Godfather Part 1, and by Roman Coppola in flashback scenes from Part II * Constanzia "Connie" CorleoneYounger sister, played by Talia Shire * Frederico "Fredo" CorleoneElder brother, underboss to Michael; played by John Cazale * Apollonia Vitelli-CorleoneFirst wife, played by Simonetta Stefanelli * Kay Adams-CorleoneSecond wife, played by Diane Keaton * Anthony CorleoneSon, played by Anthony Gounaris in The Godfather, by James Gounaris in Part II, and by Franc D'Ambrosio in Part III * Mary CorleoneDaughter, played by an uncredited actress in Part II, and by Sofia Coppola in Part III * Vincent CorleoneNephew and succeeding Don, played by Andy García == References == ==Bibliography== * * * * * * Category:The Godfather characters Category:Characters in American novels of the 20th century Category:Characters in American novels of the 21st century Category:Cultural depictions of the Mafia Category:Fictional characters from New York City Category:Fictional crime bosses Category:Fictional domestic abusers Category:Fictional fratricides Category:Fictional Italian American people Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Male film villains Category:Male literary villains Category:Fictional military personnel in films Category:Fictional United States Marine Corps personnel Category:Fictional World War II veterans Category:Literary characters introduced in 1969 Category:Male characters in literature Category:Fictional people from the 20th-century Category:Film characters introduced in 1972
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James Albert Varney Jr. (June 15, 1949 – February 10, 2000) was an American actor and comedian. He is best known for his comedic role as Ernest P. Worrell, for which he won a Daytime Emmy Award, as well as appearing in films and numerous television commercial advertising campaigns. He played Jed Clampett in a film adaptation of The Beverly Hillbillies (1993) and performed the voice of Slinky Dog in the first two films of the Toy Story franchise (1995–1999). He died at age 50 of lung cancer on February 10, 2000, leaving two posthumous releases, Daddy and Them and Atlantis: The Lost Empire. ==Early life== Varney was born in Lexington, Kentucky. As a child, he displayed the ability to memorize long poems and significant portions of the material from books, which he used to entertain family and friends. When Varney was a boy, his mother would turn on cartoons for him to watch. His mother discovered that Varney quickly began to imitate the cartoon characters, so she started him in children's theater when he was eight years old. Varney began his interest in theater as a teenager, winning state titles in drama competitions while a student at Lafayette High School (class of 1968) in Lexington. At the age of 15, he portrayed Ebenezer Scrooge in a local theater production; by 17, he was performing professionally in nightclubs and coffee houses. Varney studied Shakespeare at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia, and performed in an Opryland folk show in its first year of operation, in the 1970s. He listed a former teacher, Thelma Beeler, as being a mentor in his becoming an actor. When he was 24, Varney was an actor at the Pioneer Playhouse in Danville, Kentucky. The theater was adjacent to an Old West-themed village, and before the show, the audience would tour the village where apprentices would play townsfolk. Varney and the company usually played in the outdoor theater to audiences of only a few dozen people. He entertained the young apprentices by throwing knives into trees. He performed in Blithe Spirit, Boeing 707 and an original musical, Fire on the Mountain. He once jokingly threatened a long- haired apprentice, John Lino Ponzini, that he would take him up to Hazard, Kentucky, where "you [Ponzini] wouldn't make it down Main Street without the townsfolk giving you a crewcut". ==Career== ===Early career=== Varney had an established acting career before his fame as Ernest. In 1976, Varney was a regular cast member of the television show Johnny Cash and Friends. He also played a recurring guest on the faux late-night talk show Fernwood 2 Night. From 1977 to 1979, Varney was cast as Seaman "Doom & Gloom" Broom in the television version of Operation Petticoat. Just prior to his stint as Ernest, he was a cast member on the notorious television flop Pink Lady and Jeff. In 1978, Varney played Milo Skinner on the TV show Alice. ===Work for Carden and Cherry=== Varney's best-known character is Ernest P. Worrell, who would address the camera as if speaking to a friend, using his trademarked catchphrase "KnoWhutImean, Vern?" In 1980, the first commercial featuring the character advertised an appearance by the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders at Beech Bend Park, an amusement park located near Bowling Green, Kentucky. The character was franchised for use in markets all over the country and was often used by dairies to advertise milk products. For example, the dairy bar and hamburger chain Braum's ran several advertisements featuring Ernest; Purity Dairies, based in Nashville, Pine State Dairy in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Oakhurst Dairy in Maine ran commercials that were nearly identical, but with the dairy name changed. For the same agency, Varney created a different character, Sgt. Glory, a humorless drill instructor who harangued cows of the client dairy into producing better milk. In another spot, Sgt. Glory's home was shown as he had a date, which was so heavily decorated with the products of the sponsor and advertising specialty items that it was essentially devoid of any other decor. The Sgt. Glory character also appeared in an advertisement for a Southern grocery chain, Pruett's Food Town, in which he drilled the checkout clerks on proper behavior: "Bread on top. Repeat: Bread on top." He approaches one of them at the end of the commercial with a look of menace and says, "You're not smilin'." The checkout bagger gives a very nervous and forced smile. Varney also starred as Ernest in a series of commercials that ran in the New Orleans area (and throughout the Gulf South) as a spokesman for natural gas utilities. In one, he is seen kneeling down in front of Vern's desk under a lamp hanging from the ceiling, stating, "Natural gas, Vern; it's hot, fast, and cheap. Hot, fast, cheap; kinda like your first wife, Vern, you know, the pretty one!?" Vern then knocks the lamp into Ernest's head, knocking him down. Those same television advertisements also were featured on channels in the St. Louis area for Laclede Gas Company during the mid-1980s and in the metro Detroit area for Michigan Consolidated Gas Company. Another TV ad for Laclede Gas featured Ernest saying, "Heat pump, schmeat pump." Varney also appeared in several Braum's Ice Cream and Dairy Stores commercials throughout the 1980s. These aired on Oklahoma television. He made commercials for car dealerships across the country, most notably Cerritos Auto Square in Cerritos, California, Tysons Toyota in Tysons Corner, Virginia, and Audubon Chrysler in Henderson, Kentucky. Varney portrayed Ernest in a series of commercials for Convenient Food Mart during the 1980s. In 1982, Varney co-hosted the syndicated Pop! Goes the Country with singer Tom T. Hall. The show had just had a major overhaul and ended shortly afterward. He also portrayed "Auntie Nelda" in numerous commercials; dressed in drag and appearing to be a senior citizen, the commercials gave off the tone of "Auntie Nelda" as a motherly lady encouraging one to do what was right (in this case, buy whatever product was being promoted). This character, along with the "Ernest" character, ran for a few years in Mississippi and Louisiana in commercials for Leadco Aluminum Siding, before it became a regular in the Ernest movies. Varney also appeared as Ernest in on-air promos for local TV stations in several markets, talking about their news and weather personalities. During the 1990s, Varney reprised his role as Ernest for Blake's Lotaburger, a fast-food chain in New Mexico. In these commercials, Ernest typically would be trying to get into Vern's house to see what food Vern was eating. After a lengthy description of whatever tasty morsel Vern had, Ernest would get locked out but would continue to shout from outside. ===Ernest's popularity=== left|thumb|Jim Varney's handprints, displayed at Disney The character of Ernest became widely popular, and was the basis for a short-lived TV series, Hey Vern, It's Ernest! (1988) and a series of movies in the 1980s and 1990s. Ernest Goes to Camp (1987) grossed $23.5 million at the U.S. box office, on a $3.5 million production budget, and stayed in the box-office top five for its first three weeks of release. Though Varney was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst New Star, only one year later, he earned the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children's Series for Hey Vern, It's Ernest! Subsequent theatrically released Ernest films include Ernest Saves Christmas (1988), Ernest Goes to Jail (1990), Ernest Scared Stupid (1991), and Ernest Rides Again (1993). After the financial failure of Ernest Rides Again, all further films were released direct-to-video: Ernest Goes to School (1994) which had a brief theatrical run in Ohio, Slam Dunk Ernest (1995), Ernest Goes to Africa (1997), and Ernest in the Army (1998). The Walt Disney World Resort's Epcot theme park featured Ernest. Epcot's Cranium Command attraction used the Ernest character in its preshow as an example of a "lovable, but not the brightest person on the planet" type of person. In addition to his Ernest Goes to... series, he starred as Ernest in several smaller movies for John R. Cherry III, such as Knowhutimean? Hey Vern, It's My Family Album; Dr. Otto and the Riddle of the Gloom Beam; and the direct-to-video feature Your World as I See It, all of which showcased him in a wide variety of characters and accents. The Ernest Film Festival (Greatest Hits Volume 1) was released on VHS in 1986. Greatest Hits Volume 2 was released in 1992. Mill Creek Entertainment released these classic television commercials on DVD box sets October 31, 2006. Image Entertainment re-released them on June 5, 2012, as part of the DVD set Ernest's Wacky Adventures: Volume 1. ===Other roles=== From 1983 to 1984, Varney played heartthrob Chad Everett's younger brother Evan Earp in the comedy-drama, high-action television series The Rousters, created by Stephen J. Cannell, about the descendants of Wyatt Earp, a family of bounty hunters/carnival bouncers. As Evan Earp, Varney played a con man/mechanical- inventor "genius," constantly getting himself into comedic trouble, with those around him ready to lynch him. Although the series was promising, the show failed after its first season because it was poorly slotted (four episodes every few months) against the number-one prime-time television series for the previous six years, The Love Boat. Varney can be seen in Hank Williams Jr.'s video for "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight", in which he is briefly shown casually riding a bull being pulled on a rope by a young lady, and later in a swimming pool with two young ladies. In 1985, Varney co-hosted HBO's New Year's Eve special, along with Johnny Cash and Kris Kristofferson. Varney also starred as Jed Clampett in the 1993 production of The Beverly Hillbillies; played Rex, a carnival worker/associate of Dennis Quaid in Wilder Napalm; and played the accident-prone entertainer/watch guard ("safety guy/human torch") Rudy James in the movie Snowboard Academy. He later played a small role in the 1995 action film The Expert as a weapons dealer named Snake. Varney also lent his voice to Slinky Dog in Disney/Pixar's Toy Story and reprised the role in Toy Story 2 in the Toy Story series (he was replaced by his close friend Blake Clark in Toy Story 3 and Toy Story 4 after his death in 2000). Varney played numerous other characters, including "Cookie" Farnsworth, from Atlantis: The Lost Empire, released the year after his death (Steven Barr replaced Varney for the sequel Atlantis: Milo's Return), the carny character Cooder in the "Bart Carny" episode of The Simpsons, the character Walt Evergreen in the Duckman episode "You've Come a Wrong Way, Baby", Prince Carlos Charmaine (a royal suitor Jackie dates) for a few episodes of the final season of the 1990s television series Roseanne, and Lothar Zogg in the 1998 film 3 Ninjas: High Noon at Mega Mountain, also starring Hulk Hogan and Loni Anderson. Varney had a brief role as an incestuous, abusive father in an independent film, 100 Proof, for which he received good reviews from critics. He also played a rebel in the midnight movie Existo, as well as an old mariner in a low-budget horror film, Blood, Friends, and Money. During the filming of Treehouse Hostage, he played an escaped convict held hostage and tormented by some fifth graders in a treehouse. One of Varney's final films was Billy Bob Thornton's Daddy and Them, in which he played Uncle Hazel, who had been arrested for murder. Co-stars included Kelly Preston and Andy Griffith. Another final guest appearance was the Bibleman Genesis series Bibleman Jr. Volume 1 & 2 as himself. Varney starred in three videos, The Misadventures of Bubba, The Misadventures of Bubba II, and Bubba Goes Hunting, in which he played himself and taught young kids important safety rules about hunting and guns. He illustrated the rules with the help of his bumbling and accident- prone cousin Bubba (also played by Varney) and Bubba's nephew, Billy Bob. The videos were distributed as part of a membership pack from Buckmasters' Young Bucks Club. According to an interview, one of his final projects was writing a screenplay about the legendary feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys, stating that his grandfather hunted squirrel with the Hatfields. Varney also allegedly had been hoping to acquire more serious acting roles before his death, wanting to step outside the typecast of Ernest. ==Personal life== Varney was married twice, first to Jacqueline Drew (1977–1983) and then to Jane Varney (1988–1991). Both marriages ended in divorce, although he remained friends with his ex-wife Jane until his death; she became Varney's spokeswoman and accompanied him in Pixar's 1999 film Toy Story 2. Neither union resulted in children. On December 6, 2013, Varney's nephew Justin Lloyd published a comprehensive biography about his uncle titled The Importance of Being Ernest: The Life of Actor Jim Varney (Stuff that Vern doesn't even know). The same year, director Cherry released a Varney biography called Keeper of the Clown. , director David Pagano and Ernest Goes to Camp cast member Daniel Butler are planning to release a documentary about Varney called The Importance of Being Ernest. Varney was an accomplished mountain dulcimer player and once played the instrument on the very last episode of The Chevy Chase Show. ==Illness and death== Varney was a long-time chain smoker. During the filming of Treehouse Hostage in August 1998, Varney developed a nagging cough. At first, he presumed it was a cold caused by cold weather in the filming location; however, as it became worse, Varney began noticing blood on his handkerchief as well as a nose bleed. When filming was complete, he sought medical treatment where doctors found a tumor in his lung. Varney was diagnosed with lung cancer. Though his condition slowly worsened, Varney reportedly threw his cigarettes away and quit smoking to continue performing. He eventually returned to Tennessee, where he underwent chemotherapy; however, it failed and he subsequently died on February 10, 2000, at his home in White House, Tennessee, a city north of Nashville, at the age of 50. He was buried in Lexington Cemetery in Lexington, Kentucky. Disney's Atlantis: The Lost Empire, which was released a year later, was his last dubbing work, and was dedicated to his memory. == Filmography == ===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1982 Spittin' Image Sheriff 1983 Knowhutimean? Hey Vern, It's My Family Album Ernest P. Worrell / Davy Worrell & Company / Ace Worrell / Lloyd Worrell / Billy Boogie Worrell / Rhetch Worrell / Pop Worrell 1985 Dr. Otto and the Riddle of the Gloom Beam Dr. Otto / Ernest P. Worrell / Rudd Hardtact / Laughin' Jack / Guy Dandy / Auntie Nelda 1986 Ernest's Greatest Hits Volume 1 (The Ernest Film Festival) Ernest P. Worrell 1987 Ernest Goes to Camp Ernest P. Worrell 1987 Hey Vern, Win $10,000...Or Just Count on Having Fun! Ernest P. Worrell 1988 Ernest Saves Christmas Ernest P. Worrell / Aster Clement / The Governor's Student / Auntie Nelda / Mrs. Brock / Marty's Mother / The Snake Guy 1989 Fast Food Wrangler Bob Bundy 1990 Ernest Goes to Jail Ernest P. Worrell / Felix Nash / Auntie Nelda 1991 Ernest Scared Stupid Ernest P. Worrell / Phineas Worrell / Auntie Nelda / Various Relatives 1992 Ernest's Greatest Hits Volume 2 Ernest P. Worrell 1993 Wilder Napalm Rex 1993 The Beverly Hillbillies Jed Clampett 1993 Ernest Rides Again Ernest P. Worrell 1994 Ernest Goes to School Ernest P. Worrell 1995 The Expert Snake 1995 Slam Dunk Ernest Ernest P. Worrell 1995 Toy Story Slinky Dog Voice 1995 Bubba Goes Hunting Bubba 1995 The 4th of July Parade Cletus Jones 1996 Snowboard Academy Rudy James 1997 Ernest Goes to Africa Ernest P. Worrell / Hey You, the Hindu / Auntie Nelda / African Woman Dancer 1997 100 Proof Rae's Father 1997 Blood, Friends and Money The Old Mariner 1997 Annabelle's Wish Mr. Gus Holder Voice 1998 Ernest in the Army Pvt./Capt. Ernest P. Worrell / Operation Sandtrap Arab 1998 3 Ninjas: High Noon at Mega Mountain Lothar Zogg 1999 Existo Marcel Horowitz 1999 Treehouse Hostage Carl Banks 1999 Toy Story 2 Slinky Dog 2001 Daddy and Them Hazel Montgomery Posthumous release, final on-screen film appearance 2001 Atlantis: The Lost Empire Voice, posthumous release, final film role; dedicated to his memory === Television === Year Title Role Notes 1976 Dinah! Himself 1 episode 1977 Operation Petticoat Doom & Gloom Broom 1977 Fernwood 2 Night Virgil Simms 3 episodes 1978 America 2-Night Virgil Simms 3 episodes Operation Petticoat Seaman 'Doom & Gloom' Broom 26 episodes Alice Milo Skinner Episode: "Better Never Than Later" 1979 Alan King's Third Annual Final Warning! Various characters 1980 Pink Lady Various characters 6 episodes 1982–1983 Pop! Goes the Country Bobby Burbank / 'Shotglass' The Bartender / Bunny The Barmaid Unknown episodes 1983 The Rousters Evan Earp Pilot film 1983 The Rousters Evan Earp 13 episodes 1988 Hey Vern, It's Ernest! Ernest P. Worrell / Various characters 1988–1989 Happy New Year, America Ernest P. Worrell / Correspondent Live New Year's Eve special 1989 Ernest Goes to Splash Mountain Ernest P. Worrell 1990 Disneyland Ernest P. Worrell / Ernest's Father Episode: "Disneyland's 35th Anniversary Celebration" 1990 Disneyland's 35th Anniversary Celebration Ernest P. Worrell 1994 XXX's & OOO's Cameo 1996 Roseanne Prince Carlos 2 episodes 1997 Duckman Walt Evergreen Voice, episode: "You've Come a Wrong Way, Baby" 1998 Hercules King Ephialtes Voice, episode: "Hercules and the Muse of Dance" 1998 The Simpsons Cooder Voice, episode: "Bart Carny" 2000 Bibleman Jr. Himself 2 episodes ===Video games=== Year Title Voice role Notes 1995 Disney's Animated Storybook: Toy Story Slinky Dog 1996 Toy Story: Activity Center Slinky Dog 1996 Animated Storybook: Toy Story Slinky Dog 1999 Toy Story 2: Activity Center Slinky Dog 1999 Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue Slinky Dog 2001 Atlantis: The Lost Empire Cookie Released posthumously == References == == External links == * * * * Category:1949 births Category:2000 deaths Category:20th-century American comedians Category:20th-century American male actors Category:Actors from Lexington, Kentucky Category:American male comedians Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:American male video game actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American sketch comedians Category:American stand-up comedians Category:Audiobook narrators Category:Burials in Kentucky Category:Deaths from lung cancer in Tennessee Category:Male actors from Kentucky Category:People from White House, Tennessee
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Sagittarius is one of the constellations of the zodiac and is located in the Southern celestial hemisphere. It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. Its old astronomical symbol is 20px (♐︎). Its name is Latin for "archer". Sagittarius is commonly represented as a centaur drawing a bow. It lies between Scorpius and Ophiuchus to the west and Capricornus and Microscopium to the east. The center of the Milky Way lies in the westernmost part of Sagittarius (see Sagittarius A). == Visualizations == As seen from the northern hemisphere, the constellation's brighter stars form an easily recognizable asterism known as "the Teapot". The stars δ Sgr (Kaus Media), ε Sgr (Kaus Australis), ζ Sgr (Ascella), and φ Sgr form the body of the pot; λ Sgr (Kaus Borealis) is the point of the lid; γ2 Sgr (Alnasl) is the tip of the spout; and σ Sgr (Nunki) and τ Sgr the handle. These same stars originally formed the bow and arrow of Sagittarius. Marking the bottom of the teapot's "handle" (or the shoulder area of the archer), is the bright star (2.59 magnitude) Zeta Sagittarii (ζ Sgr), named Ascella, and the fainter Tau Sagittarii (τ Sgr). To complete the teapot metaphor, under good conditions, a particularly dense area of the Milky Way can be seen rising in a north- westerly arc above the spout, like a puff of steam rising from a boiling kettle.P.K. Chen (Sky Publishing 2007) A Constellation Album: Stars and Mythology of the Night Sky . The constellation as a whole is often depicted as having the rough appearance of a stick-figure archer drawing its bow, with the fainter stars providing the outline of the horse's body. Sagittarius famously points its arrow at the heart of Scorpius, represented by the reddish star Antares, as the two constellations race around the sky. Following the direct line formed by Delta Sagittarii (δ Sgr) and Gamma2 Sagittarii (γ2 Sgr) leads nearly directly to Antares. Fittingly, Gamma2 Sagittarii is Alnasl, the Arabic word for "arrowhead", and Delta Sagittarii is called Kaus Media, the "center of the bow," from which the arrow protrudes. Kaus Media bisects Lambda Sagittarii (λ Sgr) and Epsilon Sagittarii (ε Sgr), whose names Kaus Borealis and Kaus Australis refer to the northern and southern portions of the bow, respectively. Sagittarius is one of the prominent features of the summer skies in the northern hemisphere although in Europe north of the Pyrenees it drags very low along the horizon and can be difficult to see clearly. In Scotland and Scandinavia it cannot be seen at all. In southern Brazil, South Africa, and central Australia (30° south), Sagittarius passes directly overhead. It is hidden behind the Sun's glare from mid-November to mid-January and is the location of the Sun at the December solstice. By March, Sagittarius is rising at midnight. In June, it achieves opposition and can be seen all night. The June full moon appears in Sagittarius. In classical antiquity, Capricorn was the location of the Sun at the December solstice, but due to the precession of the equinoxes, this had shifted to Sagittarius by the time of the Roman Empire. By approximately 2700 AD, the Sun will be in Scorpius at the December solstice. thumb|Sagittarius region of the Milky Way == Notable features == === Stars === α Sgr (Rukbat, meaning "the archer's knee") despite having the "alpha" designation, is not the brightest star of the constellation, having a magnitude of only 3.96. It is towards the bottom center of the map as shown. Instead, the brightest star is Epsilon Sagittarii (ε Sgr) ("Kaus Australis," or "southern part of the bow"), at magnitude 1.85, or about seven times as bright as α Sgr.James B. Kaler, Prof. Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois, http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html Sigma Sagittarii (σ Sgr) ("Nunki") is the constellation's second-brightest star at magnitude 2.08. Nunki is a B2V star approximately 260 light-years away. "Nunki" is a Babylonian name of uncertain origin, but thought to represent the sacred Babylonian city of Eridu on the Euphrates, which would make Nunki the oldest star name currently in use. Zeta Sagittarii (ζ Sgr) ("Ascella"), with apparent magnitude 2.61 of A2 spectra, is actually a double star whose two components have magnitudes 3.3 and 3.5. Delta Sagittarii (δ Sgr) ("Kaus Meridionalis"), is a K2 spectra star with magnitude 2.71 about 350 light years from Earth. Eta Sagittarii (η Sgr) is a double star with component magnitudes of 3.18 and 10, while Pi Sagittarii (π Sgr) ("Albaldah") is actually a triple system whose components have magnitudes 3.7, 3.8, and 6.0. The Bayer designation Beta Sagittarii (Beta Sgr, β Sagittarii, β Sgr) is shared by two star systems, β¹ Sagittarii, with apparent magnitude 3.96, and β² Sagittarii, magnitude 7.4. The two stars are separated by 0.36° in the sky and are 378 light-years from earth. Beta Sagittarii, located at a position associated with the forelegs of the centaur, has the traditional name "Arkab", meaning "Achilles tendon". Nova Sagittarii 2015 No. 2 was discovered on 15 March 2015, by of Chatsworth Island, NSW, Australia. It lies near the center of the constellation. It reached a peak magnitude of 4.3 before steadily fading. === Deep-sky objects === thumb|Large Sagittarius Star Cloud with Lagoon Nebula at top thumbnail|right|250px|The Omega Nebula, also known as the Horseshoe or Swan Nebula The Milky Way is at its densest near Sagittarius, as this is where the Galactic Center lies. As a result, Sagittarius contains many star clusters and nebulae. ==== Star clouds ==== Sagittarius contains two well-known star clouds, both considered fine binocular objects. * The Large Sagittarius Star Cloud is the brightest visible region of the Milky Way. It is a portion of the central bulge of the galaxy seen around the thick dust of the Great Rift, and is the innermost galactic structure that can be observed in visible wavelengths. It has several embedded clusters and superimposed dark nebulae. * The Small Sagittarius Star Cloud, also known as Messier 24, has an apparent magnitude of 2.5. The cloud fills a space of significant volume to a depth of 10,000 to 16,000 light-years. Embedded in M24 is NGC 6603, a small star cluster that is very dense. NGC 6567, a dim planetary nebula, and Barnard 92, a Bok globule, are also nearby. ==== Nebulae ==== Sagittarius contains several well-known nebulae, including the Lagoon Nebula (Messier 8), near λ Sagittarii; the Omega Nebula (Messier 17), near the border with Scutum; and the Trifid Nebula (Messier 20), a large nebula containing some very young, hot stars. * The Lagoon Nebula (M8) is an emission nebula that is located 5,000 light-years from Earth and measures 140 light-years by 60 light-years (1.5°). Though it appears grey in telescopes to the unaided eye, long-exposure photographs reveal its pink hue, common to emission nebulae. It is fairly bright, with an integrated magnitude of 3.0. The Lagoon Nebula was discovered independently by John Flamsteed in 1680, Guillaume Le Gentil in 1747, and Charles Messier in 1764. The central area of the Lagoon Nebula is also known as the Hourglass Nebula, so named for its distinctive shape. The Hourglass Nebula has its shape because of matter propelled by Herschel 36. The Lagoon Nebula also features three dark nebulae listed in the Barnard Catalogue. The Lagoon Nebula was instrumental in the discovery of Bok globules, as Bart Bok studied prints of the nebula intensively in 1947. Approximately 17,000 Bok globules were discovered in the nebula nine years later as a part of the Palomar Sky Survey; studies later showed that Bok's hypothesis that the globules held protostars was correct. * The Omega Nebula is a fairly bright nebula, sometimes called the Horseshoe Nebula or Swan Nebula. It has an integrated magnitude of 6.0 and is 4890 light-years from Earth. It was discovered in 1746 by Philippe Loys de Chésaux; observers since him have differed greatly in how they view the nebula, hence its myriad of names. Most often viewed as a checkmark, it was seen as a swan by George F. Chambers in 1889, a loon by Roy Bishop, and as a curl of smoke by Camille Flammarion. * The Trifid Nebula (M20, NGC 6514) is an emission nebula in Sagittarius that lies less than two degrees from the Lagoon Nebula. Discovered by French comet- hunter Charles Messier, it is located between 2,000 and 9,000 light-years from Earth and has a diameter of approximately 50 light-years. The outside of the Trifid Nebula is a bluish reflection nebula; the interior is pink with two dark bands that divide it into three areas, sometimes called "lobes". Hydrogen in the nebula is ionized, creating its characteristic color, by a central triple star, which formed in the intersection of the two dark bands. M20 is associated with a cluster that has a magnitude of 6.3. * The Red Spider Nebula (NGC 6537) is a planetary nebula located at a distance of about 4000 light- years from Earth. * NGC 6559 is a star-forming region located at a distance of about 5000 light-years from Earth, in the constellation of Sagittarius, showing both emission (red) and reflection (blue) regions. In addition, several other nebulae have been located within Sagittarius and are of interest to astronomy. * NGC 6445 is a planetary nebula with an approximate magnitude of 11. A large nebula at over one arcminute in diameter, it appears very close to the globular cluster NGC 6440. * NGC 6638 is a dimmer globular at magnitude 9.2, though it is more distant than M71 at a distance of 26,000 light-years. It is a Shapley class VI cluster; the classification means that it has an intermediate concentration at its core. It is approximately a degree away from the brighter globulars M22 and M28; NGC 6638 is southeast and southwest of the clusters respectively. ==== Other deep sky objects ==== In 1999 a violent outburst at V4641 Sgr was thought to have revealed the location of the closest known black hole to Earth, but later investigation increased its estimated distance by a factor of 15. The complex radio source Sagittarius A is also in Sagittarius, near its western boundary with Ophiuchus. Astronomers believe that one of its components, known as Sagittarius A*, is associated with a supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, with a mass of 2.6 million solar masses. Although not visible to the naked eye, Sagittarius A* is located off the top of the spout of the Teapot asterism. The Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy is located just outside the Milky Way. Baade's Window is an area with very little obscuring dust that shows objects closer to the Milky Way's center than would normally be visible. NGC 6522, magnitude 8.6, and NGC 6528, magnitude 9.5, are both globular clusters visible through Baade's Window. 20,000 and 24,000 light-years from Earth, with Shapley classes of VI and V respectively, both are moderately concentrated at their cores. NGC 6528 is closer to the galactic core at an approximate distance of 2,000 light- years. 2MASS-GC02, also known as Hurt 2, is a globular cluster at a distance of about 16 thousand light-years from Earth. It was discovered in 2000 by Joselino Vasquez, and confirmed by a team of astronomers under the leadership of R. J. Hurt at 2MASS. == Exploration == The space probe New Horizons is moving on a trajectory out of the Solar System as of 2016 that places the probe in front of Sagittarius as seen from the Earth. New Horizons will exhaust its radioisotope thermoelectric generator long before it reaches any other stars. The Wow! signal was a strong narrowband radio signal that appeared to have come from the direction of Sagittarius. == Mythology == The Babylonians identified Sagittarius as the god Nergal, a centaur-like creature firing an arrow from a bow. It is generally depicted with wings, with two heads, one panther head and one human head, as well as a scorpion's stinger raised above its more conventional horse's tail. The Sumerian name Pabilsag is composed of two elements – Pabil, meaning 'elder paternal kinsman' and Sag, meaning 'chief, head'. The name may thus be translated as the 'Forefather' or 'Chief Ancestor'. The figure is reminiscent of modern depictions of Sagittarius. === Greek mythology === In Greek mythology, Sagittarius is usually identified as a centaur: half human, half horse. However, perhaps due to the Greeks' adoption of the Sumerian constellation, some confusion surrounds the identity of the archer. Some identify Sagittarius as the centaur Chiron, the son of Philyra and Cronus, who was said to have changed himself into a horse to escape his jealous wife, Rhea, and tutor to Jason. As there are two centaurs in the sky, some identify Chiron with the other constellation, known as Centaurus. Or, as an alternative tradition holds, that Chiron devised the constellations Sagittarius and Centaurus to help guide the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece.Richard H. Allen (1899), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning, G. E. Stechert, p. 353 A competing mythological tradition, as espoused by Eratosthenes, identified the Archer not as a centaur but as the satyr Crotus, son of Pan, who Greeks credited with the invention of archery.Theony Condos, Ph.D. (Red Wheel/Weiser 1997) Star Myths of the Greeks and Romans: A Sourcebook, p. 186 . According to myth, Crotus often went hunting on horseback and lived among the Muses, who requested that Zeus place him in the sky, where he is seen demonstrating archery. The arrow of this constellation points towards the star Antares, the "heart of the scorpion", and Sagittarius stands poised to attack should Scorpius ever attack the nearby Hercules, or to avenge Scorpius's slaying of Orion.Milton D. Heifetz (Cambridge University Press 2004) A Walk Through the Heavens: A Guide to Stars and Constellations and Their Legends, p. 66 . === Terebellum === 160px|thumb|Terebellum asterism On the west side of the constellation, Ptolemy also described the asterism Terebellum consisting of four 4th magnitude stars, including the closest and fastest moving member, Omega Sagittarii. === Astrology === , the Sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius from 18 December to 18 January. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Sagittarius from 22 November to 21 December, and in sidereal astrology, from 16 December to 14 January. == See also == * Sagittarius (Chinese astronomy) == Notes == == References == * * == External links == * The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Sagittarius * Star Tales – Sagittarius * Find Sagittarius in the Night Sky * The clickable Sagittarius * Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Sagittarius) Category:Constellations Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy
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Gavril Istrati, or Istrate (died 1838), was a Moldavian boyar who mounted military resistance to the Filiki Eteria during the Greek War of Independence. Probably hailing from the yeomanry, he spent a while servicing the more powerful boyar Teodor "Frederic" Balș, and became a Paharnic in Botoșani city, near Moldavia's border with the Austrian Empire. An exponent of Romanian nationalism and a presumed ally of the Austrians, he participated in the boyar conspiracy which liberated Botoșani County, though his troops disbanded without making further gains; his effort matched a similar counter-rebellion in neighboring Wallachia. Istrati was shunned by his former co-conspirator Ioan Sturdza, who took over as Prince of Moldavia after the clampdown on Eterism. He spent much of the following decade in Botoșani and Pașcani, and was at some point disfigured during a robbery attempt. Prince Mihail Sturdza reinstated the Istratis to high office, with Gavril carrying on as a Paharnic and Chief Justice in Iași County. He went into retirement in 1836, at the height of the Regulamentul Organic period, with his son Iancu replacing him as judge. Gavril was also the father of politician and writer Nicolae Istrati, best known as the proponent of conservatism and Moldavian separatism during the United Principalities regime. Through him, the Istratis preserved their connections with Austria into the Crimean War and after. Another son, Manolachi (Meletie) Istrati, embraced a career in the Moldavian Orthodox Church, but assisted Nicolae in his intrigues. The brothers' agenda acquired a visual representation in monuments they erected at Rotopănești. Gavril's grandchildren also had careers in the justice system of the Romanian Kingdom, while a great-grandson, Edgar Istratty, was a noted opera singer. ==Biography== The Istratis, who belonged to the middle stratum of Moldavian boyardom, claimed descent from Eustratie Dabija, who had occupied the Moldavian throne in the 1660s;Dima et al., p. 581 as noted by genealogist Ștefan S. Gorovei, this should be regarded as "entirely unjustified", since Dabija only had one child, a daughter, who "died very young".Ștefan S. Gorovei, "Note de istorie a literaturii", in România Literară, Issue 17/1970, p. 12 Other accounts suggest that they were yeomen (răzeși), with Gavril and his brothers, Constantin and Iancu (or Ioniță), being the first Istratis to receive boyar titles and manorial estates.Sion, pp. 110–111; Zahariuc, pp. 276–277 All three began as Captains of the Moldavian administration in Botoșani County. From this position, Gavril became titular owner of Coșuleni village.Zahariuc, p. 277 Researcher Petronel Zahariuc notes that the family origin is ultimately obscure, but that Gavril may have been born to a landowner from Tamași, Grigoraș Istrati, or to the Orthodox priest Ioniță Istrati of Săucești and his wife Ilinca (a widower by 1807).Zahariuc, p. 276 His social advancement was helped by his marriage to Ecaterina (or Catrina) Ilschi, who was related to the leading boyar houses of both Moldavia and neighboring Austrian Bukovina.Zahariuc, pp. 277, 279 Her sister Ileana (died 1813) was the wife of Vornic Gheorghe Tăutu, and mother of the "famous Comis Ionică Tăutu". In 1806, Istrati had joined the retinue of Moldavia's Spatharios, Teodor "Frederic" Balș. Some three years later, in the latter half of 1809, he was disgraced and had to flee after being blamed for the fire that destroyed Balș's townhouse in Iași.Zahariuc, pp. 277–278 From the early 18th century, Moldavia and Wallachia (the Danubian Principalities) had been placed under a tighter control by the Ottoman Empire, exercised through the Greek- speaking Phanariotes. A Romanian by birth, Gavril reached political prominence in 1814 or 1815, when he was made Paharnic of the Moldavian court.Iorga, p. 173; Zahariuc, pp. 277, 278 In 1816, he was also a Stolnic,Sion, p. 110; Zahariuc, p. 278 and, by 1820, was registered among the tax exempt nobility of Botoșani.A. Gorovei, pp. 79–80, 128 The following year, Alexander Ypsilantis' Eteria sparked the fight for Greek independence by invading Moldavia from the Russian Empire, chasing away its titular Prince, Michael Soutzos. Even before his takeover of Iași, he was met with the refusal of many boyars to even recognize him. A delegation was sent to İbrail, openly asking for the Ottoman Army to intervene and chase out the Eterists. Following this, a false rumor spread that the Ottomans had entered Moldavia, and this helped coalesce boyar resistance.Eliade, p. 388 Along with other Romanian and Phanariote boyars, Istrati also rejected offers to collaborate with the new regime—as noted by chronicler Manolachi Drăghici, Botoșani and the entire Upper Country were under very loose Eterist control, as Ypsilantis feared exposing his troops to an Austrian attack from Bukovina.A. Gorovei, p. 21 The city had preserved a small Ottoman outpost, whose soldiers got along well with the Romanian, Jewish and Armenian population, though they persecuted Greeks; it was overpowered by a 100-strong portion of the Sacred Band, which celebrated its victory by assaulting Jews and publicly decapitating an Ottoman soldier, whose blood was consumed by the Eterists in a mock version of the Eucharist.A. Gorovei, pp. 21, 22–23 Drăghici reports that Istrati then took to the border village of Zvoriștea, where he secretly met with a boyar assembly that planned military resistance; other conspirators included his boss "Frederic" Balș and his nephew Ionică Tăutu, Vornici Ioan Sturdza and Gheorghe Cuza—alongside Hatmani Răducanu Ruset and Costachi Cerchez, and Spatharios Petrachi Sturdza. They assembled a 3,000-strong peasant army from villages along the Siret, gathered under a plain red flag, the "symbol of war and killing."A. Gorovei, pp. 21–22. See also Eliade, p. 388; Iorga, pp. 173, 174; Zahariuc, p. 278 Historian Nicolae Iorga argues that these "counter-revolutionary" troops were financed and armed by Austria, whose government was upset by Ypsilantis' connection with the Russians. Noting that the boyars themselves were motivated "exclusively" by Romanian nationalism, he draws a parallel with the Pandur uprising in Wallachia, which also culminated as a war with the Greeks.Iorga, pp. 174, 175 Scholar Pompiliu Eliade contrarily believes that the movement, "patriotic as it was in appearance", rested on conservatism, and represented "the progress of corruption under the [Phanariote] regime"; the aristocracy feared Ypsilantis as an usurper of their privilege, and resented the fact that he himself demanded to be served like a Phanariote Prince.Eliade, pp. 388–389 The guerilla force, led into battle by Istrati and Ștefanachi Gherghel, took Botoșani by storm, disarming the Eterist guard and appointing Petru Vârnav as the city Ispravnic.A. Gorovei, pp. 21–22; Iorga, pp. 173, 174–175; Zahariuc, p. 278 The remaining Greek garrison abandoned the Upper Country and regrouped in Țuțora; they attempted to cross into Russian Bessarabia, but refrained from doing so when Eterist commander Pendidekas threatened to execute all deserters.A. Gorovei, p. 22; Iorga, pp. 173–174 Istrati and Gherghel camped out at Stâncești, where a new boyar gathering was convened. They awaited reinforcements and new orders, but none came, and the army simply scattered, with peasants returning to their villages.A. Gorovei, p. 22; Iorga, pp. 174, 175; Zahariuc, pp. 278–279 Eliade suggests that, "although they had some trouble distinguishing between their many oppressors", the peasants "understood very well that, whatever the movement's outcome, they would be the only ones to suffer." However, as argued by Iorga, the boyars themselves had been informed that Ypsilantis could not expect Russian backing, and therefore that the Eterists were doomed (see Battle of Sculeni).Iorga, p. 175 Istrati backed Balș as the loyalist candidate for the Moldavian throne, but "Frederic" failed to act in time for also winning the Ottomans' favor.Zahariuc, p. 279 Phanariote rule was brought to an end when Vornic Sturdza took over as Prince; this regime probably repressed the Istratis, with Gavril being kept out of office for the duration; he compensated by leasing a lucrative estate in Pașcani. As noted by historian Petronel Zahariuc, in 1823 he "felt threatened", and for this reason sent his wife and children to Crasna, over what was then the Austrian border. Around that same time, his home was invaded by robbers, who absconded with much of his currency and other goods. He attempted to resist, and narrowly escaped death after being shot in the face: "his whole face was burned and for this reason he was left with black marks on his cheek [but] had quite the luck, since the buckshot went right past his head, having had the time to push the pistol away with his hand." The boyar ascendancy was itself curbed by the Russian occupation of 1829. At this stage, Gavril helped his son Iancu enter the Moldavian administrative apparatus as a Postelnic in direct service to the Imperial Army.Zahariuc, p. 280 The Russian takeover gave way a Russian–Ottoman condominium, with both Principalities placed under a new constitutional regime, called Regulamentul Organic. A new Prince, Mihail Sturdza, reappointed Gavril as a Paharnic, and assigned him Chief Justice of Iași County, where he would serve until 1836. Istrati died in 1838; his widow Ecaterina became a nun at Agafton Monastery, where she remained until her own death, at some point in the late 1840s.Zahariuc, pp. 279–280, 286–287 She was probably joined there by her daughter, Safta Istrati, who is later known to have resided at Agapia. The Paharnic and his wife also left three sons, of whom the eldest, Iancu, was his immediate successor as Iași County Judge, in which capacity he helped to quell peasant unrest. A client of the court potentate Nicolae Șuțu, he took the additional title of Ban as a reward for his services.Zahariuc, pp. 279, 282–285 He remains mainly known for his activity as a landowner in Călimănești-Tutova.Sion, pp. 110–111; Zahariuc, passim In the early 1830s, he and his brother Nicolae (or Neculai) Istrati had a shared interest in the promotion of literature, penning manuscript versions of Voltaire's Memnon, from the translation done by Costache Negruzzi.Eugen Lovinescu, "Un poem inedit al lui Costache Negruzzi", in Convorbiri Literare, Vol. XLV, Issue 6, June 1911, pp. 623–624, 629–630 The Botoșani census of 1832 recorded that Gavril and Nicolae were living together; by then, Manolachi, known as "Agachii", was already a monk.A. Gorovei, p. 128 ==Posterity== Nicolae Istrati, originally a tax collector among the Romani slaves,Sion, p. 111 entered political life in the late 1830s. A prominent supporter of Romanian nationalism and a pupil of George Bariț,Bodea, pp. 46–48, 79, 89–90, 249–255, 303–304 he was a contributor to journals such as Albina Românească, Dacia Literară, and Foaie pentru Minte, Inimă și Literatură.Dima et al., pp. 243, 414, 419, 581. See also Istrati, pp. 516, 519 This Istrati embraced radical liberalism in 1846, when he joined up with Alexandru Ioan Cuza's Patriotic Association,Dima et al., p. 581 conspiring against Regulamentul and Prince Sturdza. The latter ordered his detention in Galați stockade, with both his brothers intervening to obtain him better conditions while condemning his actions.Zahariuc, pp. 288–289 Just before the Moldavian Revolution of 1848, his was being held at Slatina Monastery, where Manolachi was the Hegumen.Zahariuc, pp. 289–290. See also Bodea, pp. 89–90, 303–304; Dima et al., p. 581; Sion, p. 111 Genealogist and polemicist Constantin Sion claims that he was in reality spying for Sturdza and the Russians.Sion, pp. 111, 300–301, 316, 380–381 A brochure circulated at the time suggested that Nicolae repudiated the revolutionary movement, although its authenticity remains disputed.Dima et al., pp. 431, 581 In 1851, Manolachi became Bishop of Huși, replacing Sofronie Miclescu, who had advanced to Metropolitan of Moldavia. Under the new name of "Meletie Istrati", he is remembered as the founder of a theological seminary that came to be managed by Melchisedec Ștefănescu.Lina Codreanu, "'Momente' de vrednicie arhierească", in Danubius XXXIV. Rezumate, 2016, pp. 546–547 During the final months of Sturdza's reign, Nicolae was promoted to Spatharios.Sion, pp. 111, 316 Following the Crimean War, Cuza's National Party came to endorse a union between Moldavia and Wallachia. In early 1856, Nicolae signed up to this agenda,Roman, p. 212 but immediately after embraced Moldavian particularism, then separatism, with "surprising ostentation and mounting fury."Dima et al., pp. 581–582 However, he still framed his opposition in patriotic terms, arguing that union went against the consensus of European powers, and would therefore lead to an international punitive action against Moldavia; he also claimed that, if at all workable, the union would accelerate Moldavia's social and economic decline. He aired these concerns in his political newspaper Nepărtinitorul, which he published in cooperation with Aga Mihail Străjescu.Roman, passim. See also Maciu, p. 60 Together with his son, known as Titu or Titus Istrati, and his brother Meletie, he founded in 1856 the Orthodox church of Rotopănești, which carries a dedication to Moldavian liberties and hosts a statue personifying the country.Teodor Burada, "Școala de musică și declamație dela Rotopănești", in Biserica și Șcóla, Issue 39/1900, pp. 352–353 Nicolae embarked on a massive cultural project, creating Rotopănești's art gallery, music conservatory and theater, alongside several schools.Istrati, pp. 517–519 These include Moldavia's first ever school for girls, created in 1855.Istrati, passim During December, Caimacam Teodor Balș reshuffled the Moldavian cabinet, and Nicolae took over as Postelnic—or Minister of Public Works.Maciu, pp. 66–67; Topor, p. 202 Though favored by Austrian envoys to Moldavia, he could not obtain an appointment as head of Internal Affairs, as that job was reserved for more high-ranking boyars.Topor, pp. 202, 205–206, 212 The Istrati brothers were by then directly involved in polemics with Metropolitan Sofronie, whom they tried to coax or coerce into an anti-unionist stance. When Sofronie refused, Meletie was groomed by his brother to take over as Moldavia's religious leader—but died before this could happen.Nestor Vornicescu, "Participarea mitropolitului Moldovei Sofronie Miclescu la înfăptuirea Unirii Principatelor Române — 1859", in Biserica Ortodoxă Română, Vol. CII, Issue 1, January–February 1984, pp. 84–86, 88–89, 96 As an associate of Gheorghe Asachi and a subordinate of Balș's replacement Nicolae Vogoride, Nicolae played a direct part in falsifying the election of July 1857,Dima et al., pp. 582–583; Topor, pp. 205–210 resulting in his marginalization after the results were overturned. Before the repeat elections of 1858, he made a final attempt to channel peasant support for the separatist agenda by unilaterally introducing land reform on his Rotopănești estate.Gheorghe Platon, "Frămîntări țărănești în Moldova în preajma Unirii", in Studii. Revistă de Istorie, Vol. XII, Issue 1, 1959, p. 130 The Postelnic died in infamy in 1861, soon after the creation of the United Principalities; however, he achieved posthumous recognition for his work as a poet and humorist.Dima et al., pp. 582–583; Istrati, pp. 515–516 Shortly before the establishment of a Romanian Kingdom, Titu Istrati was a judge in Botoșani.A. Gorovei, p. 422. See also Istrati, p. 519 He rallied with Junimea society, and later with the National Liberal Party. Following a January 1888 election, took a seat in Chamber for Vaslui County."Viitoarea Camera", in România Liberă, January 27 (February 8), 1888, p. 1 He later moved to the appellate court of Galați, serving as auditor during the local election of 1907."Informațiuni", in Vocea Tutovei, Issue 33/1906, p. 3 His son was Edgar Istratty, an opera bass and raconteur.E. I., "Arte frumoase. Edgar Istratty", in Contemporanul, Issue 19/1972, p. 6 Through Iancu and his wife Elenco Adamachi, Gavril had half-Greek grandchildren: Teodor (or Histodor), Nicolae Iancu, and Catinca. Both of the former were jurists, with Nicolae once serving as Romania's Prosecutor General.Zahariuc, pp. 282, 290–296 ==Notes== ==References== * Cornelia Bodea, Lupta românilor pentru unitatea națională, 1834–1849. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1967. * Alexandru Dima and contributors, Istoria literaturii române. II: De la Școala Ardeleană la Junimea. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1968. * Pompiliu Eliade, De l'influence française sur l'esprit public en Roumanie. Les origines. Étude sur l'état de la société roumaine a l'époque des règnes phanariotes. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1898. * Arthur Gorovei, Monografia Orașului Botoșani. Botoșani: Ediția Primăriei de Botoșani, 1938. * Nicolae Iorga, "Două comunicații la Academia Română. II: O foaie de popularisare igienică și economică la 1844–45. Rolul fraților Vîrnav în Renașterea romănească", in Revista Istorică, Vol. V, Issues 8–10, August–October 1919, pp. 170–187. * Constantin Istrati, "Prima școală de fete la sate", in Literatură și Artă Română, Vol. V, 1900–1901, pp. 513–522. * Vasile Maciu, "Organizarea mișcarii pentru Unire în anii 1855–1857 în Moldova și Țara Românească", in Studii. Revistă de Istorie, Vol. XII, Issue 1, 1959, pp. 43–73. * Liviu I. Roman, "Un jurnal antiunionist: Nepărtinitorul (21 iunie — 10 septembrie 1856)", in Cercetări Istorice, Vol. XVII, Part 2, 1998, pp. 207–219. * Constantin Sion, Arhondologia Moldoveĭ. Amintirĭ și note contimporane. Iași: Tipografia Buciumuluĭ Român, 1892. * Claudiu-Lucian Topor, "Un opozant înverșunat al unirii principatelor: Rudolf Oskar baron de Gödel Lannoy", in Analele Științifice ale Universității Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iași. Istorie, Vols. LIV–LV, 2008–2009, pp. 197–214. * Petronel Zahariuc, "Despre un boier moldovean (Iancu Istrati) și despre biblioteca sa și cititorii ei, la 1840", in Banatica, Vol. 30, 2020, pp. 275–314. Category:Year of birth unknown Category:1838 deaths Category:Stolnici of Moldavia Category:Romanian military leaders Category:19th-century Romanian judges Category:Romanian nationalists Category:Moldavian people of the Greek War of Independence Category:People from Botoșani Category:Eastern Orthodox Christians from Romania
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Eastern Arabia is a region stretched from Basra to Khasab along the Persian Gulf coast and included parts of modern-day Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Eastern Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, and Yemen. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as "Bahrain" for a millennium. Until very recently, the whole of Eastern Arabia, from the Shatt al-Arab to the mountains of Oman, was a place where people moved around, settled and married unconcerned by national borders. The people of Eastern Arabia shared a culture based on the sea; they are seafaring peoples. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are all located in Eastern Arabia. The modern-day states of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and UAE are the most commonly listed Gulf Arab states; Saudi Arabia is often considered a Gulf Arab state as well, but most of the country's inhabitants do not live in Eastern Arabia, with the exception of the Bahrani people, who live in the oases of Qatif and Al-Aḥsā, and who historically inhabited the entire region of Eastern Arabia before the establishment of the modern day political borders. ==Etymology== In Arabic, Baḥrayn is the dual form of baḥr (), so al-Baḥrayn means "the Two Seas". However, which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Qur'an, but does not refer to the modern islandoriginally known to the Arabs as “Awal”but rather to the oases of al- Qatif and Hadjar (modern Al-Aḥsā).Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. I. “Bahrayn”, p. 941. E.J. Brill (Leiden), 1960. It is unclear when the term began to refer exclusively to the archipelago in the Gulf of Bahrain, but it was probably after the 15th century. Today, Bahrain's "two seas" are instead generally taken to be the bay east and west of the coast, the seas north and south of the island, or the salt and fresh water present above and below the ground.Faroughy, Abbas. The Bahrein Islands (750–1951): A Contribution to the Study of Power Politics in the Persian Gulf. Verry, Fisher & Co. (New York), 1951. In addition to wells, there are places in the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the salt water, noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory offered by al-Hasa was that the two seas were the Great Green Ocean and a peaceful lake on the mainland; still another provided by al-Jawahari is that the more formal name Bahri (lit. “belonging to the sea”) would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. The term "Gulf Arab" or "Khaleeji" refers, geographically, to inhabitants of eastern Arabia. However, today the term is often applied to the inhabitants of the GCC countries in the Arabian Peninsula. "Khaleeji" has evolved into a socio- political regional identity that distinguished the GCC inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula from the wider Arab world building on the cultural homogeneity within the Gulf states and their shared history. == Culture == The inhabitants of Eastern Arabia's Gulf coast share similar cultures and music styles, such as fijiri, sawt and liwa. The most noticeable cultural trait of Eastern Arabia's Gulf Arabs is their orientation and focus towards the sea. Maritime-focused life in the small Gulf Arab states has resulted in a sea- oriented society where livelihoods have traditionally been earned in marine industries. The Arabs of Eastern Arabia speak a dialect known as Gulf Arabic. Approximately 2 million Saudis (out of a population of 34 million) speak Gulf Arabic.Languages of Saudi Arabia Ethnologue === Mass media and entertainment === Khaleeji entertainment is popular throughout the Arab world. Although performed in the Gulf Arabic dialect, its influence reaches as far as Tunisia. Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of poetry, film, theater, and soap operas, is exported to neighbouring states. The Arab world's three largest broadcast networks (Al Jazeera Network, Al Arabiya, and MBC Group) are all located in Eastern Arabia as well. === Religion === Islam is dominant in Eastern Arabia. The main sects are Shi'a, which has the strongest presence in Eastern Arabia and is the primary religion throughout Bahrain, Qatif and Al- Ahsa; Ibadi Islam, which is dominant in Oman; and a small Sunni Islam minority in eastern Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. ==History== Before the 7th century CE, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of partially Christianized Arabs, Arab Zoroastrians, Jews and Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists. Some sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia exhibit Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac features. The sedentary people of ancient Bahrain were Aramaic speakers and to some degree Persian speakers, while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language. ===Dilmun=== The Kingdom of Dilmun first appears in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The demonym "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and the ethnicity of an official in these tablets.Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours by Harriet E. W. Crawford, page 5 Dilmun was also mentioned in two letters, recovered from Nippur, which were dated to the reign of Burna- Buriash II (c. 1370 BC), a king of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official located in Dilmun, Ilī-ippašra, to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun, with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BC which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be "King of Dilmun and Meluhha". Assyrian inscriptions at this time also recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun; one of the sites discovered in Bahrain indicates that Sennacherib, king of Assyria (707–681 BC), attacked the northeastern Persian Gulf and captured Bahrain. The most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian dynasty. Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the king of Babylon. The name "Dilmun" fell from use after the collapse of Neo-Babylon in 538 BC. It is not certain what happened to the civilization itself; discoveries of ruins under the Persian Gulf may be of Dilmun. ==== Trade ==== There is both literary and archaeological evidence of extensive trade between Ancient Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization (which most scholars identify with Meluhha). Impressions of clay seals from the Indus Valley city of Harappa were evidently used to seal bundles of merchandise, as clay seal impressions with cord or sack marks on the reverse side testify. A number of these Indus Valley seals have turned up at Ur and other Mesopotamian sites. The “Arabian Gulf” types of circular, stamped (rather than rolled) seals known from Dilmun appear at Lothal in Gujarat, India, as well as in Mesopotamia. These seals support the other evidence of Dilmun being an influential trading center. What the commerce consisted of is less known; timber and precious woods, ivory, lapis lazuli, gold, luxury goods such as carnelian and glazed stone beads, pearls from the Persian Gulf, and shell and bone inlays were among the goods sent to Mesopotamia in exchange for silver, tin, woolen textiles, olive oil and grains. Copper ingots from Oman and bitumen, which occurred naturally in Mesopotamia, may have been exchanged for cotton textiles and domestic fowl, major products of the Indus region that are not native to Mesopotamia. Instances of all of these trade goods have been found. The importance of this trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were in fact identical to those used by the Indus, and were not used in Southern Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian trade documents, lists of goods, and official inscriptions mentioning Meluhha supplement Harappan seals and archaeological finds. Literary references to trade with Meluhha date from the Akkadian period (c. 2300 BC), but the trade probably started in the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2600 BC). Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports, but by the Isin-Larsa Period (c. 1900 BC), Dilmun monopolized the trade. The Bahrain National Museum assesses that its "Golden Age" lasted from c. 2200 BC to 1600 BC. ==== Mythology ==== In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh had to pass through Mount Mashu to reach Dilmun. Mount Mashu is usually identified with the whole of the parallel Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these mountains constituting the tunnel. Dilmun, sometimes described as “the place where the sun rises” and “the Land of the Living”, is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it "Mount Dilmun" and a “faraway, half-mythical place”. Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. Enki says to Ninhursag: > For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, > rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all > beings and bring abundance to all that lives."Enki and Ninhursag" Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and southerly winds, had her home in Dilmun. However, in the early epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled". ===Gerrha=== thumb|300px|Gerrha and its neighbors in 1 AD.Gerrha was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Persian Gulf. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of Uqair, northeast of Al-Aḥsā in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This site was first proposed by R E Cheesman in 1924. Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, only from the ancient burial grounds of Dilmun on the island of Bahrain.Potts (1990), p. 56.Bibby, pp. 317-318. Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the Dilmuni civilization. Gerrha itself was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BC to circa 300 AD. The kingdom was attacked by Antiochus III the Great in 205-204 BC, though it seems to have survived. It is unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under Sassanid Persian control after 300 AD. Gerrha was described by StraboStrabon, Geography, i6. 4. 19-20 as inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water. Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 6.32) says it was in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt. Gerrha was destroyed by the Qarmatians at the end of the 9th century, and all 300,000 inhabitants were killed. It was from the Persian Gulf near current day Hofuf. The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his bookGerrha, The Ancient City Of International Trade that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day Al- Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Al Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument given that Al Ahsa is inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trader's route, making the location within the archipelago of islands comprising the modern Kingdom of Bahrain, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility. Various other identifications of the site have been attempted, with Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville choosing Qatif and Carsten Niebuhr preferring Kuwait. ===Tylos=== thumb|300px|right|Asia in 600 CE, showing the Sassanid Empire before the Arab conquest The island of Bahrain was referred to by the ancient Greeks as "Tylos" () and was known for its pearls.Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society By Curtis E. Larsen p. 13 From the 6th to 3rd century BC Bahrain was part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. The Greek admiral Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit the island, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network. He recorded: “In the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton trees, from which are manufactured clothes called sindones, of different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is mostly confined to India, but extends also to Arabia.” The Greek historian, Theophrastus, states that much of the archipelago was covered in these cotton trees and noted that textiles were a major industry. According to him, Tylos was also famous for exporting engraved walking canes popular in Babylon.Arnold Heeren, ibid, p441 It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, although the archaeological site at Qalat Al Bahrain has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf.Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies, Ian Morris, Routledge, p184 Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek colonists, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams.Phillip Ward, Bahrain: A Travel Guide, Oleander Press p68 Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.W. B. Fisher et al. The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press 1968 p40 The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic "Tilmun" (from Dilmun).Jean Francois Salles in Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500BC-300AD in Michael Rice, Harriet Crawford Ed, IB Tauris, 2002 p132 The term "Tylos" was commonly used for the archipelago; Ptolemy's Geographia when the inhabitants are referred to as "Thilouanoi" ("inhabitants of Tylos").Jean Francois Salles p132 Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era; for instance, the residential suburb of Arad, located in Muharraq, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for the island of Muharraq.Curtis E. Larsen. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press, 1984 p13 The Greek historians Herodotus and Strabo both believed the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Arad, Bahrain, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples."Arnold Heeren, p441 The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. Herodotus's account (written c. 430 BC) refers to Phoenicians inhabiting the shores of the Persian Gulf: With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene, the state founded by Hyspaosines in 127 BC in modern-day Kuwait . A building inscription found in Bahrain indicates that Hyspoasines occupied the islands. ===Parthian and Sassanid=== From the 3rd century BC to arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties: the Parthians and the Sassanids. By about 250 BC, the Seleucids lost their territories to the Parthians, an Iranian tribe from Central Asia. The Parthian Empire brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf.Bahrain By Federal Research Division, page 7 In the 3rd century AD, the Sasanians succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. Ardashir, the first ruler of the Sasanian dynasty, conquered Bahrain and northern Oman, and appointed his son, Shapur I, as the governor of eastern Arabia, now the province of Mazun. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it "Batan Ardashir" after his father. Mazun stretched from Oman in the south to the Shatt al-Arab in the north, and included the archipelago of Bahrain; thus it is roughly coterminous with the modern definition of Eastern Arabia.Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in ... By Jamsheed K. Choksy, 1997, page 75 It was subdivided into the three districts of Haggar (Hofuf, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (Al-Qatif, Saudi Arabia), and Mishmahig (Muharraq, Bahrain), which included the Bahrain archipelago. ===Beth Qatraye=== The Christian name used for the region encompassing north-eastern Arabia was Beth Qatraye, which translates to "region of the Qataris" in Syriac. It included Bahrain, Tarout, Al-Khatt, Al- Aḥsā, and Qatar. By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major center for Nestorian Christianity, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf.Curtis E. Larsen. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press, 1984. Within the Byzantine Empire, Nestorians were persecuted as heretics, but as eastern Arabia was far enough from the empire's borders that Nestorianism flourished. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including Isaac of Nineveh, Dadisho Qatraya, Gabriel of Qatar and Ahob of Qatar.Kozah, Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim. p. 1. Christianity declined with the arrival of Islam in Eastern Arabia in 628. By 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye had stopped attending synods; although Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century. The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an ecclesiastical province, except for a short period during the mid-to-late 7th century. They were instead subject to the Metropolitanate of Fars. ===Post-6th century=== From the time when Islam emerged in the 7th century until the early 16th century, the term Bahrain referred to the wider historical region of eastern Arabia stretching from Bubiyan Island to the Strait of Hormuz along the coast of the Persian Gulf. Eastern Arabians were amongst the first to embrace Islam during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, who ruled eastern Arabia through one of his representatives, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadhrami. Eastern Arabia embraced Islam in 629 (the seventh year of Hijrah; i.e. 7 AH). During the time of Umar I, a companion of Muhammad, Abu Hurairah was the governor of eastern Arabia. Umar I also appointed Uthman ibn Abi al-As, another companion of Muhammad, as governor of the area. Al Khamis Mosque, built during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Umar II, was one of the earliest mosques built in eastern Arabia. The expansion of Islam did not affect eastern Arabia's reliance on trade, and its prosperity continued to be dependent on markets in India and Mesopotamia. After Baghdad emerged as the seat of the caliph in 750 following the Abbasid Revolution, eastern Arabia greatly benefited from the city's increased demand for foreign goods, especially from China and South Asia. Eastern Arabia, and Bahrain more specifically, became a principal centre of knowledge for hundreds of years stretching from the early days of Islam in the 6th century to the 18th century. Philosophers of eastern Arabia were highly esteemed, such as the 13th-century mystic, Sheikh Maitham Al Bahrani (d. 1299). The mosque of Sheikh Maitham and his tomb can be visited in the outskirts of Manama, near the district of Mahooz. ====Qarmatian Kingdom==== At the end of the 3rd Hijri century, Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi led the Qarmatian Revolution, a rebellion by a messianic Ismaili sect originating in Kufa in present-day Iraq. Al-Jannabi took over the city of Hajr, Bahrain's capital at that time, and Al-Aḥsā, which he made the capital of his republic. Once in control of the state, he sought to create a utopian society. The Qarmatians' goal was to build a society based on reason and equality. The state was governed by a council of six with a chief who was primus inter pares.John Joseph Saunders, A History of Medieval Islam, Routledge 1978 p130 All property within the community was distributed evenly among all initiates. The Qarmatians were organized as an esoteric society but not as a secret one; their activities were public and openly propagated, but new members had to undergo an initiation ceremony involving seven stages.thumb|right|300px|Map of eastern and central Arabia in the 9th–10th centuries For much of the 10th century the Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf and Middle East, controlling the coast of Oman, and collecting tribute from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad and from the rival Ismaili Fatimid caliph in Cairo, whom they did not recognize. The land they ruled over was extremely wealthy, with a huge slave-based economy. According to academic Yitzhak Nakash: The Qarmatians were defeated in battle in 976 by the Abbasids, which precipitated the decline of the Qarmatian state. Around 1058, a revolt on the island of Bahrain led by two Shi'a members of the Abd al-Qays tribe, Abul-Bahlul al-'Awwam and Abu'l-Walid Muslim,Farhad Daftary, The Ismāı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines, Cambridge University Press 1990, p221 heralded the collapse of Qarmatian power and eventually the ascendancy to power of the Uyunids, an Arab dynasty belonging to the Abdul Qays tribe.Clifford Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Genealogical and Chronological Manual, Edinburgh University Press, 2004, p95 ====Uyunid dynasty==== The Uyunids (), were an Arab dynasty that ruled eastern Arabia for 163 years, from the 11th to the 13th centuries.A Thirteenth Century Poet from Bahrain, Safa Khulusi, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 92. They were the remnants of Bani Abdul Qays tribe and seized the country from the Qarmatians with the military assistance of Great Seljuq Empire in 1077-1078 AD.C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 94-95. The Uyunids then fell to the Usfurids of Banu Uqayl in 651 AH (1253 AD). ====Usfurid dynasty==== The Usfurids were an Arab dynasty that gained control of eastern Arabia in 1253. They were a branch of the Banu Uqayl tribe of the Banu Amir group, and are named after the dynasty's founder, Usfur ibn Rashid. They were initially allies of the Qarmatians and their successors, the Uyunids, but eventually overthrew the latter and seized power themselves.Joseph Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization, Taylor and Francis, 2006, p95 The Usfurids' takeover came after Uyunid power had been weakened by invasion in 1235 by the Salghurid Atabeg of Fars (at that time vassals of the Anushteginids). The Usfurids had an uneasy relationship with the main regional power at the time, Hormuz, which took control of Bahrain (the island) and Qatif in 1320. However, the Hormuzi rulers did not seem to have firm control of the islands, and during the 14th century Bahrain was disputed as numerous neighbours sought tribute from the wealth accumulated from its pearl fisheries. ====Jarwanid dynasty==== The Jarwanid dynasty was a Shi'ite dynasty that ruled eastern Arabia in the 14th century. It was founded by Jerwan I bin Nasser and was based in Qatif. The dynasty was a vassal of the Kingdom of Ormus. The Jarwanids belonged to the clan of Bani Malik. It is disputed whether they belonged to the Banu Uqayl—the tribe of their predecessors the Usfurids and their successors the Jabrids—or to the Banu Abdul Qays, to whom the Uyunid dynasty (1076–1235) belonged.Abdulkhaliq Al-Janbi, an online article on the history of eastern Arabia (Arabic) عبدالخالق الجنبي، جروان الأحساء غير جروان القطيف The Jarwanids came to power some time in the 14th century, after expelling the forces of Sa'eed ibn Mughamis, the chief of the Muntafiq tribe based in the Iraqi city of Basrah. Contemporary sources such as Ibn BattutaIbn Hajar al-'Asqalani, al-Durar al- Kamina fi A'yan al-mi'a al-Thamina [] describe the Jarwanids as being "extreme Rāfiḍah," a term for Shi'ites who rejected the first three Caliphs, while Ibn Hajar, a 15th-century Sunni scholar from Egypt, describes them as being "remnants of the Qarmatians." Historian Juan Cole concludes from this that they were Isma'ilis. However, the Twelver Shi'ite sect was promoted under their rule, and Twelver scholars held the judgeships and other important positions, including the chief of the hisba. Also, unlike under the Qarmatians, Islamic prayers were held in the mosques under Jarwanid rule, and prayer was called under the Shi'ite formula.'Ali b. Hasan al-Bahrni, Anwar al- badrayn fi tarajim 'ulama' al-Qatif wa'l-Ahsa' wa'l-Bahrayn online version أنوار البدرين في تراجم علماء القطيف والإحساء والبحرين، الشيخ علي بن الشيخ حسن البلادي البحراني According to Al-Humaydan, who specialized in the history of eastern Arabia, the Jarwanids were Twelvers, and the term "Qarmatian" was simply used as a derogatory epithet for "Shi'ite."Abdullatif Al-Humaydan, "The Usfurid Dynasty and its Political Role in the History of Eastern Arabia", Journal of the College of Literature, University of Basrah, Volume 15, 1979 (Arabic) Al-Wasit Online Newspaper, Issue 2379, March 12, 2009, citing Al-Humaydan ==== Jabrids ==== The Jabrids were a dynasty that dominated eastern Arabia in the 15th and 16th centuries. They were descendants of the Banu Uqayl, a branch of the Banu Amir, like the earlier Usfurids.Curtis E. Larsen. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press, 1984 pp66-8 Their most prominent ruler was Ajwad ibn Zamil, who died in 1507. He was described by his contemporaries as having been "of Najdi origin." Ajwad's elder brother had earlier established the dynasty in the early 15th century by deposing and killing the last Jarwanid ruler in Qatif. At their height, the Jabrids controlled the entire Arabian coast on the Persian Gulf, including the islands of Bahrain, and regularly led expeditions into central Arabia and Oman. One contemporary scholar described Ajwad ibn Zamil as "the king of al-Ahsa and Qatif and the leader of the people of Najd." Following his death, his kingdom was divided among some of his descendants, with Migrin ibn Zamil (possibly his grandson) inheriting Al-Aḥsā, Qatif, and Bahrain. Migrin fell in battle in Bahrain in a failed attempt to repel an invasion of Bahrain by the Portuguese in 1521. The Jabrid kingdom collapsed soon afterwards after an invasion of Al-Aḥsā by the Muntafiq tribe of Basra, and later by the Ottoman Empire. However, one branch of the Jabrids remained active in Oman for another three centuries. It is unknown what became of the non-Omani Jabrids. Some believe they are identical with the Jubur section of the Bani Khalid confederation, who eventually took control of the region after the Jabrids. ==== Bani Khalid ==== The main branches of the Bani Khalid are the Humaid, the Jubur, the Du'um, the Janah, the Grusha, the Musallam, the 'Amayer, the Subaih and the Mahashir.Al-Jassir The chieftainship of the Bani Khalid has traditionally been held by the Humaid clan. The Bani Khalid dominated the deserts surrounding Al-Aḥsā and Al-Qatif oases during the 16th and 17th centuries.Mandaville, p. 503 Under Barrak ibn Ghurayr of the Humaid, the Bani Khalid were able to expel Ottoman forces from the cities and towns in 1670 and proclaim their rule over the region.Fattah, p. 83Ibn Agil, p. 78 Ibn Ghurayr made his capital in Al-Mubarraz, where remnants of his castle stand today. According to Arabian folklore, one chief of the Bani Khalid attempted to protect the prized desert bustard (habari) from extinction by prohibiting the bedouin in his realm from poaching the bird's eggs, earning the tribe the appellation of "protectors of the eggs of the habari", an allusion to the chief's absolute supremacy over his realm.شبكة قبيلة بني خالد The first chieftain of the “Khawalid” was Haddori. Like a vast majority of their subject people, in time the Khalidis adopted Shi'ite Islam (if they were not already so at the time of their ascendency). This led to a lasting animosity between them and the staunchly anti-Shi'ite Wahhabis and the House of Saud from the mid-18th century to the present. The Bani Khalid maintained ties with members of their tribe who had settled in Najd during their earlier migration eastwards, and also cultivated clients among the rulers of the Najdi towns, such as Al Mu'ammar of Al-Uyayna. When the emir of Uyayna adopted the ideas of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Khalidi chief ordered him to cease support for Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and expel him from his town. The emir agreed, and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab moved to neighboring Dir'iyyah, where he joined forces with the Al Saud. The Bani Khalid remained staunch enemies of the Saudis and their allies and attempted to invade Najd and Diriyyah in an effort to stop Saudi expansion. Their efforts failed, however, and after conquering Najd, the Saudis invaded the Bani Khalid domain in Al-Aḥsā and deposed Al-'Ura'yir in 1793. When the Egyptians under the Muhammad Ali dynasty invaded Arabia and deposed Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud in 1818, they reoccupied Al-Aḥsā and Al- Qatif and reinstated members of Al 'Uray'ir as governors of the region on their behalf. The Bani Khalid were no longer the potent military force they once were at this time, and tribes such as the Ajman, the Dawasir, the Subay', and Mutayr began encroaching on Bani Khalid's desert territories. They were also beset by internal quarrels over leadership. Though the Bani Khalid were able to forge an alliance with the 'Anizzah tribe in this period, they were eventually defeated by an alliance of several tribes along with Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud, who had re-established Saudi rule in Riyadh in 1823. Battles against a Mutayri–'Ajmani alliance in 1823Meglio and another battle with the Subay' and the Saudis in 1830 brought the rule of the Bani Khalid to a close. The Ottomans appointed a governor from Bani Khalid over Al-Aḥsā once more in 1874, but his rule also was short-lived.Al-Rasheed, p. 36 ==See also== * Falaj * Musandam Peninsula * Ras Al Hadd ** Ras al-Jinz * Achaemenid Arabia ==References== Category:Historical regions Category:Divided regions
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Beirut is an American band that was originally the solo musical project of Zach Condon. Beirut's music combines elements of indie rock and world music. The band's first performance with the full brass section was in New York, in May 2006, in support of their debut album Gulag Orkestar, but performed their first show with Condon, Petree, and Collins at the College of Santa Fe earlier that year. Condon named the band after Lebanon's capital, because of the city's history of conflict and as a place where cultures collide. Beirut performed in Lebanon for the first time in 2014, at the Byblos International Festival. == History == === Early years === Zach Condon was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico on February 13, 1986. He grew up in Newport News, Virginia and Santa Fe, New Mexico. Condon played trumpet in a jazz band as a teenager and cites jazz as a major influence. Condon attended Santa Fe High School, until dropping out when he was 17. Work at a cinema showing international films piqued his interest in Fellini arias, Sicilian funeral brass, and Balkan music. Condon attended community college for a short period, then traveled to Europe at the age of 17 with his older brother, Ryan. Condon's exploration of world music developed Beirut's melodic sound. Zach's younger brother Ross Condon played in the band Total Slacker.Total Slacker : pop hallucinogène pour fins de soirées enfumées – Rolling Stone === Gulag Orkestar === Returning from Europe, Condon enrolled at the University of New Mexico, where he studied Portuguese and photography. Condon recorded most of the material for Gulag Orkestar alone in his bedroom, finishing the album in a studio with Jeremy Barnes (Neutral Milk Hotel, A Hawk and a Hacksaw) and Heather Trost (A Hawk and a Hacksaw), who became early contributors to the band. Ba Da Bing Records signed Condon on the strength of the recordings. Condon recruited friends to play Gulag Orkestar's first live shows in New York in May 2006. Beirut's first music video was for Elephant Gun, directed by Alma Har'el who also directed the band's second video "Postcards from Italy". Lon Gisland was the full band's first release in 2007. === The Flying Club Cup === Beirut's second album, The Flying Club Cup, was recorded largely at a makeshift studio in Albuquerque and completed at Arcade Fire's studio in Quebec. The music on the album has a French influence due to Condon's interest in French chanson during its recording. Condon has cited Francophone singers Jacques Brel, Serge Gainsbourg and Yves Montand as influences. He also expressed interest in French film and culture, claiming this was his original reason for traveling to Europe. The Flying Club Cup was officially released in October 2007. In September 2007 they did a Take-Away Show acoustic video session shot by Vincent Moon. The DVD Cheap Magic Inside was shot but quickly sold out; in December 2010, Beirut, Ba Da Bing, and La Blogothèque authorized its dissemination via digital download. === March of the Zapotec === On April 3, 2008, Beirut canceled a previously announced summer European tour. Already in 2006, Beirut canceled the European leg of the tour due in the fall because after two months of the US tour, Condon stated that after two months of touring, he was suffering from exhaustion. Zach Condon explained the cancellations in a post on the official Beirut website, stating that he wanted to put the effort into ensuring that any shows would be "as good as humanly possible". In January 2009 the double EP March of the Zapotec/Holland EP was released, containing an official Beirut release based on Condon's recent trip to Oaxaca (March of the Zapotec), and electronic music under the "Realpeople" name (Holland). On February 6, 2009 Beirut made their debut television performance in the United States on the Late Show with David Letterman, performing "A Sunday Smile". ===The Rip Tide=== In early June 2011, amidst touring the US, Beirut announced that their newest album, The Rip Tide, which had been recorded the previous winter in upstate New York, was to be released on August 30. The band simultaneously released the single "East Harlem" (first recorded on Live at the Music Hall of Williamsburg), with the B-side "Goshen". The album was recorded, managed, and released under Condon's own Pompeii Records. Reviewers and fellow musicians have noted that, unlike the prior albums which drew heavily on foreign music from Mexico, France, the Balkans, etc., this one has shown Beirut with its own, more pop-oriented sound; saying, "what emerges [on The Rip Tide] is a style that belongs uniquely and distinctly to Beirut, one that has actually been there all along." One reviewer noted that "the Euro influences [of Beirut's previous albums] are still there, but the presiding spirit is old-fashioned American pop." This album also differs from Beirut's previous albums in that the music was recorded as a band playing together rather than laying down individual tracks one at a time, though the lyrics were only added by Condon after all the music had been recorded. ===No No No=== On June 1, 2015, Beirut announced their fourth album, No No No, released on September 11, 2015. On the same day, the title track "No No No" was released for streaming. The album was recorded following a period of turmoil in Condon's life, facing a divorce and having been admitted into a hospital in Australia for exhaustion following extensive touring. However, Condon recovered fully thanks to a new relationship and his return to New York. Beirut also announced a tour for the album. ===Gallipoli=== On October 22, 2018, Condon announced Beirut's next album, Gallipoli, released on February 1, 2019. The album is named after the Italian town where Condon wrote the title track. On January 10, 2019, the music video for Beirut's new song "Landslide" was released. On February 9, 2019, Beirut appeared on the "Saturday Sessions" segment of CBS This Morning's Saturday program, playing selections from "Gallipoli." The inspiration for Gallipoli started with an old Farfisa organ that Condon had shipped to New York from his parents' home in New Mexico. He acquired the organ in High School when a traveling circus left it in the warehouse of his old workplace. The organ had broken keys and functions, but he managed to write most of his first (Gulag Orkestar) and large parts of his second (The Flying Club Cup) records on it. Condon started writing the first songs of Gallipoli on this organ sometime in late 2016 at his home in Brooklyn. As songwriting progressed to the studio, Gabe Wax (the producer of No No No) was brought in to help usher in the particular sonic qualities of Gallipoli, which consisted of pushing every instrument and sound to its "near breaking point" (much as he did years ago with the old, broken Farisa organ), by channeling instruments through broken amplifiers, tape machines and PA systems. Recording commenced in Fall of 2017, after travels through Europe, at Sudestudio in Guagnano, Italy, with the help of studio owner Stefano Manca. Gallipoli was completed with final vocals, mixing and mastering happening at both Condon's apartment and Vox Ton studios in Berlin, Germany. ===Artifacts=== On October 20, 2021, Beirut announced their next album, Artifacts, to be released January 28, 2022, via the release of the single "Fisher Island Sound" on the band's official YouTube channel. The album is a compilation of "collected EPs, singles, B-sides and early work," including a re-release of the Lon Gisland EP. == Personnel == Condon plays a rotary-valve trumpet and the ukulele as his main instruments. He bought the ukulele as a joke stage prop, but found he liked the sound and was able to play it despite a wrist injury that inhibited him from playing guitar. Condon also plays the piston trumpet, euphonium, mandolin, accordion, various keyboard instruments, and a modified conch shell that appears on The Flying Club Cup. Live, Beirut's roster generally consists of: *Zach Condon – trumpet/flugelhorn/ukulele *Nick Petree – drums/percussion/melodica *Paul Collins – electric bass/upright bass *Kyle Resnick - trumpet *Ben Lanz – trombone/sousaphone/glockenspiel *Aaron Arntz - piano/keyboards Past members include: *Kristin Ferebee – violin *Jason Poranski – guitar/mandolin/ukulele *Heather Trost – violin/viola *Jon Natchez – baritone sax/mandolin/glockenspiel/keyboards *Tracy Pratt – trumpet/euphonium/flugelhorn *Greg Paulus – trumpet *Kelly Pratt – trumpet/french horn/glockenspiel/keyboards *Jared van Fleet – piano *Perrin Cloutier – accordion/cello *Sharon Van Etten, who contributes vocals to two tracks on The Rip Tide The majority of the members of Beirut have performed live as well as appeared on recorded material. == Side projects == === Realpeople === Realpeople is Zach Condon's electronic side-project. It was under this name that Condon made his first (unreleased) album, The Joys of Losing Weight, and the name to which the Holland EP is credited. The Joys of Losing Weight, which was made when Condon was fifteen, has never been released officially, but has been leaked on the internet. === 1971 === Condon has also released an EP, Small-Time American Bats, under the name "1971". The EP was recorded with his friend Alex Gaziano on guitar and vocals, when they were both around 16 years old (2002). Gaziano is a founding member of Kidcrash, another band from Santa Fe. ===Soft Landing=== Soft Landing was a project started by Beirut members Paul Collins (bass) and Perrin Cloutier (accordion) and Mike Lawless. Their eponymous debut album was released on October 12, 2010 on Ba Da Bing records, and has been described as "a pop version of Beirut" and freak-folk, with a heavy emphasis on dance beats and sheer energy. === Pompeii Records === Pompeii Records is the record label founded in 2009 by Zach Condon in order to give the band and himself full control over their music. The first recordings released on the label were the band's double EP, March of the Zapotec/Holland EP. === Guest appearances === Condon plays the mandolin, trumpet and ukulele on A Hawk and a Hacksaw's album A Hawk and a Hacksaw and the Hun Hangár Ensemble, and trumpet and ukulele on Alaska in Winter's album Dance Party in the Balkans. He appears on Get Him Eat Him's album Arms Down on the song "2×2". Condon is featured on the song "Found Too Low RMX" by fellow Santa Fe-native Pictureplane and appears on the first and last tracks of the Grizzly Bear EP Friend. Condon also appeared on The New Pornographers' fifth album Together.The New Pornographers reveal album details | stereokill.net Rock group Blondie's 2011 album Panic of Girls features a ska cover of "A Sunday Smile" on which Condon plays trumpet. He also plays on "Le Bleu". On the benefit album Red Hot + Rio 2, Beirut performed a cover of the Portuguese- language song "O Leãozinho", originally written by Brazilian composer and singer Caetano Veloso. Condon is featured singing on the track "We Are Fine" on indie rocker Sharon Van Etten's 2012 album Tramp. Condon also contributed to four songs on Mouse on Mars' 2018 album Dimensional People. == Discography == === Studio albums === Title Details Peak chart positions Sales US US Rock AUT FRA GER IRE NLD NZ SWE SWI UK Gulag Orkestar * Release date: May 9, 2006 * Label: Ba Da Bing — — — — — — — — — — — *US: 79,000 The Flying Club Cup * Release date: October 9, 2007 * Label: Ba Da Bing 118 — — 64 — 51 54 — — 94 69 *US: 78,000 The Rip Tide * Release date: August 30, 2011 * Label: Pompeii Records 80 15 20 42 69 89 28 26 52 29 49 * US: 93,000 No No No * Release date: September 11, 2015 * Label: 4AD 46 10 12 24 38 62 13 39 — 38 37 Gallipoli * Release date: February 1, 2019 * Label: 4AD — 42 10 75 21 — 36 — — 21 61 "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. === Compilation albums === * Artifacts (January 28, 2022 - digital, April 1, 2022 - physical) === EPs === * The Guns of Brixton / Interior of a Dutch House (November 13, 2006) – Calexico/Beirut 7″ split single * Lon Gisland (January 30, 2007) * Pompeii EP (February 28, 2007) * Elephant Gun EP (June 25, 2007) * March of the Zapotec/Holland EP (February 16, 2009 – Unofficially released onto iTunes on January 27) US No. 87 UK No. 101 and FR No. 14 === Compilations === *Dark Was the Night – Beirut contributed the song Mimizan to the charity compilation benefiting the Red Hot Organization Again in 2011, they contributed a cover of Caetano Veloso's song "O Leãozinho" to the Red Hot Organization's most recent charitable album Red Hot+Rio 2. The album is a follow-up to the 1996 Red Hot+Rio. Proceeds from the sales will be donated to raise awareness and money to fight AIDS/HIV and related health and social issues. === DVDs === * Cheap Magic Inside (2007) * Beirut: Live at the Music Hall of Williamsburg (2009) == References == == External links == * Category:Musical groups established in 2006 Category:Indie rock musical groups from New Mexico Category:Musical groups from New Mexico Category:American world music groups Category:American folk rock groups Category:American electronic musicians Category:Baroque pop musicians
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The Nùng Autonomous Territory (French: Territoire Autonome Nung; Vietnamese: Khu tự trị Nùng), also known as the Hải Ninh Autonomous Territory (Vietnamese: Khu tự trị Hải Ninh), the Nùng Hải Ninh Autonomous Territory (French: Territoire autonome Nung de Hai Ninh; Vietnamese: Khu tự trị Nùng Hải Ninh), and the Nùng country (French: Pays Nung; Vietnamese: Xứ Nùng), abbreviated as TAN, was an autonomous territory for the Chinese Nùng within the French Union created during the First Indochina War by the French colonial government in Indochina. During this period the French hoped to weaken the position of the Việt Minh by granting more autonomy to ethnic minorities in Vietnam in the hopes of getting more support from them in their fight against the predominantly Kinh Việt Minh, which took control of large parts of Vietnam following the August Revolution and the power vacuum that occurred following the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II. The Nùng Autonomous Territory was created as a homeland for the Chinese Nùng people (which should not be confused with the Tai people of the same name) in what is now the Quảng Ninh Province. The territory became a part Emperor Bảo Đại's Domain of the CrownAnh Thái Phượng. Trăm núi ngàn sông: Tập I. Gretna, LA: Đường Việt Hải ngoại, 2003. Page: 99. (in Vietnamese). within the State of Vietnam in 1950 and would continue to serve French interests until the territory was handed over to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1954 following the Geneva Accords prompting many of its inhabitants to become refugees and moving to South Vietnam and members of its military to later join the ARV. == Etymology == The Chinese Nùng's name originated from the fact that almost all of them were farmers (nong nhan in Cantonese). After the Treaty of Tientsin, the French refused to recognise this group as Chinese due to political and territorial issues on Vietnam's northern frontier border, therefore the French classified them as "Nùng" (農) based on their main occupation. The most widely used languages of the Chinese Nùng are Cantonese and Hakka Chinese since they descended from people speaking these languages. == History == === Establishment === Voòng A Sáng (黃亞生, 1902–1975), alternatively known as Hoàng Phúc Thịnh (黃福盛) was a commander of a Nùng regiment in the Free French Forces during World War II. After the Japanese conquered French Indochina from the French he and many of the Free French Forces were forced to take refuge in the Shiwan mountain range between the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi in China.Liêu Nguyên - Hải Ninh Chi Quang, Lạc Sam Ky Việt-Hoa Báo ấn hành, 1987. (Nguyên văn chữ Trung Hoa: 廖源 – 海寧之光， 洛杉磯月華報，一九八七年七月印行). (in Mandarin Chinese). Voòng A Sáng commanded a junk boat following the Red River from Fangchenggang, Guangxi.Trần Đức Lai - Người Nùng & Khu Tự Trị Hải Ninh Việt Nam (美國越南海寧軍政挍友會 –儂族與海寧自治區史略), Hôi Quân Cán Chính Hải Ninh, Fountain Valley, California, no date (Bản chữ Việt Nam và bản chữ Trung Hoa đóng bìa chung). (in Vietnamese and Mandarin Chinese). He and an expeditionary force of French Nùng soldiers returned to Cô Tô Island and the Vạn Hoa region where the terrain was favourable for the recapture of Móng Cái from the Việt Minh. The junk that used by Voòng A Sáng was named the Trung Hiếu (忠孝), this ship was later used as a symbol for the recapture of Móng Cái and the founding of the Nùng Hải Ninh Autonomous Territory, it was later also used on its coat of arms. On 14 July 1946, Captain Voòng A Sáng, on behalf of the Hải Ninh Main Force Council (Hội Đồng Quân Chính Hải Ninh), announced the establishment of the Nùng Hải Ninh Autonomous Territory within Tonkin, French Indochina, under the auspices of the High Commissioner Émile Bollaert. === Administrative organisation and governance === The Nùng Autonomous Territory had the Territorial Council (Hội đồng Lãnh thổ) as its legislative body.Lê Đình Chi. Người Thượng Miền Nam Việt Nam. Gardena, California: Văn Mới, 2006. Pages: 401-449. (in Vietnamese). The Territorial Council consisted of representatives elected by its population with each delegate representing 1000 inhabitants. The territory executive had a standing ruling council. It also had a Provincial Parliament (Nghị viện tỉnh). In the Nùng Autonomous Territory the general laws of Vietnam applied. This made it different from the contemporary Thái Autonomous Territory (Sip Song Chau Tai), where the traditional Thái law was used as the basic law. On 15 April 1950 it was nominally placed under the authority of the Domain of the Crown with the enactment of the Dụ số 6/QT/TG decree by Chief of State Bảo Đại.Luong, Hy. Postwar Vietnam: dynamics of a transforming society. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003. Page 134. The leader of the Nùng Autonomous Territory was Voòng A Sáng, who was born on 19 March 1902 in Tấn Mài, Hà Cối District, Hải Ninh Province, Tonkin, French Indochina (present-day Hải Hà District, Quảng Ninh Province, Vietnam). In 1914 he attended a military academy known as the học trường Thiếu Sinh Quân Núi Đèo, after graduating in 1920 he joined the French army where he was promoted to sergeant (Thượng Sĩ) in 1931. At that time, soldiers were only promoted to the rank Sergeant at the highest, if they wanted to be a Lieutenant they had to graduate from the officers' school. In 1932 he entered the Fréjus officer school in France, graduating in 1935 with the rank of Lieutenant (Thiếu Uý). He was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel (Trung Uý, 1940), Lieutenant Colonel (Đại Uý, 1945), Major (Thiếu Tá, 1949), Lieutenant Colonel (Trung Tá, 1951), and Colonel (Đại Tá, 1954). Voòng A Sáng administered the territory together with a French province-level advisor. Regarding the judicial organisation of the Nùng Autonomous Territory, Voòng A Sáng and the French advisor established a Supreme Court (Toà án tối cao), the Second Court (Toà án cấp hai), and the Primary Court (Toà án sơ cấp). The Supreme Court consisted of Voòng A Sáng himself, a French adviser, and a congressman. In terms of military, Voòng A Sáng built up a police force that was united with the French border army, this police force were called the regular army (quân chính quy) and the militia army (quân đội dân phòng) and served as both the local security apparatus and the territory's self-defense force. The government of the Nùng Autonomous Territory had a Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Justice, and a Ministry of National Defense. Its Ministry of education compiled a Ngái script dictionary named Nổng Vủn Slu Tèn (儂文字典). It used a Latin phonetic alphabet to read Ngái according to the Vietnamese pronunciation of the Northern accent. === Annexation by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam === After the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam government took over the whole of Vietnam north of the 17th parallel, as a result the Nùng Autonomous Territory was also disbanded. The Nùng Autonomous Territory only existed for a total of seven years, after the takeover the territory it controlled became the North Vietnamese province of Hải Ninh. === Aftermath === Following the annexation of the Nùng Autonomous Territory by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam many of its inhabitants immigrated to South Vietnam, including Voòng A Sáng and his family as well as many members of the Nùng military regiments. At first, the group temporarily resided in Ba Ngòi (Cam Ranh Bay) and Nha Trang, afterwards, for the convenience of drinking water, the migrants flocked to live around the Ma Ó River. On 1 August 1956 Colonel Voòng A Sáng merged the Nùng 6th battalion with the 32, 67, 71, 72, and 75 battalions to form the Dã Chiến 6th division. Division 6 Da Chien had a short period of the name of Dã Chiến 41st Division. On 1 November 1955, Dã Chiến 41st Division was renamed to the Dã Chiến 3rd Division, its headquarters was originally based at Tấn Mài, the army training centre stretched along the shore of the road's military zone Tự Do (Thống Nhất bây giờ, "Unification now"). Soon the Nùng people in South Vietnam were re-grouped at Sông Mao in the Bình Thuận Province. Organisation of a Nùng division was ordered taken in hand starting from 16 December 1954. However, it was not until 1 February 1955 that the 6th (or Nùng) Division was officially established with Voòng A Sáng at its head, making him the division's first commander. This division would change names on several occasions, it was named the 6th Infantry Division (1 August 1955), then the 6th Field Division (9 September 1955), 41st Field Division (1 November 1955), and finally the 5th Infantry Division (January 1959). The 5th Division was largely composed of Nùng people until about 1965 when its composition was increasingly ethnic Vietnamese and the Nùngs moved into MIKE Force units. In the year 1956, during a series of purges of French colonial generals suspected of being pro-French by the United States-backed President Ngô Đình Diệm, Colonel Voòng A Sáng was forced to retire from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARV). In January 1959, the 3rd Field Division became 5th Infantry Division and was assigned to III Corps headquarters (Tactical Zone III) at Biên Hoà, replacing the 7th Division that had just been transferred to the Region. On 1 November 1963, the 5th Division participated in the overthrowing of President Ngô Đình Diệm. After being restored to his position in the South Vietnamese Army, Voòng A Sáng continued to fight for the interests of the Nùng people. In 1966, he was elected President of the Hội Trưởng Hội Thượng Du Bắc Việt Tương Tế (North Vietnamese Tương Tế Association). In this position he was an advocate for the various ethnic minorities of Bắc Việt (North Vietnam) such as the Thái, Nùng, Mường, Mán, Mèo, Etc. and supported their migration from Bắc Việt to Nam Việt (South Vietnam). In 1967, Voòng A Sáng was elected to the Senate of the Republic of Vietnam, he was elected to be the Chairman of the Unity of the Ethnic Minorities (Chủ Tịch Khối Đoàn Kết Dân Tộc Thiểu Số) at the South Vietnamese Senate. In this position he advocated for a policy of positive discrimination by the South Vietnamese government to benefit North Vietnamese ethnic minority peoples, this benefited a lot of Nùng people in South Vietnam and helped them get into universities and increase their upward social mobility in South Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, Chinese Nùng soldiers were known for their loyalty to the US Special Forces. They often served as bodyguards to the Special Forces and were regarded as a good source of security for green berets who were recruiting and training locals. == Economy == In the years 1949 and 1950, rice cultivation was the most popular profession in Nùng Autonomous Territory. Rice cultivation was primarily concentrated in Hà Cối and Đầm Hà. The regions of Tiên Yên, Bình Liêu, and Hà Cối produced sugarcane and peanuts. Tấn Mài and Thán Phún grew cinnamon trees. Đình Lập and Na Húc planted anise. Bình Liêu produced a lot of silkworms. Móng Cái, the capital city, was most famous for its ceramics, and it produced matches and boats. The islands of Trà Cổ, Vĩnh Thực, and Thanh Mai had a very developed fishing industry. The imports of the Nùng Autonomous Territory included rice, beverages, canned food, kerosene, gasoline, quick lime, and cement. The goods exported by the Nùng Autonomous Territory include pigs, chickens, ducks, spices, litchi, porcelain, do paper, anise, cinnamon, bamboo, etc. == Districts == The Nùng Autonomous Territory contained 1 city (thủ phủ), 8 districts (huyện), and 1 island (hải đảo):The government of Hồ Chí Minh City - Các cộng đồng người Hoa. (in Vietnamese). * Móng Cái City * Ba Chẽ District * Bình Liêu District * Cửa Tiên Yên District (including a part of Mũi Chùa and Cái Bầu island) * Đầm Hà District * Đình Lập District (now in the Lạng Sơn Province) * Hà Cối District * Tiên Yên District * Vạn Hoa District * Cô Tô Island Below the District-level divisions were the tổng and communes (xã). == Demographics == In the year 1949 the Nùng Autonomous Territory had a population of approximately 120.000 people. The territory's population included various ethnic groups such as the Chinese Nùng (not Taï Nùng), Dao, Kinh, and the Thổ. The Chinese Nùng composed 72% to 78% of the population. At the time of the Nùng Autonomous Territory its capital city, Móng Cái had a population of around 10.000 people. == Medals == thumb|right|The boxtop of a medal issued by the Nùng Autonomous Territory. A medal issued for the Nùng Autonomous Territory is known to exist.F.C. Brown and V.R. Brook, "Identification Requested (Territoire Autonome Nung Medal)", The Medal Collector, August 1978. This medal was awarded for a meritorious service to the Nùng Autonomous Territory state to both military and civilian personnel of the Nùng (Montagnard) tribe. It was awarded by the French Colonial forces in two classes, "Chevalier" (Knight) and "Officier" (Officer). The medal was 34 millimeters in diameter and was made of gold planchet, it features a stylised Chinese junk with two Traditional Chinese characters Trung Hiếu (忠孝, "loyalty") which were inscribed on the hull of the ship. On the outer rim of the medal were French the inscriptions, "TERRITOIRE AUTONOME NUNG" (Nùng Autonomous Territory) and "VIET-NAM" (Vietnam), these words were separated by a pair of stars on each side opposite of each other which surrounds the central design of the medal. A rosette on the ribbon drape was used to distinguish the first (or "Officer") class from the second (or "Knight") class, but as of 2006 no extent specimens were known to exist. == See also == * Hoa people **Chinese Nùng * Montagnard country of South Indochina == Notes == == References == == Sources == * * == External links == Category:States and territories established in 1947 Category:Former polities of the Indochina Wars Category:States and territories disestablished in 1954 Category:First Indochina War Category:1947 establishments in Asia Category:1954 disestablishments in Asia
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thumb|263x263px|3D medical animation still showing angiogenesis Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre- existing vessels,Dudley, A.C. & Griffioen, A.W., Pathological angiogenesis: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Angiogenesis, 2023. doi: 10.1007/s10456-023-09876-7 formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature mainly by processes of sprouting and splitting, but processes such as coalescent angiogenesis,Nitzsche, B. et al. Coalescent angiogenesis - evidence for a novel concept of vascular network maturation. Angiogenesis, 2022. doi: 10.1007/s10456-021-09824-3 vessel elongation and vessel cooption also play a role.Dudley, A.C. & Griffioen, A.W., Pathological angiogenesis: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Angiogenesis, 2023. doi: 10.1007/s10456-023-09876-7 Vasculogenesis is the embryonic formation of endothelial cells from mesoderm cell precursors, and from neovascularization, although discussions are not always precise (especially in older texts). The first vessels in the developing embryo form through vasculogenesis, after which angiogenesis is responsible for most, if not all, blood vessel growth during development and in disease. Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing and in the formation of granulation tissue. However, it is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a benign state to a malignant one, leading to the use of angiogenesis inhibitors in the treatment of cancer. The essential role of angiogenesis in tumor growth was first proposed in 1971 by Judah Folkman, who described tumors as "hot and bloody," illustrating that, at least for many tumor types, flush perfusion and even hyperemia are characteristic. ==Types== ===Sprouting angiogenesis=== Sprouting angiogenesis was the first identified form of angiogenesis and because of this, it is much more understood than intussusceptive angiogenesis. It occurs in several well-characterized stages. The initial signal comes from tissue areas that are devoid of vasculature. The hypoxia that is noted in these areas causes the tissues to demand the presence of nutrients and oxygen that will allow the tissue to carry out metabolic activities. Because of this, parenchymal cells will secrete vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) which is a proangiogenic growth factor.Adair TH, Montani JP. Angiogenesis. San Rafael (CA): Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences; 2010. Chapter 1, Overview of Angiogenesis. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53238/ These biological signals activate receptors on endothelial cells present in pre-existing blood vessels. Second, the activated endothelial cells, also known as tip cells, begin to release enzymes called proteases that degrade the basement membrane to allow endothelial cells to escape from the original (parent) vessel walls. The endothelial cells then proliferate into the surrounding matrix and form solid sprouts connecting neighboring vessels. The cells that are proliferating are located behind the tip cells and are known as stalk cells. The proliferation of these cells allows the capillary sprout to grow in length simultaneously. As sprouts extend toward the source of the angiogenic stimulus, endothelial cells migrate in tandem, using adhesion molecules called integrins. These sprouts then form loops to become a full-fledged vessel lumen as cells migrate to the site of angiogenesis. Sprouting occurs at a rate of several millimeters per day, and enables new vessels to grow across gaps in the vasculature. It is markedly different from splitting angiogenesis because it forms entirely new vessels as opposed to splitting existing vessels. ===Intussusceptive angiogenesis=== Intussusceptive angiogenesis, also known as splitting angiogenesis, is the formation of a new blood vessel by splitting an existing blood vessel into two. Intussusception was first observed in neonatal rats. In this type of vessel formation, the capillary wall extends into the lumen to split a single vessel in two. There are four phases of intussusceptive angiogenesis. First, the two opposing capillary walls establish a zone of contact. Second, the endothelial cell junctions are reorganized and the vessel bilayer is perforated to allow growth factors and cells to penetrate into the lumen. Third, a core is formed between the 2 new vessels at the zone of contact that is filled with pericytes and myofibroblasts. These cells begin laying collagen fibers into the core to provide an extracellular matrix for growth of the vessel lumen. Finally, the core is fleshed out with no alterations to the basic structure. Intussusception is important because it is a reorganization of existing cells. It allows a vast increase in the number of capillaries without a corresponding increase in the number of endothelial cells. This is especially important in embryonic development as there are not enough resources to create a rich microvasculature with new cells every time a new vessel develops. ==Physiology== ===Mechanical stimulation=== Mechanical stimulation of angiogenesis is not well characterized. There is a significant amount of controversy with regard to shear stress acting on capillaries to cause angiogenesis, although current knowledge suggests that increased muscle contractions may increase angiogenesis. This may be due to an increase in the production of nitric oxide during exercise. Nitric oxide results in vasodilation of blood vessels. ===Chemical stimulation=== Chemical stimulation of angiogenesis is performed by various angiogenic proteins e.g. integrins and prostaglandins, including several growth factors e.g. VEGF, FGF. ====Overview==== Stimulator Mechanism FGF Promotes proliferation & differentiation of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts VEGF Affects permeability VEGFR and NRP-1 Integrate survival signals Ang1 and Ang2 Stabilize vessels PDGF (BB-homodimer) and PDGFR recruit smooth muscle cells TGF-β, endoglin and TGF-β receptors ↑extracellular matrix production CCL2 Recruits lymphocytes to sites of inflammation Histamine Integrins αVβ3, αVβ5 (?Perhaps an inhibitor of angiogenesis: ) and α5β1 Bind matrix macromolecules and proteinases VE-cadherin and CD31 endothelial junctional molecules ephrin Determine formation of arteries or veins plasminogen activators remodels extracellular matrix, releases and activates growth factors plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 stabilizes nearby vessels eNOS and COX-2 AC133 regulates angioblast differentiation ID1/ID3 Regulates endothelial transdifferentiation Class 3 semaphorins Modulates endothelial cell adhesion, migration, proliferation and apoptosis. Alters vascular permeability Nogo-A Regulates endothelial cell migration and proliferation. Alters vascular permeability. ====FGF==== The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family with its prototype members FGF-1 (acidic FGF) and FGF-2 (basic FGF) consists to date of at least 22 known members. Most are single-chain peptides of 16-18 kDa and display high affinity to heparin and heparan sulfate. In general, FGFs stimulate a variety of cellular functions by binding to cell surface FGF- receptors in the presence of heparin proteoglycans. The FGF-receptor family is composed of seven members, and all the receptor proteins are single-chain receptor tyrosine kinases that become activated through autophosphorylation induced by a mechanism of FGF-mediated receptor dimerization. Receptor activation gives rise to a signal transduction cascade that leads to gene activation and diverse biological responses, including cell differentiation, proliferation, and matrix dissolution, thus initiating a process of mitogenic activity critical for the growth of endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells. FGF-1, unique among all 22 members of the FGF family, can bind to all seven FGF-receptor subtypes, making it the broadest-acting member of the FGF family, and a potent mitogen for the diverse cell types needed to mount an angiogenic response in damaged (hypoxic) tissues, where upregulation of FGF-receptors occurs. FGF-1 stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of all cell types necessary for building an arterial vessel, including endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells; this fact distinguishes FGF-1 from other pro-angiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which primarily drives the formation of new capillaries. Besides FGF-1, one of the most important functions of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2 or bFGF) is the promotion of endothelial cell proliferation and the physical organization of endothelial cells into tube-like structures, thus promoting angiogenesis. FGF-2 is a more potent angiogenic factor than VEGF or PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor); however, it is less potent than FGF-1. As well as stimulating blood vessel growth, aFGF (FGF-1) and bFGF (FGF-2) are important players in wound healing. They stimulate the proliferation of fibroblasts and endothelial cells that give rise to angiogenesis and developing granulation tissue; both increase blood supply and fill up a wound space/cavity early in the wound-healing process. ====VEGF==== Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been demonstrated to be a major contributor to angiogenesis, increasing the number of capillaries in a given network. Initial in vitro studies demonstrated bovine capillary endothelial cells will proliferate and show signs of tube structures upon stimulation by VEGF and bFGF, although the results were more pronounced with VEGF. Upregulation of VEGF is a major component of the physiological response to exercise and its role in angiogenesis is suspected to be a possible treatment in vascular injuries. In vitro studies clearly demonstrate that VEGF is a potent stimulator of angiogenesis because, in the presence of this growth factor, plated endothelial cells will proliferate and migrate, eventually forming tube structures resembling capillaries. VEGF causes a massive signaling cascade in endothelial cells. Binding to VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) starts a tyrosine kinase signaling cascade that stimulates the production of factors that variously stimulate vessel permeability (eNOS, producing NO), proliferation/survival (bFGF), migration (ICAMs/VCAMs/MMPs) and finally differentiation into mature blood vessels. Mechanically, VEGF is upregulated with muscle contractions as a result of increased blood flow to affected areas. The increased flow also causes a large increase in the mRNA production of VEGF receptors 1 and 2. The increase in receptor production means muscle contractions could cause upregulation of the signaling cascade relating to angiogenesis. As part of the angiogenic signaling cascade, NO is widely considered to be a major contributor to the angiogenic response because inhibition of NO significantly reduces the effects of angiogenic growth factors. However, inhibition of NO during exercise does not inhibit angiogenesis, indicating there are other factors involved in the angiogenic response. ====Angiopoietins==== The angiopoietins, Ang1 and Ang2, are required for the formation of mature blood vessels, as demonstrated by mouse knock out studies. Ang1 and Ang2 are protein growth factors which act by binding their receptors, Tie-1 and Tie-2; while this is somewhat controversial, it seems that cell signals are transmitted mostly by Tie-2; though some papers show physiologic signaling via Tie-1 as well. These receptors are tyrosine kinases. Thus, they can initiate cell signaling when ligand binding causes a dimerization that initiates phosphorylation on key tyrosines. ====MMP==== Another major contributor to angiogenesis is matrix metalloproteinase (MMP). MMPs help degrade the proteins that keep the vessel walls solid. This proteolysis allows the endothelial cells to escape into the interstitial matrix as seen in sprouting angiogenesis. Inhibition of MMPs prevents the formation of new capillaries. These enzymes are highly regulated during the vessel formation process because destruction of the extracellular matrix would decrease the integrity of the microvasculature. ====Dll4==== Delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4) is a protein with a negative regulatory effect on angiogenesis. Dll4 is a transmembrane ligand, for the notch family of receptors. There have been many studies conducted that have served to determine consequences of the Delta-like Ligand 4. One study in particular evaluated the effects of Dll4 on tumor vascularity and growth.Segarra M, Williams CK, Sierra ML, Bernarndo M, McCormick PJ, Meric D, Regino C, Choyke P, Tosato G. 2008. Dll4 activation of Notch signaling reduces tumore vascularity and inhibits tumor growth. Blood Journal. 112(5): 1904-1911 In order for a tumor to grow and develop, it must have the proper vasculature. The VEGF pathway is vital to the development of vasculature that in turn, helps the tumors to grow. The combined blockade of VEGF and Dll4 results in the inhibition of tumor progression and angiogenesis throughout the tumor. This is due to the hindrance of signaling in endothelial cell signaling which cuts off the proliferation and sprouting of these endothelial cells. With this inhibition, the cells do not uncontrollably grow, therefore, the cancer is stopped at this point. if the blockade, however, were to be lifted, the cells would begin their proliferation once again. ==== Class 3 semaphorins ==== Class 3 semaphorins (SEMA3s) regulate angiogenesis by modulating endothelial cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, survival and the recruitment of pericytes. Furthermore, semaphorins can interfere with VEGF-mediated angiogenesis since both SEMA3s and VEGF-A compete for neuropilin receptor binding at endothelial cells. The relative expression levels of SEMA3s and VEGF-A may therefore be important for angiogenesis. ===Chemical inhibition=== An angiogenesis inhibitor can be endogenous or come from outside as drug or a dietary component. ==Application in medicine== ===Angiogenesis as a therapeutic target=== Angiogenesis may be a target for combating diseases such as heart disease characterized by either poor vascularisation or abnormal vasculature. Application of specific compounds that may inhibit or induce the creation of new blood vessels in the body may help combat such diseases. The presence of blood vessels where there should be none may affect the mechanical properties of a tissue, increasing the likelihood of failure. The absence of blood vessels in a repairing or otherwise metabolically active tissue may inhibit repair or other essential functions. Several diseases, such as ischemic chronic wounds, are the result of failure or insufficient blood vessel formation and may be treated by a local expansion of blood vessels, thus bringing new nutrients to the site, facilitating repair. Other diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, may be created by a local expansion of blood vessels, interfering with normal physiological processes. The modern clinical application of the principle of angiogenesis can be divided into two main areas: anti-angiogenic therapies, which angiogenic research began with, and pro-angiogenic therapies. Whereas anti-angiogenic therapies are being employed to fight cancer and malignancies, which require an abundance of oxygen and nutrients to proliferate, pro-angiogenic therapies are being explored as options to treat cardiovascular diseases, the number one cause of death in the Western world. One of the first applications of pro-angiogenic methods in humans was a German trial using fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1) for the treatment of coronary artery disease. Regarding the mechanism of action, pro-angiogenic methods can be differentiated into three main categories: gene therapy, targeting genes of interest for amplification or inhibition; protein replacement therapy, which primarily manipulates angiogenic growth factors like FGF-1 or vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF; and cell-based therapies, which involve the implantation of specific cell types. There are still serious, unsolved problems related to gene therapy. Difficulties include effective integration of the therapeutic genes into the genome of target cells, reducing the risk of an undesired immune response, potential toxicity, immunogenicity, inflammatory responses, and oncogenesis related to the viral vectors used in implanting genes and the sheer complexity of the genetic basis of angiogenesis. The most commonly occurring disorders in humans, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease, are most likely caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes, and, thus, injecting a single gene may not be significantly beneficial in such diseases. By contrast, pro-angiogenic protein therapy uses well-defined, precisely structured proteins, with previously defined optimal doses of the individual protein for disease states, and with well-known biological effects. On the other hand, an obstacle of protein therapy is the mode of delivery. Oral, intravenous, intra-arterial, or intramuscular routes of protein administration are not always as effective, as the therapeutic protein may be metabolized or cleared before it can enter the target tissue. Cell-based pro-angiogenic therapies are still early stages of research, with many open questions regarding best cell types and dosages to use. ===Tumor angiogenesis=== 270px|thumb| Without angiogenesis a tumor cannot grow beyond a limited size Cancer cells are cells that have lost their ability to divide in a controlled fashion. A malignant tumor consists of a population of rapidly dividing and growing cancer cells that progressively accrues mutations. However, tumors need a dedicated blood supply to provide the oxygen and other essential nutrients they require in order to grow beyond a certain size (generally 1–2 mm3). Tumors induce blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) by secreting various growth factors (e.g. VEGF) and proteins. Growth factors such as bFGF and VEGF can induce capillary growth into the tumor, which some researchers suspect supply required nutrients, allowing for tumor expansion. Unlike normal blood vessels, tumor blood vessels are dilated with an irregular shape. Other clinicians believe angiogenesis really serves as a waste pathway, taking away the biological end products secreted by rapidly dividing cancer cells. In either case, angiogenesis is a necessary and required step for transition from a small harmless cluster of cells, often said to be about the size of the metal ball at the end of a ball-point pen, to a large tumor. Angiogenesis is also required for the spread of a tumor, or metastasis. Single cancer cells can break away from an established solid tumor, enter the blood vessel, and be carried to a distant site, where they can implant and begin the growth of a secondary tumor. Evidence now suggests the blood vessel in a given solid tumor may, in fact, be mosaic vessels, composed of endothelial cells and tumor cells. This mosaicity allows for substantial shedding of tumor cells into the vasculature, possibly contributing to the appearance of circulating tumor cells in the peripheral blood of patients with malignancies. The subsequent growth of such metastases will also require a supply of nutrients and oxygen and a waste disposal pathway. Endothelial cells have long been considered genetically more stable than cancer cells. This genomic stability confers an advantage to targeting endothelial cells using antiangiogenic therapy, compared to chemotherapy directed at cancer cells, which rapidly mutate and acquire drug resistance to treatment. For this reason, endothelial cells are thought to be an ideal target for therapies directed against them. ===Formation of tumor blood vessels=== The mechanism of blood vessel formation by angiogenesis is initiated by the spontaneous dividing of tumor cells due to a mutation. Angiogenic stimulators are then released by the tumor cells. These then travel to already established, nearby blood vessels and activates their endothelial cell receptors. This induces a release of proteolytic enzymes from the vasculature. These enzymes target a particular point on the blood vessel and cause a pore to form. This is the point where the new blood vessel will grow from. The reason tumour cells need a blood supply is because they cannot grow any more than 2-3 millimeters in diameter without an established blood supply which is equivalent to about 50-100 cells. ===Angiogenesis for cardiovascular disease=== Angiogenesis represents an excellent therapeutic target for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. It is a potent, physiological process that underlies the natural manner in which our bodies respond to a diminution of blood supply to vital organs, namely neoangiogenesis: the production of new collateral vessels to overcome the ischemic insult. A large number of preclinical studies have been performed with protein-, gene- and cell-based therapies in animal models of cardiac ischemia, as well as models of peripheral artery disease. Reproducible and credible successes in these early animal studies led to high enthusiasm that this new therapeutic approach could be rapidly translated to a clinical benefit for millions of patients in the Western world with these disorders. A decade of clinical testing both gene- and protein-based therapies designed to stimulate angiogenesis in underperfused tissues and organs, however, has led from one disappointment to another. Although all of these preclinical readouts, which offered great promise for the transition of angiogenesis therapy from animals to humans, were in one fashion or another, incorporated into early stage clinical trials, the FDA has, to date (2007), insisted that the primary endpoint for approval of an angiogenic agent must be an improvement in exercise performance of treated patients. These failures suggested that either these are the wrong molecular targets to induce neovascularization, that they can only be effectively used if formulated and administered correctly, or that their presentation in the context of the overall cellular microenvironment may play a vital role in their utility. It may be necessary to present these proteins in a way that mimics natural signaling events, including the concentration, spatial and temporal profiles, and their simultaneous or sequential presentation with other appropriate factors. ===Exercise=== Angiogenesis is generally associated with aerobic exercise and endurance exercise. While arteriogenesis produces network changes that allow for a large increase in the amount of total flow in a network, angiogenesis causes changes that allow for greater nutrient delivery over a long period of time. Capillaries are designed to provide maximum nutrient delivery efficiency, so an increase in the number of capillaries allows the network to deliver more nutrients in the same amount of time. A greater number of capillaries also allows for greater oxygen exchange in the network. This is vitally important to endurance training, because it allows a person to continue training for an extended period of time. However, no experimental evidence suggests that increased capillarity is required in endurance exercise to increase the maximum oxygen delivery. ===Macular degeneration=== Overexpression of VEGF causes increased permeability in blood vessels in addition to stimulating angiogenesis. In wet macular degeneration, VEGF causes proliferation of capillaries into the retina. Since the increase in angiogenesis also causes edema, blood and other retinal fluids leak into the retina, causing loss of vision. Anti-angiogenic drugs targeting the VEGF pathways are now used successfully to treat this type of macular degeneration ===Tissue engineered constructs=== Angiogenesis of vessels from the host body into an implanted tissue engineered constructs is essential. Successful integration is often dependent on thorough vascularisation of the construct as it provides oxygen and nutrients and prevents necrosis in the central areas of the implant. PDGF has been shown to stabilize vascularisation in collagen- glycosaminoglycan scaffolds. ==Quantification== Quantifying vasculature parameters such as microvascular density has various complications due to preferential staining or limited representation of tissues by histological sections. Recent research has shown complete 3D reconstruction of tumor vascular structure and quantification of vessel structures in whole tumors in animal models. == See also == *Aerobic exercise *The Angiogenesis Foundation *Arteriogenesis *COL41 *Neuroangiogenesis *Proteases in angiogenesis *Vasculogenic mimicry == References == == Further reading == * == External links == *Angiogenesis for Heart Disease from Angioplasty.Org *Angiogenesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology *Visualizing Angiogenesis with GFP *NCI Understanding Cancer series on Angiogenesis * A textbook on the topic freely available at NCBI. Category:Angiogenesis
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In a society, high culture is the subculture that encompasses the cultural objects of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as being exemplary works of art,Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (1983) Rev. Ed. p. 92. and the intellectual works of literature and music, history and philosophy, which a society consider representative of their culture.Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (1983) Rev. Ed. p. 91–92. ==Definition== In popular usage, the term high culture identifies the culture either of the upper class (an aristocracy) or of a status class (the intelligentsia); high culture also identifies a society’s common repository of broad-range knowledge and tradition (folk culture) that transcends the social-class system of the society. Sociologically, the term high culture is contrasted with the term low culture, which comprises the forms of popular culture characteristic of the less- educated social classes, such as the barbarians, the Philistines, and hoi polloi (the masses). ==Concept== In European history, high culture was understood as a cultural concept common to the humanities, until the mid-19th century, when Matthew Arnold introduced the term high culture in the book Culture and Anarchy (1869). The Preface defines culture as "the disinterested endeavour after man’s perfection" pursued, obtained, and achieved by effort to "know the best that has been said and thought in the world". Such a literary definition of high culture also includes philosophy. Moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term "high culture" is contrasted with the terms "popular culture" and "mass culture".The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967) Volume 1. p. 167. In Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948), T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In The Uses of Literacy (1957), Richard Hoggart presents the sociologic experience of the working- class man and woman in acquiring the cultural literacy, at university, which facilitates social upward mobility. In the U.S., Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, by way of the Western canon of literature. Media theorist Steven Johnson writes that, unlike popular culture, "the classics—and soon to be classics—are in their own right descriptions and explanations of the cultural systems that produced them." He says that "a crucial way in which mass culture differs from high art" is that individual works of mass culture are less interesting than the broader cultural trends which produced them. ==History in the West== The high culture of the West originated in the classical-world traditions of intellectual and aesthetic life in Ancient Greece (from c. 8th century BC – AD 147) and Ancient Rome (753 BC – AD 476). In the classical Greco-Roman tradition, the ideal mode of language was published and preserved in works of elevated style (correct grammar, syntax, and diction). Certain forms of language used by authors in valorized epochs were held up in antiquity and the Renaissance as eternal valid models and normative standards of excellence; e.g. the Attic dialect of ancient Greek spoken and written by the playwrights and philosophers of Periclean Athens (fifth century BC); and the form of classical Latin used in the "Golden Age" of Roman culture (c. 70 B.C. – AD 18) represented by such figures as Cicero and Virgil. This form of education was known to the Greeks as παιδεία, which was translated by the Romans into Latin as humanitas Gellius · Attic Nights — Book XIII since it reflected a form of education aiming at the refinement of human nature, rather than the acquisition of technical or vocational skills. Indeed, the Greco-Roman world tended to see such manual, commercial, and technical labor as subordinate to purely intellectual activities.M. Tullius Cicero, De Officiis, Book I: Moral Goodness, section 150 From the idea of the "free" man with sufficient leisure to pursue such intellectual and aesthetic refinement, arose the classical distinction between the "liberal" arts which are intellectual and done for their own sake, as against the "servile" or "mechanical" arts which were associated with manual labor and done to earn a living. This implied an association between high culture and the upper classes whose inherited wealth provided such time for intellectual cultivation. The leisured gentleman not weighed down by the necessity of earning a living, was free to devote himself to activities proper to such a "free man" – those deemed to involve true excellence and nobility as opposed to mere utility. During the Renaissance, the classical intellectual values of the fully rediscovered Græco–Roman culture were the cultural capital of the upper classes (and the aspiring), and aimed at the complete development of human intellectual, aesthetic, and moral faculties. This ideal associated with humanism (a later term derived from the humanities or studia humanitatis), was communicated in Renaissance Italy through institutions such as the Renaissance court schools. Renaissance humanism soon spread through Europe becoming much of the basis of upper class education for centuries. For the socially ambitious man and woman who means to rise in society, The Book of the Courtier (1528), by Baldasare Castiglione, instructs the reader to acquire and possess knowledge of the Græco–Roman Classics, being education integral to the social-persona of the aristocrat. A key contribution of the Renaissance was the elevation of painting and sculpture to a status equal to the liberal arts (hence the visual arts lost for elites any lingering negative association with manual artisanship). The early Renaissance treatises of Leon Battista Alberti were instrumental in this regard. The evolution of the concept of high culture initially was defined in educational terms largely as critical study and knowledge of the Græco–Roman arts and humanities which furnished much of the foundation for European cultures and societies. However, aristocratic patronage through most of the modern era was also pivotal to the support and creation of new works of high culture across the range of arts, music, and literature. The subsequent prodigious development of the modern European languages and cultures meant that the modern definition of the term "high culture" embraces not only Greek and Latin texts, but a much broader canon of select literary, philosophical, historical, and scientific books in both ancient and modern languages. Of comparable importance are those works of art and music considered to be of the highest excellence and broadest influence (e.g. the Parthenon, the painting and sculpture of Michelangelo, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, etc). Together these texts and art works constitute the exemplary artifacts representing the high culture of the Western world. === Cultural traditions === In the Western and some East Asian traditions, art that demonstrates the imagination of the artist is accorded the status of high art. In the West this tradition began in Ancient Greece, was reinforced in the Renaissance, and by Romanticism, which eliminated the hierarchy of genres within the fine arts, which was established in the Renaissance. In China there was a distinction between the literati painting by the scholar-officials and the work produced by common artists, working in largely different styles, or the decorative arts such as Chinese porcelain, which were produced by unknown craftsmen working in large factories. In both China and the West the distinction was especially clear in landscape painting, where for centuries imaginary views, produced from the imagination of the artist, were considered superior works. === Cultural capital === In socially-stratified Europe and the Americas, a first-hand immersion to the high culture of the West, the Grand Tour of Europe, was a rite of passage that complemented and completed the book education of a gentleman, from the nobility, the aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie, with a worldly perspective of society and civilisation. The post- university tour of the cultural centres of Europe was a social-class benefit of the cultural capital transmitted through the high-status institutions (schools, academies, universities) meant to produce the ideal gentleman of that society. The European concept of high culture included cultivation of refined etiquette and manners; the education of taste in the fine arts such as sculpture and painting; an appreciation of classical music and opera in its diverse history and myriad forms; knowledge of the humane letters (literae humaniores) represented by the best Greek and Latin authors, and more broadly of the liberal arts traditions (e.g. philosophy, history, drama, rhetoric, and poetry) of Western civilisation, as well as a general acquaintance with important concepts in theology, science, and political thought. ==High art== Much of high culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called "high art". This term is rather broader than Arnold's definition and besides literature includes music, visual arts (especially painting), and traditional forms of the performing arts (including some cinema). The decorative arts would not generally be considered high art.Dormer, Peter (ed.), The Culture of Craft, 1997, Manchester University Press, , 9780719046186, google books The cultural products most often regarded as forming part of high culture are most likely to have been produced during periods of high civilization, for which a large, sophisticated, and wealthy urban-based society provides a coherent and conscious aesthetic framework, and a large-scale milieu of training, and, for the visual arts, sourcing materials and financing work. Such an environment enables artists, as near as possible, to realize their creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints, though many more could be found on the cultural and economic side. Although the Western concept of high culture naturally concentrates on the Greco-Roman tradition, and its resumption from the Renaissance onwards, such conditions existed in other places at other times. ==Art music== Art music (or serious music,a b "Music" in Encyclopedia Americana, reprint 1993, p. 647 classical music, cultivated music, canonical music or erudite music) is an umbrella term used to refer to musical traditions implying advanced structural and theoretical considerations and a written musical tradition. Denis Arnold, "Art Music, Art Song", in The New Oxford Companion to Music, Volume 1: A-J, (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1983): 111. The notion of art music is a frequent and well- defined musicological distinction – musicologist Philip Tagg, for example, refers to art music as one of an "axiomatic triangle consisting of 'folk', 'art' and 'popular' musics". He explains that each of these three is distinguishable from the others according to certain criteria, with high cultural music often performed to an audience whilst folk music would traditionally be more participatory, high culture music is small scale and performed at the local level rather than as a mass produced pop music, it is stored in written form rather than non-written, it's often made for a diverse group of people as opposed to a heterogeneous socioculturally audience, non- industrious high art music spreads in many locales rather than pop music which is possible in industrious economies only, it's made not to compete in the free market place of music. Philip Tagg, "Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice", Popular Music 2 (1982): 41. In this regard, "art music" frequently occurs as a contrasting term to "popular music" and to "traditional" or "folk music"."Music" in Encyclopedia Americana, reprint 1993, p. 647 Philip Tagg, "Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice", Popular Music 2 (1982): 37–67, here 41–42. ==Art film== Art film is the result of filmmaking which is typically a serious, independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience. Film critics and film studies scholars typically define an "art film" using a "...canon of films and those formal qualities that mark them as different from mainstream Hollywood films",Barbara Wilinsky. . University of Minnesota, 2001 (Commerce and Mass Culture Series). which includes, among other elements: a social realism style; an emphasis on the authorial expressivity of the director or writer; and a focus on the thoughts and dreams of characters, rather than presenting a clear, goal-driven story. According to the film scholar David Bordwell, "art cinema itself is a film genre, with its own distinct conventions."Keith, Barry. Film Genres: From Iconography to Ideology. Wallflower Press: 2007. (page 1) ==Promotion == The term has always been susceptible to attack for elitism, and, in response, many proponents of the concept devoted great efforts to promoting high culture among a wider public than the highly educated bourgeoisie whose natural territory it was supposed to be. There was a drive, beginning in the 19th century, to open museums and concert halls to give the general public access to high culture. Figures such as John Ruskin and Lord Reith of the BBC in Britain, Leon Trotsky and others in Communist Russia, and many others in America and throughout the western world have worked to widen the appeal of elements of high culture such as classical music, art by old masters and the literary classics. With the widening of access to university education, the effort spread there, and all aspects of high culture became the objects of academic study, which with the exception of the classics had not often been the case until the late 19th century. University liberal arts courses still play an important role in the promotion of the concept of high culture, though often now avoiding the term itself. Especially in Europe, governments have been prepared to subsidize high culture through the funding of museums, opera and ballet companies, orchestras, cinema, public broadcasting stations such as BBC Radio 3, ARTE, and in other ways. Organizations such as the Arts Council of Great Britain, and in most European countries, whole ministries administer these programs. This includes the subsidy of new works by composers, writers and artists. There are also many private philanthropic sources of funding, which are especially important in the US, where the federally funded Corporation for Public Broadcasting also funds broadcasting. These may be seen as part of the broader concept of official culture, although often a mass audience is not the intended market. ==Theories == The relations between high culture and mass culture are concerns of cultural studies, media studies, critical theory, sociology, Postmodernism and Marxist philosophy. In the essay "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1936), Walter Benjamin explored the relations of value of the arts (high and mass) when subjected to industrial reproduction. The critical theoreticians Theodor W. Adorno and Antonio Gramsci interpreted the high-art and mass-art cultural relations as an instrument of social control, with which the ruling class maintain their cultural hegemony upon society. For the Orientalist Ernest Renan and for the rationalist philosopher Ernest Gellner, high culture was conceptually integral to the politics and ideology of nationalism, as a requisite part of a healthy national identity. Gellner expanded the conceptual scope of the phrase in Nations and Nationalism (1983) stating that high art is "a literate, codified culture, which permits context- free communication" among cultures. In Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (1979), the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu proposed that æsthetic taste (cultural judgement) is in large part derived from social class. Social class establishes the definitions of high art, e.g. in social etiquette, gastronomy, oenology, military service. In such activities of aesthetic judgement, the ruling-class person uses social codes unknown to middle-class and lower-class persons in the pursuit and practice of activities of taste. == See also == == References == === Citations === === Sources === * Bakhtin, M. M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. * Gans, Herbert J. Popular Culture and High Culture: an Analysis and Evaluation of Taste. New York: Basic Books, 1974. xii, 179 pages. . * Ross, Andrew. No Respect: Intellectuals & Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 1989. ix, 269 pages. (pbk.). ==External links== *Full text of Matthew Arnold's Culture and Anarchy online *Memory and modernity:reflections on Ernest Gellner's theory of nationalism - Lecture text by Anthony D Smith Category:The arts Category:Academic culture Category:Culture Category:Social class subcultures Culture
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An official in Canadian football is a person who has responsibility in enforcing the rules and maintaining the order of the game, like their counterparts in the American game. In the Canadian Football League, seven officials operate on the field. Lower levels of play up to the university level use less than the standard seven. Football officials are commonly, but incorrectly, referred to collectively as referees, but each position has specific duties and a specific name: referee, umpire, head linesman (or down judge), line judge, back judge, side judge, and field judge. Because the referee is responsible for the general supervision of the game, the position is sometimes referred to as head referee or crew chief. The centre judge, used only in the United States in NCAA Division I college football and in the AAF during its single season, has not been used in Canadian football yet; the CFL used an eighth official (with no official position name) only during the 2018 playoffs, but that official's only responsibility was watching for head contact with the quarterback. ==Equipment== Canadian football officials generally use the following equipment: *;Whistle: Used to signal that the play has ended. *;Penalty Marker or Flag: A bright yellow coloured flag that is thrown on the field toward or at the spot of a foul. It is wrapped around a weight, such as sand, beans, or small ball, so it can be thrown with some distance and accuracy. *;Bean Bag: Used to mark various spots that are not fouls. For example, it is used to mark the spot of a fumble or where a player caught a punt. *;Down Indicator: A specially designed wristband that is used to remind officials of the current down. It has an elastic loop attached to it that is wrapped around the fingers. Usually, officials put the loop around their index finger when it is first down, the middle finger when it is second down, and so on. Instead of the custom-designed indicator, some officials use two thick rubber bands tied together as a down indicator: one rubber band is used as the wristband and the other is looped over the fingers. Some officials, especially Umpires, may also use a second indicator to keep track of where the ball was placed between the hash marks before the play (i.e. the right hash marks, the left ones, or at the midpoint between the two). This is important when they re-spot the ball after an incomplete pass. *;Game Data Card and Pencil: Officials write down important administrative information, such as the winner of the pregame coin toss, team timeouts, and fouls called. Game data cards can be disposable paper or reusable plastic. A pencil with a special bullet-shaped cap is often carried. The cap prevents the official from being stabbed by the pencil while it is in his pocket. *;Stopwatch: Officials will carry a stopwatch (typically a digital wristwatch) when necessary for timing duties, including keeping game time, keeping the play clock, and timing timeouts and the interval between quarters. *;Clip: Headlinesman will place a clip on the chain at the edge of the line closest to the rear stick in order to make measurements and to set up for 2nd and 3rd quarters. ==Uniform== For ease of recognition, officials are traditionally clad in a black-and-white vertically striped shirt, black slacks with a white strip down the side (white knicker pants with black "Northwestern stripe" stirrup socks and white sanitary socks were worn in the past), with a black belt, black shoes, and a peaked baseball cap; the referee wears a white cap, whereas the other officiating crew members wear black ones; prior to 2019, the CFL used black caps for the referees, and white caps for the other officiating crew members; the convention was reversed in the 2019 season to match the convention used at the amateur ranks and all levels of football in the United States. ==Positions and responsibilities== ===Referee=== The referee is responsible for the general supervision of the game and has the final authority on all rulings. Thus, this position is sometimes referred to as head referee and is considered to be the crew chief. He can be easily identified by his differently coloured cap. Historically, in the Canadian Football League (CFL), the referee wore a black cap while the other officials wore white caps. In amateur football, including U Sports football, the referee wears a white cap with black piping while the other officials wear black caps with white piping. As mentioned above, in 2019, however, CFL referees now wear white caps while other officials now wear black caps, bringing the convention in line with all levels of playing in the American game and Canadian amateur football. During each play from scrimmage, the referee positions himself behind the offensive team, favouring the right side (if the quarterback is a right-handed passer). He also counts offensive players. On passing plays, he primarily focuses on the quarterback and defenders approaching him. The referee rules on possible roughing the passer and, if the quarterback loses the ball, determines whether it is a fumble or an incomplete pass. On running plays, the referee observes the quarterback during and after he hands off the ball to the running back, remaining with him until the action has cleared just in case it is really a play action pass or some other trick passing play. Afterwards, the Referee then checks the running back and the contact behind him. During punts and field goals, the referee observes the kicker (and holder) and any contact made by defenders approaching them. In the CFL and other professional leagues, and in some U Sports football games, the referee announces penalties and the numbers of the players committing them, and clarifies complex and/or unusual rulings over a wireless microphone to both fans and the media. CFL referees, unlike their counterparts in the NFL and American college football, identify the city or province of the team committing the foul when announcing penalty enforcement, instead of using "offense" or defense". During instant replay reviews in the CFL, the referee confers with a replay official, who is located at the CFL head office, on the play and then announces the final result from the replay official over the wireless microphone. In addition to the general equipment listed above, the referee also carries a coin in order to conduct the pregame (and if necessary, overtime) coin toss. ===Umpire=== The umpire (U) stands behind the offensive team, parallel to the referee, on the opposite side of the quarterback. He observes the blocks by the offensive line and defenders trying to ward off those blocks -- looking for holding or illegal blocks. Prior to the snap, he counts all offensive players. During passing plays, he moves forward toward the line of scrimmage as the play develops in order to (1) penalize any offensive linemen who move illegally downfield before the pass is thrown or (2) penalize the quarterback for throwing the ball when beyond the original line of scrimmage. He also assists on ruling incomplete passes when the ball is thrown short. As the umpire is situated where much of the play's initial action occurs, he is considered by many to hold the most dangerous officiating position. In addition to his on field duties, the umpire is responsible for the legality of all of the players' equipment. ===Down Judge/Head Linesman=== The down judge (DJ; head linesman (H or HL) in amateur football) stands at one end of the line of scrimmage (usually the side opposite the press box), looking for possible offsides, encroachment and other fouls before the snap. As the play develops, he is responsible for judging the action near his sideline, including whether a player is out of bounds. During the start of passing plays, he is responsible for watching the receivers near his sideline to a point 5-7 yards beyond the line of scrimmage. He marks the forward progress of the ball and is in charge of the chain crew in regard to its duties. In addition to the general equipment listed above, the down judge also carries a chain clip that is used by the chain crew in order to properly place the chains and ensure an accurate spot when measuring for a first down. Prior to 2018, the CFL referred to the position as the head linesman. ===Line Judge=== The line judge (L or LJ) assists the head linesman at the other end of the line of scrimmage, looking for possible offsides, encroachment and other fouls before the snap. As the play develops, he is responsible for the action near his sideline, including whether a player is out of bounds. He is also responsible for counting offensive players. During the start of passing plays, he is responsible for watching the receivers near his sideline to a point 5-7 yards beyond the line of scrimmage. Afterwards, he moves back towards the line of scrimmage, ruling if a pass is forward, a lateral, or if it is illegally thrown beyond the line of scrimmage. On punts and field goal attempts, the line judge also determines whether the kick is made from behind the line of scrimmage. ===Field Judge/Back Umpire=== The field judge (F or FJ; back umpire (BU) in amateur football) works downfield behind the defensive secondary on the same sideline as the line judge. He makes decisions near the sideline on his side of field, judging the action of nearby running backs, receivers and defenders. He rules on pass interference, illegal blocks downfield, and incomplete passes. He is also responsible for counting defensive players. He has sometimes also been the official timekeeper. With the back judge, he rules whether field goal attempts are successful. For the CFL, this was the fifth official, added in 1951.https://d3ham790trbkqy.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/CFL- Book-2017-Perfect-Bind.pdf ===Side Judge=== The side judge (S or SJ) works downfield behind the defensive secondary on the same sideline as the head linesman. Like the field judge, he makes decisions near the sideline on his side of field, judging the action of nearby running backs, receivers and defenders. He rules on pass interference, illegal blocks downfield, and incomplete passes. He also counts defensive players. During field goal attempts he serves as a second umpire. For the CFL, this was the seventh official, added in 1991. ===Back Judge=== The back judge (B or BJ) stands deep behind the defensive secondary in the middle of the field, judging the action of nearby running backs, receivers (primarily the tight ends) and nearby defenders. He rules on pass interference, illegal blocks downfield, and incomplete passes. He covers the area of the field in between himself and the umpire. He has the final say regarding the legality of kicks not made from scrimmage (kickoffs). With the field judge, he rules whether field goal attempts are successful. For the CFL, this was the sixth official, added in 1979. ===Replay official=== In CFL football, the replay official is not located at the stadium, rather at the CFL Command Centre at the CFL Head Office in Toronto. The official is responsible for the final determination of challenges made by the two teams' head coaches; and in the final 3 minutes (and all of overtime) of the game initiating a review of any play they believe warrants such attention. The official also reviews all scoring plays during the game. When a review is underway, the referee speaks to the replay official via headset at the sideline. The replay official has the final call over all challenges and reviews. U Sports and other leagues in Canada do not utilize the replay-review process. ===Eighth official=== Late in the 2018 playoffs, the CFL added an eighth official to the on-field crew; it did not have an official position title. This official lined up in the offence's backfield, and his sole responsibility was helmet contact on the quarterback. This position was only used in the Eastern and Western finals and the Grey Cup. The eighth official did not return in 2019. ==History== Up until 1950, the forerunner leagues to the present-day Canadian Football League (founded in 1958) used only four officials: The referee, umpire, head linesman and line judge. Over the next 40 years, the system would change into what is more-or- less equal to what most American football leagues use today, a seven-official system. The first new addition to the crew was the field judge (also referred to as the back umpire) in 1951, then the next addition being the back judge in 1979, and the seventh official, the side judge being added in 1991. Among the various Halls of Fame for major North American sports, unlike the Pro Football Hall of Fame in the United States (which has not inducted any of its officials into its Hall of Fame), but like the Baseball, Basketball, and Hockey Halls of Fame, there have been some officials that worked in the CFL that have been inducted as members of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. ==Other officiating systems== Junior football, high school football, and other levels of football commonly use less officials than the standard seven-man officiating crew. * A three-official system uses only the referee, umpire, and head linesman. It is common in junior high and youth football. At those levels, it is also common for the umpire to line up in the line judge's position on most plays. * A four-official system uses the referee, the umpire, the head linesman, and the line judge. It is primary used at lower levels of football, including junior varsity and some high school varsity. * A five-official system is used in arena football (out of consideration for its smaller field size), most high school varsity football, and in most semi-pro games. It adds the back umpire, with duties similar to the back judge from the seven-man system, to the four- official system. * A six-official system adds a back judge and back umpire to the four-official system. Of the two added officials, one is on the middle of the field each play, similar to a back judge in a seven-man system, while the other is on the sideline, similar to a field judge or side judge. It is used in some high school and small-college games. ==See also== * Official (American football) * Glossary of Canadian football ==References== ==External links== * Canadian Football League Rule book * Canadian Football League Referee's Signals * Football Canada Officials Category:Canadian football Category:Sports officiating
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was a Japanese film director and screenwriter.Ronald Bergan "A satirical eye on Japan: Keisuke Kinoshita", The Guardian, 5 January 1999. While lesser-known internationally than contemporaries such as Akira Kurosawa, Kenji Mizoguchi and Yasujirō Ozu, he was a household figure in his home country, beloved by both critics and audiences from the 1940s to the 1960s. Among his best known films are Carmen Comes Home (1951), Japan's first colour feature, Tragedy of Japan (1953), Twenty-Four Eyes (1954), You Were Like a Wild Chrysanthemum (1955), Times of Joy and Sorrow (1957), The Ballad of Narayama (1958), and The River Fuefuki (1960). ==Biography== ===Early years=== Keisuke Kinoshita was born Masakichi Kinoshita on 5 December 1912, in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka Prefecture, as the fourth of eight children of merchant Shūkichi Kinoshita and his wife Tama. His family manufactured pickles and owned a grocery store. A film fan already in early years, he vowed to become a filmmaker, but faced opposition from his parents. When he was in high school, a film crew arrived in Hamamatsu for location shooting one day. He befriended actor Bando Junosuke when the latter came to his store for local products. Bando later helped him run away to Kyoto where most period films were made, but his grandfather came and took him back home the next day. His determination to become a filmmaker finally moved his parents into letting him pursue his career. His mother secured him an introduction to the Shochiku Kamata studios, where Ozu, Mikio Naruse, and other famous directors worked. Without a university education, however, Kinoshita was not allowed to work as an assistant director and had to start as a photographer; he applied to the Oriental Photography School and graduated before he was finally admitted into Shochiku. There, he first worked in the film processing laboratory, then as a camera assistant, before he became assistant director for Yasujirō Shimazu and later Kōzaburō Yoshimura. In 1940, Kinoshita was drafted into the Sino-Japanese War and went to China, but returned the following year due to an injury. ===Career as director=== Kinoshita re-entered Shochiku and was promoted to director in 1943. Adapting a popular play by Kazuo Kikuta, he made the comedy The Blossoming Port with a large cast and budget. The same year saw the emergence of another new director, Akira Kurosawa, but it was Kinoshita who won the much coveted New Director Award at the end of that year. Like many Japanese filmmakers in the late 1930s and early 1940s, Kinoshita directed a film which on the surface endorsed the expansionist policy of the militarist regime, Army (1944). Yet, the famous final scene showed a mother grieving her son's departure for the front instead of cheering him. Although it passed the censors, Kinoshita met with harsh criticism and was not allowed to direct another film until the end of the Second World War. He later argued, "I can’t lie to myself in my dramas. I couldn’t direct something that was like shaking hands and saying, 'Come die.'" He returned to his hometown Hamamatsu, where he waited for the war to end. His first post war film was Morning for the Osone Family (1946) about a family torn apart by war and conflicts between its liberal-minded and pro- militarist members. The final scene, with the remaining family greeting the rising sun, was demanded by the American censorship board against Kinoshita's objections. In the following years, he worked in a variety of genres, including comedy, period and contemporary drama, ghost story, and thriller. Highly successful was the romantic comedy Here’s to the Young Lady (1949) starring Setsuko Hara. In 1951, Kinoshita travelled to France to meet his idol, French director René Clair. As Kinoshita stated, another reason for the travel was to see his home country from a different perspective. The same year saw the release of the musical comedy Carmen Comes Home, Japan's first colour feature. Due to technical and financial reasons, a black-and-white version was also filmed and released. Carmen Comes Home was the first collaboration of Kinoshita with actress Hideko Takamine, who appeared in many of his later films. Early on, Kinoshita gathered a steady group of co-workers around him: Takamine, Kinuyo Tanaka, Yoshiko Kuga, Keiji Sada and Yūko Mochizuki had repeated starring or bigger supporting roles, while his brother Chuji (also credited Tadashi) scored, and cinematographer Hiroshi Kusuda photographed many of his films. His sister Yoshiko Kusuda, wife of Hiroshi Kusuda, wrote the screenplay for Farewell to Dream (1956). The mid-1950s marked the release of two of Kinoshita's most acclaimed films, Twenty-Four Eyes (1954), a portrait of a school teacher who sees the dreams of her young pupils fall apart due to economical constraints and the war, and You Were Like a Wild Chrysanthemum (1955), a Meiji era period drama about the unfulfilled love between two teenagers. Also highly popular was the lighthouse keeper drama Times of Joy and Sorrow (1957), which was repeatedly remade in later years, including one version by Kinoshita himself. The Ballad of Narayama (1958), a highly stylised period drama about the legendary ubasute practice, was entered into the 19th Venice International Film Festival, but met with very mixed reactions. By the mid 1960's, Kinoshita had turned solely to television work. Film historian Donald Richie saw the period war drama The River Fuefuki (1960) and The Scent of Incense (1964), which follows a troubled mother-daughter-relationship over a span of 4 decades, as the director's last notable works. Alexander Jacoby also found the 1960 satire Spring Dreams noteworthy, which he called "quirkily enjoyable". Like directors of the previous generation as Ozu and Naruse, Kinoshita stayed loyal to one film studio (Shochiku) before turning to television, and often worked for Shochiku even in later years, while other directors of his generation as Yoshimura and Kaneto Shindō, and even the older Heinosuke Gosho, had started working independently for different studios by the early 1950s. Although few concrete details have emerged about Kinoshita's personal life, his homosexuality was widely known in the film world. Screenwriter and frequent collaborator Yoshio Shirasaka recalls the "brilliant scene" Kinoshita made with the handsome, well-dressed assistant directors he surrounded himself with.Shirasaki Yoshio (2008). Shinario Rokugatsugo Bessatsu Kyakuhonka Shirasaki Yoshio no Sekai "Kaita! Tonda! Asonda!" Shinario sakka kyokai. ASIN B003VIQBOW. His 1959 film Farewell to Spring has been called "Japan's first gay film" for the emotional intensity depicted between its male characters.Ishihara Ikuko, "Isai no hito: Kinoshita Keisuke, yowai otokotachi no utsukushisa o chushin ni" Kinoshita died on December 30, 1998, of a stroke. His grave is in Engaku-ji in Kamakura, very near to that of his fellow Shochiku director, Yasujirō Ozu. ==Filmography== Films directed by Keisuke Kinoshita Films directed by Keisuke Kinoshita Films directed by Keisuke Kinoshita Films directed by Keisuke Kinoshita Films directed by Keisuke Kinoshita Year English Title Japanese Title Romanisation Alternate titles Films in the 1940s Films in the 1940s Films in the 1940s Films in the 1940s Films in the 1940s 1943 Port of Flowers 花咲く港 Hana saku minato 1943 The Living Magoroku 生きてゐる孫六 Ikite iru Magoroku 1944 Jubilation Street 歓呼の町 Kanko no Machi 1944 Army 陸軍 Rikugun 1946 Morning for the Osone Family 大曾根家の朝 Ōsone-ke no asa 1946 The Girl I Loved わが恋せし乙女 Ikite iru Magoroku 1947 Phoenix 不死鳥 Fushichō 1947 Marriage 結婚 Kekkon 1948 Woman 女 Onna The Lady 1948 The Portrait 肖像 Shōzō 1948 Apostasy 破戒 Hakai 1949 Here’s to the Young Lady お嬢さん乾杯! Ojōsan kanpai! Let's Toast the Young Lady 1949 The Yotsuya Ghost Story I & II 新釈四谷怪談(前後編) Shin'yaku Yotsuya kaidan (sengo hen) 1949 Broken Drum 破れ太鼓 Yabure daiko Films in the 1950s Films in the 1950s Films in the 1950s Films in the 1950s Films in the 1950s 1950 Wedding Ring 婚約指環 Kon'yaku yubiwa Engagement Ring 1951 The Good Fairy 善魔 Zenma 1951 Carmen Comes Home カルメン故郷に帰る Karumen kokyō ni kaeru 1951 Boyhood 少年期！ Shōnenki A Record of Youth 1951 Fireworks over the Sea 海の花火 Umi no hanabi Fireworks by the Ocean 1952 Carmen's Pure Love カルメン純情す Karumen junjōsu 1953 A Japanese Tragedy 日本の悲劇 Nihon no higeki Tragedy of Japan 1954 The Garden of Women 女の園 Onna no sono 1954 Twenty-Four Eyes 二十四の瞳 Nijushi no hitomi 1955 The Tattered Wings 遠い雲 Tōi kumo Distant Clouds 1955 She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum 野菊の如き君なりき Nogiku no gotoki kimi nariki You Were Like a Wild Chrysanthemum My First Love Affair 1956 Farewell to Dream 夕やけ雲 Yūyake-gumo Clouds at Twilight 1956 The Rose on His Arm 太陽とバラ Taiyō to bara 1957 Times of Joy and Sorrow 喜びも悲しみも幾歳月 Yorokobi mo kanashimi mo ikutoshitsuki The Lighthouse 1957 Danger Stalks Near 風前の灯 Fūzen no tomoshibi 1958 The Ballad of Narayama 楢山節考 Narayama bushi kō 1958 The Eternal Rainbow この天の虹 Kono ten no niji 1959 The Snow Flurry 風花 Kazabana 1959 Farewell to Spring 惜春鳥 Sekishunchō 1959 Thus Another Day 今日もまたかくてありなん Kyō mo mata kakute arinan Films in the 1960s Films in the 1960s Films in the 1960s Films in the 1960s Films in the 1960s 1960 Spring Dreams 春の夢 Haru no yume 1960 The River Fuefuki 笛吹川 Fuefukigawa 1961 Immortal Love 永遠の人 Eien no hito The Bitter Spirit 1962 This Year's Love 今年の恋 Kotoshi no koi 1962 Ballad of a Workman 二人で歩いた幾春秋 Futari de aruita ikushunjū 1963 Sing, Young People! 歌え若人達 Utae wakōdotachi 1963 A Legend or Was It? 死闘の伝説 Shitō no densetsu Legend of a Duel to the Death 1964 The Scent of Incense 香華 Kōge 1967 Lovely Flute and Drum なつかしき笛や太鼓 Natsukashiki fue ya taiko Films in the 1970s–1980s Films in the 1970s–1980s Films in the 1970s–1980s Films in the 1970s–1980s Films in the 1970s–1980s 1976 Love and Separation in Sri Lanka スリランカの愛と別れ Suri Ranka no ai to wakare 1979 Oh, My Son! 衝動殺人・息子よ Shōdō satsujin musuko yo My Son! My Son! a.k.a. Impulse Murder 1980 The Young Rebels 父よ母よ! Chichi yo, haha yo! 1983 Children of Nagasaki この子を残して Kono ko o nokoshite 1986 Big Joys, Small Sorrows 新・喜びも悲しみも幾歳月 Shin yorokobi mo kanoshimi mo ikutoshitsuki 1988 Father 父 Chichi ==Main themes and style== Although not limited to a certain genre, the two main veins of Kinoshita's work were comedy and melodrama. A major theme was the depiction of national history in personal terms, chronicling families or communities over a certain span of time. Also, his films often concentrated on the sufferings of children in oppressive circumstances, and showed a general sympathy with the socially marginalised. Working less on an analytical but an intuitive level, Kinoshita's films showed, according to Alexander Jacoby, an occasional simplicity and naivety, yet in the cases of Twenty-Four Eyes and You Were Like a Wild Chrysanthemum, they were among the most purely moving of Japanese cinema. Donald Richie also pointed out the satire and comedy of character in Kinoshita's comedy films, and an emotional earnestness which exceeded sentimentality in his serious films. Sometimes critical of his later work, Richie detected an increasing traditionalism in films like The Ballad of Narayama, The River Fuefuki and Scent of Incense. Although he often adapted literary works from writers like Tōson Shimazaki, Kunio Kishida and Isoko Hatano, many of his screenplays were based on his original idea. Kinoshita explained his prolific output with the fact that he "can’t help it. Ideas for films have always just popped into my head like scraps of paper into a wastebasket." Some of his scripts were realised by other directors, including the acknowledged directorial debut of actress Kinuyo Tanaka, Love Letter (1953). Kinoshita was also an avid stylist who experimented with cinematic form in his films. He used expressionist camera angles in Carmen's Innocent Love, daguerreotype-like framing of images in She Was Like a Wild Chrysanthemum, or partial tinting to evoke the impression of Japanese woodblock prints in The River Fuefuki. In A Japanese Tragedy, he interspersed newsreel footage, and drew upon kabuki stage effects in The Ballad of Narayama. The Snow Flurry told its story in a fragmented, nonlinear manner, preceding the New Wave. ==Influence== In 1946 Masaki Kobayashi became Kinoshita's assistant and later formed with him, Akira Kurosawa, and Kon Ichikawa a directors group called Shiki no kai (The Four Horsemen Club). The goal was to produce films for a younger audience, but only one project was realised, Kurosawa's Dodes'ka-den (1970). Director Tadashi Imai was an outspoken admirer of Kinoshita's work, and Nagisa Ōshima named The Garden of Women as the film which led to his decision to become a filmmaker himself in his 1995 documentary 100 Years of Japanese Cinema. ==Honours and awards== Kinoshita received the Order of the Rising Sun in 1984 and was awarded the Order of Culture and Person of Cultural Merit in 1991 by the Japanese government. In 1999, he received the Blue Ribbon Special Award and the Mainichi Film Concours Special Award for his life achievement. His birth town Hamamatsu established the "Keisuke Kinoshita Memorial Museum" to commemorate him. A retrospective on Kinoshita with 15 of his films was held at the Lincoln Center, New York, in 2012. In 2013, five of Kinoshita's films — Jubilation Street (1944), Woman (1948), Engagement Ring (1950), Farewell to Dream (1956) and A Legend or Was It? (1963) — were screened in the Forum section of the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival. ===Awarded films=== ;Morning for the Osone Family *Kinema Junpo Award for Best Film ;Carmen Comes Home *Mainichi Film Concours for Best Screenplay ;A Japanese Tragedy *Blue Ribbon Award for Best Screenplay *Mainichi Film Concours for Best Screenplay ;Twenty-Four Eyes *Blue Ribbon Award for Best Film and Best Screenplay *Mainichi Film Concours for Best Film, Best Director and Best Screenplay *Kinema Junpo Award for Best Film *Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film *voted at position #6 on the 2009 All Time Best Japanese Movies list by readers of Kinema Junpo ;The Garden of Women *Blue Ribbon Award for Best Screenplay *Mainichi Film Concours for Best Director and Best Screenplay ;The Rose on His Arm *Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film ;The Ballad of Narayama *Mainichi Film Concours for Best Film and Best Director *Kinema Junpo Award for Best Film and Best Director ;Immortal Love *nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film ==References== ==Bibliography== * ==External links== * * Category:1912 births Category:1998 deaths Category:People from Hamamatsu Category:Japanese military personnel of World War II Category:Japanese film directors Category:Japanese male screenwriters Category:LGBT film directors Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 4th class Category:Persons of Cultural Merit Category:Gay screenwriters Category:Japanese gay writers Category:Japanese LGBT screenwriters Category:20th-century Japanese LGBT people
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Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr (, 631–657), was the youngest son of the first Islamic caliph Abu Bakr. His mother was Asma bint Umais, who was a widow of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib prior to her second marriage with Abu Bakr. He became the stepson of the fourth caliph Ali, and became one of his generals. He was one of the main figures in rebellion against Uthman and was actively involved in siege of his house which resulted in caliph's death. == Life == He was a son of Abū Bakr from his marriage with Asma bint Umays. When Abu Bakr died, Asma bint Umais married Ali ibn Abi Talib. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had a son named Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's wife was called Asma and she was the daughter of Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr who was Abu Bakr's other son. The daughter of Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Asma was called Fatima (Umm Farwah). After the Battle of Siffin, Ali ibn Abi Talib appointed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as the Governor of Egypt, then a newly conquered province of the Islamic empire. In 658 CE (38 AH), Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the then Governor of Syria, sent his general Amr ibn al-As and six thousand soldiers against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. He hadn't proved himself to be a good governor, Lesley Hazleton writes "Muhammad AbuBakr – Aisha's half brother – had proved a weak governor. Ali himself ruefully acknowledged that he was "an inexperienced young man". Muhammad asked Imam Ali for help. Ali is said to have instructed his foster son to hand the governorship over to his best general and childhood friend, Malik al-Ashtar, whom he judged better capable of resisting Amr ibn al-As. However, Malik died on his way to Egypt. The Shi'a and Institute for Shia Ismaili Studies and London's Shi'aism researcher Wilferd MadelungSenior Research Fellow at the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London believe that Malik was poisoned by Muawiyah I. Ibn Abi Bakr was eventually defeated by 'Amr ibn al-'As. 'Amr's soldiers were ordered to capture him, bring him alive to Muawiyah I or kill him. A soldier named Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj is said to have quarreled with the prisoner and killed him out of hand. Ibn Hudayj was so incensed at Ibn Abi Bakr that he put his body into the skin of a dead donkey and burned both corpses together, so that nothing should survive of his enemy.The Succession to Muhammad pp. 268 However, Shi'a accounts say that the Muawiyah I who later became the first Umayyad Caliph was the actual killer of Ibn Abu Bakr.Middle East & Africa to 1875 632–661 His grave is located in a mosque in Cairo, Egypt. He had spent considerable time in Egypt and was part of the delegation that complained about the activities of the governor of Egypt to the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan. The Caliph promised to immediately dismiss the Egyptian governor and replace him with Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. However, after sensing betrayal from Uthman ibn Affan (but actually perpetrated by Marwan ibn al-Hakam) against the Muslim petitioners from Egypt, Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr rushed back with the petitioners to Medina where he initially took part in the uprising against Uthman ibn Affan. After realizing his error in getting involved in the Assassination of Uthman, he repented and withdrew from the uprising, although he had already led the group of rebels inside Uthman ibn Affan's residence. The history is related as follows: > A group of seven hundred Egyptians came to complain to Caliph Uthman ibn > Affan about their governor Ibn Abi Sarh's tyranny, so Uthman ibn Affan said: > "Choose someone to govern you." They chose Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, so Uthman > ibn Affan wrote credentials for him and they returned. On their way back, at > three days' distance from Madinah, a messenger caught up with them with the > news that he carried orders from Uthman ibn Affan to the governor of Egypt. > They searched him and found a message from Uthman ibn Affan to ibn Abi Sarh > ordering the death of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and some of his friends. They > returned to Madinah and besieged Uthman ibn Affan. Uthman ibn Affan > acknowledged that the camel, the servant, and the seal on the letter > belonged to him, but he swore that he had never written nor ordered the > letter to be written. It was discovered that the letter had been hand- > written by Marwan ibn al-Hakam.Uthman ibn Affan ===Shi'a Muslim view=== The Shi'a highly praise Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr for his devotion to ‘Ali and his resistance to the other rulers who were usurpers. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was a pious Muslim who supported the Imam of his time, Ali ibn Abi Talib, even though his sister Aisha opposed ‘Ali in the battle of Jamal, Ibn Abu Bakr was faithful to his stepfather. And he was in Ali's army in the Battle of Jamal and later it was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who escorted Aisha back to Madina. His grand daughter Fatima (Umm Farwah) was wife of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. Thus Shi'a Imam after Imam Muhammad al-Baqir were his descendants from the mother side, starting with the great legal doctor of the Shi'a, Hanafi and Maliki Sunnis, Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. According to a Shi'a Muslim author: > ‘Ali loved Muhammad Ibn Abi Bakr as his own son and his death was felt as > another terrible shock. ‘Ali prayed for him, and invoked God's blessings and > mercy upon his soul.A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims : > Death of Malik ===Openly opposed Mu'awiya=== Both of Abu Bakr’s sons Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr openly opposed Mu'awiya. The appointment of Yazid was unpopular in Medina. Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352, Narrated by Yusuf bin Mahak: Marwan had been appointed as the governor of Hijaz by Mu'awiya. He delivered a sermon and mentioned Yazid bin Mu'awiya so that the people might take the oath of allegiance to him as the successor of his father (Mu'awiya). Then ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr told him something whereupon Marwan ordered that he be arrested. But ‘Abd al-Rahman entered 'Aisha's house and they could not arrest him. Marwan said, "It is he (‘Abd al- Rahman) about whom Allah revealed this Verse: 'And the one who says to his parents: 'Fie on you! Do you hold out the promise to me..?'" On that, 'Aisha said from behind a screen, "Allah did not reveal anything from the Qur'an about us except what was connected with the declaration of my innocence (of the slander)." Ibn Kathir wrote in his book the Al-Bidayah wan-NihayahThe Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Kathir, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Kathir, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 82 that "in the year 56 AH Mu'awiya called on the people including those within the outlying territories to pledge allegiance to his son, Yazid, to be his heir to the Caliphate after him. Almost all the subjects offered their allegiance, with the exception of Abd al-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr (the son of Abu Bakr), Abd Allah ibn Umar (the son of Umar), al-Husayn bin Ali (the son of Ali), Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (The grandson of Abu Bakr) and Abd Allah ibn Abbas (Ali's cousin). Because of this Mu'awiya passed through Medina on his way back from Mecca upon completion of his Umrah Pilgrimage where he summoned each one of the five aforementioned individuals and threatened them. The speaker who addressed Mu'awiya sharply with the greatest firmness amongst them was Abd al-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, while Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al- Khattab was the most soft-spoken amongst them. Their sister Asma bint Abi Bakr was just as outspoken. Asma's son, Abd Allah, and his cousin, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, were both grandsons of Abu Bakr and nephews of Aisha. When Husayn ibn Ali was killed in Karbala, Abd Allah, who had been Husayn's friend, collected the people of Mecca and made the following speech: > O people! No other people are worse than Iraqis and among the Iraqis, the > people of Kufa are the worst. They repeatedly wrote letters and called Imam > Husayn to them and took bay'at (allegiance) for his caliphate. But when Ibn > Ziyad arrived in Kufa, they rallied around him and killed Imam Husayn who > was pious, observed the fast, read the Quran and deserved the caliphate in > all respects.Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). The History of Islam vol. 2, p. > 110. Riyadh: Darussalam. . After his speech, the people of Mecca also joined Abd Allah to take on Yazid. When he heard about this, Yazid had a silver chain made and sent to Mecca with the intention of having Walid ibn Utba arrest Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with it. In Mecca and Medina Husayn's family had a strong support base, and the people were willing to stand up for them. Husayn's remaining family moved back to Madina. Eventually Abd Allah consolidated his power by sending a governor to Kufa. Soon Abd Allah established his power in Iraq, southern Arabia, the greater part of Syria and parts of Egypt. Yazid tried to end Abd Allah's rebellion by invading the Hejaz, and he took Medina after the bloody Battle of al-Harra followed by the siege of Mecca. But his sudden death ended the campaign and threw the Umayyads into disarray, with civil war eventually breaking out. This essentially split the Islamic empire into two spheres. After the Umayyad civil war ended, Abd Allah lost Egypt and whatever he had of Syria to Marwan I. This, coupled with the Kharijite rebellions in Iraq, reduced his domain to only the Hejaz. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was finally defeated by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who sent Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Hajjaj was from Ta'if, as were those who had killed Husayn. In his last hour, Abd Allah asked his mother Asma what he should do. Asma replied to her son: > You know better in your own self that if you are upon the truth and you are > calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you were > killed and have been killed, and if you are not upon the truth, then what an > evil son you are, you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If > you say what you say, that you are upon the truth and you will be killed at > the hands of others then you will not truly be free, for this is not the > statement of someone who is free... How long will you live in this world, > death is more beloved to me than this state you are on, this state of > weakness. Then Abd Allah said to his mother after she had told him to go forth and fight: "I am afraid I will be mutilated by the people of Sham. I am afraid that they will cut up my body after they have killed me." She said: "After someone has died, it won't make any difference what they do to you if you have been killed." Abd Allah said to his mother: > I did not come to you except to increase myself in knowledge. Look and pay > attention to this day, for verily, I am a dead man. Your son never drank > wine, nor was he fornicator, nor did he wrong any Muslim or non-Muslim, nor > was he unjust. I am not saying this to you to show off or show how pure I am > but rather as an honour to you. Abd Allah then left by himself on his horse to take on Hajjaj. Hajjaj's army defeated Abd Allah on the battlefield in 692. He beheaded him and crucified his body. He said, "No one must take down his body except Asma. She must come to me and ask my permission, and only then will his body be taken down." Asma refused to go and ask permission to take down her son's body. It was said to her, "If you don't go, his body will remain like that." She said, "Then let it be." Eventually Hajjaj came to her and asked, "What do you say about this matter?" She replied, "Verily, you have destroyed him and you have ruined his life, and with that you have ruined your hereafter." The defeat of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr re-established Umayyad control over the Empire. ==See also== *Muhammad (name) *Ali *Abu Bakr (name) *Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr *Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr *Aisha *Asma bint Abi Bakr *Siddiqui *Bodla *Qallu *Sheekhaal == References == *Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997. == Further reading == * == External links == *Biography *http://www.livingislam.org/n/shb_e.html - "Nevertheless, he brought in those who killed [Uthman]!" *https://sabazius.oto-usa.org/mohammed/ - Uthman became quite unpopular, and he was murdered by insurgents led by the son of Abu Bakr, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, in 656 e.v Category:631 births Category:658 deaths Category:7th-century Arabs Category:Abu Bakr family Category:Children of Rashidun caliphs Category:Rashidun governors of Egypt Category:Egyptian people who died in prison custody
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{{Infobox settlement |name = Saratoga, California |official_name = City of Saratoga |other_name = |native_name = |nickname = |settlement_type = City |motto = | image_skyline = |image_flag = |flag_size = |image_seal = Saratoga California Seal.png |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_blank_emblem = |blank_emblem_type = |blank_emblem_size = |image_map = Santa_Clara_County_California_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Saratoga_Highlighted.svg |mapsize = 250x200px |map_caption = Location in Santa Clara County and the state of California |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = |subdivision_type = Country |subdivision_name = |subdivision_type1 = State |subdivision_name1 = |subdivision_type2 = County |subdivision_name2 = Santa Clara |named_for = Saratoga Springs, New York |government_type = |leader_title = Mayor |leader_name = Kookie Fitzsimmons, Term Ending December 2023 |established_title = Incorporated |established_date = October 22, 1956 |unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = | area_total_sq_mi = 12.78 | area_land_sq_mi = 12.78 | area_water_sq_mi = 0.00 | area_total_km2 = 33.10 | area_land_km2 = 33.10 | area_water_km2 = 0.00 | area_water_percent = 0 |area_metro_sq_mi = |elevation_footnotes = |elevation_ft = 423 |elevation_m = 129 |population_as_of = 2020 |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = 31051 |population_density_sq_mi = auto |population_metro = |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |timezone = Pacific |utc_offset = −8 |timezone_DST = PDT |utc_offset_DST = −7 |coordinates = |postal_code_type = ZIP codes |postal_code = 95070-95071 |area_code_type = Area codes |area_code = 408/669 |blank_name = FIPS code |blank_info = |blank1_name = GNIS feature IDs |blank1_info = , |website = |footnotes = |pop_est_as_of = |pop_est_footnotes = |population_est = |population_density_km2 = auto }} Saratoga is a city in Santa Clara County, California. Located in Silicon Valley, in the southern Bay Area, its population was 31,051 at the 2020 census. Saratoga is an affluent residential community, known for its wineries, restaurants, and attractions like Villa Montalvo, Mountain Winery, and Hakone Gardens. ==History== The area comprising Saratoga was earlier inhabited by the Ohlone Native Americans. In 1847, European settlers created a settlement at what is now Saratoga when William Campbell (father of Benjamin Campbell, the founder of nearby Campbell, California), constructed a sawmill about southeast of the present downtown area. An early map noted the area as Campbell's Gap. In 1851, Martin McCarthy, who had leased the mill, built a toll road down to the Santa Clara Valley, and founded what is now Saratoga as McCarthysville. The toll gate was located at the present-day intersection of Big Basin Way and 3rd St., giving the town its first widely used name: Toll Gate. In 1867 the town received a post office under the name of McCarthysville. Early residents, who moved to Saratoga in 1881, were Mary Brown (1816–1884), widow of the abolitionist John Brown, her daughters Sarah and Ellen, and the husband of the latter, James Fablinger. All of them are buried in the Madronia Cemetery. The town soon industrialized with the building of a furniture factory, grist mill, tannery, and paper factory. To commemorate this newfound productivity, the town was renamed again in 1863 as Bank Mills. In the 1850s, Jud Caldwell discovered springs which were called Pacific Congress Springs because the water had a mineral content similar to Congress Springs in Saratoga Springs, New York. In 1865 the town received its final name, Saratoga, after the city in New York. At the same time a resort hotel called Congress Hall was constructed at the springs, named after the famous resort Congress Hall at Saratoga Springs, New York. California's Congress Hall attracted tourists to the area until it burned down in 1903. These events would eventually lead to Saratoga being listed as a California Historical Landmark in 1950. Saratoga became agricultural, as did much of the rest of the valley; a few vineyards and orchards from this period remain today. After World War II the town quickly became urbanized, and it incorporated in 1956 mostly to avoid being annexed by San Jose. A slogan during the campaign to incorporate the city of Saratoga was "Keep it rural," according to historian Willys I. Peck. Today the city serves as a bedroom community for upper class Silicon Valley tech workers and executives. Saratoga drew notoriety for the suicide of Audrie Pott, a 15-year-old Saratoga High School student, September 2012. The three teenagers charged with sexually assaulting Pott pleaded guilty and served time in juvenile hall for the sexual assault. Saratoga High School is depicted in Steven Spielberg's 2022 film The Fabelmans. ==Geography== Saratoga is bordered by Cupertino and San Jose to the north, a small portion of Campbell and Los Gatos to the east, and Monte Sereno to the southeast. Saratoga is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land. Within its borders, Saratoga includes lush redwood forests, foothills suitable for wine grapes and sunny valley floor once covered with prune and apricot orchards, now with suburban homes, schools and churches. Neighborhoods in Saratoga include Brookview and Pride's Crossing in the north part of the city, Blue Hills and Greenbrier in the northwest area, and Congress Springs in the southwestern corner of Saratoga. The Golden Triangle, a name invented by real estate agents, is an area bounded by Saratoga Avenue, Saratoga-Sunnyvale Road and Cox Avenue. The Golden Triangle consists mostly of four-bedroom ranch homes (with values ranging from between $1 and $3 million) on quarter acre lots that are gradually being replaced by Mediterranean custom designs. Northeast of the Golden Triangle is a neighborhood known as Saratoga Woods, a small community located behind Prospect High School north of Cox. Bellgrove Circle is a popular neighborhood located next to highway 85. The land of Bellgrove Circle, once used as a vineyard, was previously owned by Paul Masson Winery and is east of Saratoga Avenue and north of Rt 85. Kentfield is south of Rt 85 and also east of Saratoga Avenue. Parker Ranch is a very affluent neighborhood with minimum lots, west of Saratoga-Sunnyvale Road and up into the hills. The downtown area along Big Basin Way is known as the Village. ==Demographics== ===2010=== thumb|left|The Federated Church of Saratoga. The 2010 United States census reported that Saratoga had a population of 29,926. The population density was . The racial makeup of Saratoga was 16,125 (53.9%) White, 94 (0.3%) African American, 41 (0.1%) Native American, 12,376 (41.4%) Asian, 23 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 202 (0.7%) from other races, and 1,065 (3.6%) from two or more races. There were 1,034 Hispanic or Latino residents of any race (3.5%). The census reported that 29,727 people (99.3% of the population) lived in households, 34 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 165 (0.6%) were institutionalized. There were 10,734 households, out of which 4,024 (37.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,893 (73.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 608 (5.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 213 (2.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 159 (1.5%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 44 (0.4%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,740 households (16.2%) were made up of individuals, and 1,115 (10.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77. There were 8,714 families (81.2% of all households); the average family size was 3.11. In Saratoga, 7,173 people (24.0%) were under the age of 18, 1,390 people (4.6%) were aged 18 to 24, 4,678 people (15.6%) were aged 25 to 44, 10,598 people (35.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 6,087 people (20.3%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males. There were 11,123 housing units at an average density of , of which 9,258 (86.2%) were owner-occupied, and 1,476 (13.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.3%. 26,201 people (87.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 3,526 people (11.8%) lived in rental housing units. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek reported that the average household income was $237,804 with an average household net worth of $1,516,018. ===2000=== As of the census of 2000, there were 29,843 people, 10,450 households, and 8,600 families residing in the city. The population density was 951.5/km2 (2,465.3/mi2). There were 10,649 housing units at an average density of 339.5/km2 (879.7/mi2). The racial makeup of the city was 67.39% White, 0.39% African American, 0.15% Native American, 29.08% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.57% from other races, and 2.33% from two or more races. 3.14% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 10,450 households, out of which 38.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75.0% were married couples living together, 4.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.7% were non-families. 14.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.13. The population-age distribution was as follows: 26.0% under the age of 18, 4.0% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 29.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males. According to a 2007 estimate the median income for a household in the city was $137,270, and the median income for a family was $159,765. Males had a median income of $75,000 versus $66,240 for females. The per capita income for the city was $65,400. About 1.8% of families and 2.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 2.6% over 64. ==Economy== thumb|left|Shop in Saratoga Village. The 2016 Coldwell Banker Home Listing Report listed Saratoga as the most expensive housing market in the United States. In 2010, Bloomberg Businessweek named Saratoga the most expensive suburb in California. According to CNN Money, 70.42% of Saratoga households have an income greater than $100,000. Saratoga was ranked by Forbes in 2009 as one of America's top 20 most-educated small towns. Bloomberg Businessweek named Saratoga's zip code 95070 the 18th richest zip code in America in 2011. In 2018, data from the American Community Survey revealed that Saratoga was the 8th wealthiest city in the United States. ==Government== thumb|right|Saratoga Fire Station. Saratoga is a general law city under California law, meaning that the organization and powers of the city are established by state law. It has a council–manager form of government. The current mayor is Kookie Fitzsimmons, and the Vice Mayor is Yan Zhao. The other current council members are Belal Aftab, Chuck Page, and Tina Walia. The Saratoga City Council has had to make many controversial decisions in a community with residents known to be protectionist of their existing exclusivity. The council was a leader in dealing with the unfunded pension crisis in California. In the California State Legislature, Saratoga is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Saratoga is in . ==Education== thumb|left|Saratoga Memorial Arch. Various public school districts serve Saratoga. At elementary level (grades K to 8) these include Saratoga Union School District, Campbell Union School District, Cupertino Union School District and Moreland School District. High school districts that serve Saratoga include the Los Gatos-Saratoga Joint Union High School District, Fremont Union High School District and Campbell Union High School District. These districts provide a number of high schools including Saratoga High School, Monta Vista High School (located in Cupertino but servicing a portion of Saratoga), Lynbrook High School (located in San Jose but servicing a portion of Saratoga as well), Prospect High School and Westmont High School (located in Campbell but servicing a portion of Saratoga). Private schools in the area include Challenger School, Saint Andrew's School, and Sacred Heart School. West Valley Community College provides college-level education in the district whilst the Santa Clara County Library District operates the Saratoga Library. ==Transportation== thumb|right|Bike shop in Saratoga Village. The original alignment of Highway 85 along Saratoga-Sunnyvale Road was deleted in 1994 when the West Valley Freeway was completed, and it passes through northeast Saratoga. Highway 85 has one onramp/offramp within the city, at Saratoga Avenue; while the original plans for the freeway also included exits at Quito Road and Prospect Avenue, objections by residents kept those interchanges from being constructed. Street signs are brown in color. The Union Pacific Railroad operates freight through the town, servicing the nearby Permanente Quarry. The rail line travels parallel to Route 85. Passenger trains, including the Peninsular Railway, operated starting in 1908, delivering commuters to San Francisco in 90 minutes. Saratoga currently has no passenger train service; it has minimal bus service. Saratoga also has a zoning code aimed at preserving a semi-rural appearance. Saratoga emphasizes its semi-rural appearance by foregoing street lights and sidewalks on most residential streets. This contributes to Saratoga's high housing costs. ==Sister cities== * Muko, Japan (1983) ==Notable people== * Jeremy Atherton Lin (born 1974), author * Alex Brightman (born 1987), actor (Beetlejuice, School of Rock) * Mary Brown (1816–1884), widow of John Brown the abolitionist, her daughters Sarah and Ellen, and the husband of the latter, James Fablinger. All are buried in Madronia Cemetery. * Michael Burry (born 1971), physician and hedge fund manager * Stephanie Elam (born 1974), news anchor (CNN, NBC) * Joan Fontaine (1917–2013), Oscar-winning actress * Devon Graye (born 1987), actor (Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh) * Steve Harwell (born 1967), lead singer of the band Smash Mouth * Olivia de Havilland (1916–2020), Oscar-winning actress * Dan Janjigian (born 1972), actor and bobsledder * Ernest Konnyu (born 1937), Republican Congressman who resided in Saratoga while in office. * Anil Kumar (born 1958), management consultant who pled guilty to insider trading * Sam Liccardo (born 1970), politician (mayor of San Jose) * Beth Lisick (born 1968), spoken-word artist, leader of the band The Beth Lisick Ordeal, and author * Patrick Marleau (born 1979), former San Jose Sharks player * Abijah McCall, orchardist and inventor of the Fresno Scraper * Mekenna Melvin (born 1985), actress * Pranav Mistry, (born 1981), Indian-born computer scientist and inventor * Joe Murray (born 1961), Emmy-winning animator, best known as the creator of Rocko's Modern Life and Camp Lazlo. * Anil Raj (1984–2019), humanitarian activist, killed in terror attack in Kabul in 2019 while working for U.N. * James Rumbaugh (born 1947), computer scientist * Dan Rusanowsky (born 1960), radio broadcaster * Vincent Sheu (born 1990), Rubik’s Cube speedsolver * Ed Solomon (born 1960), screenwriter (Men in Black) * Steven Spielberg (born 1946), filmmaker (graduated from Saratoga High, having attended it for his senior year) * Mark Suciu (born 1992), professional skateboarder * Vienna Teng (born 1978), singer * Joe Thornton (born 1979), former San Jose Sharks captain * Lance Guest (born 1960), actor * Kerri Walsh (born 1978), Gold Medal-winning Olympian (beach volleyballer) * James Williamson (born 1949), electronics engineer and guitarist of the Stooges ==References== ==External links== * * Saratoga Historical Foundation Category:Populated places established in 1848 Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California Category:Cities in Santa Clara County, California Category:Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Silicon Valley Category:California Historical Landmarks Category:1848 establishments in California
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The list of high schools in Istanbul lists high schools within the city limits of Istanbul. == Adalar == * Heybeliada Anadolu Lisesi * Heybeliada Deniz Lisesi * Heybeliada Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar Çok Programlı Lisesi * Özel Heybeliada Rum Erkek Lisesi == Arnavutköy == * Arnavutköy Bolluca Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Arnavutköy Kız Meslek ve Teknik Meslek Lisesi * Bolluca İMKB Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Durusu Hüseyin Ökten Lisesi * Hadımköy İbrahim Özaydın Çok Programlı Lisesi * Hadımköy Örfi Çetinkaya Anadolu Lisesi * Hadımköy TOKİ Lisesi * Haraççı İMKB Lisesi * İstanbul Spor Lisesi * Mehmet Akif Ersoy Lisesi * Örfi Çetinkaya Anadolu Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Taşoluk Anadolu Lisesi == Ataşehir == * Dilek Sabancı Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Dr. Nurettin Erk-Perihan Erk Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Esatpaşa Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi ve İmam Hatip Lisesi * Esatpaşa Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Habire Yahşi Anadolu Lisesi * İstanbul Güzel Sanatlar ve Spor Lisesi * Mehmet Rauf Lisesi * Mevlana Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Mustafa Kemal Anadolu Lisesi * Nuri Cıngıllıoğlu Lisesi * Özel Ataşehir Adıgüzel Bilişim Teknik Lisesi * Özel Ataşehir Adıgüzel Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi * Özel Bostancı Akşam Lisesi * Özel Bostancı Doğa Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Bostancı Güneş Lisesi * Özel Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü Anadolu Lisesi * Prof. Faik Somer Anadolu Lisesi * Remzi Bayraktar Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * TEB Ataşehir Anadolu Lisesi * Yeditepe Özel Eğitim Meslek Lisesi == Avcılar == * 50. Yıl İnsa Lisesi * Avcılar Lisesi * Avcılar Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Gümüşpala Lisesi * İBB Şehit Şerife Bacı Lisesi * İHKİB Hazır Giyim ve Konfeksiyon Meslek Lisesi * Mehmet Baydar Anadolu Lisesi * Mehmet Emin Horoz Lojistik Meslek Lisesi * Özel Okyanus Lisesi * Saide Zorlu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi ve Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Süleyman Nazif Anadolu Lisesi == Bağcılar == * Abdurrahman ve Nermin Bilimli Anadolu Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Alaattin - Nilüfer Kadayıfçıoğlu Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Bağcılar Ahi Evren Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Bağcılar Akşemsettin Anadolu Lisesi * Bağcılar Lisesi * Bağcılar Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Bağcılar Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Barbaros Anadolu Lisesi * Dr. Kemal Naci Ekşi Anadolu Lisesi * Dündar Uçar Lisesi * Gazi kız meslek ve teknik Lisesi * Hikmet Nazif Kurşunoğlu Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * İbni Sina Anadolu Lisesi * Mahmutbey Lisesi * Mehmet Niyazı Altuğ Anadolu Lisesi * Orhan Gazi Lisesi * Osmangazi Lisesi * Otocenter Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Özel Bağcılar Birikim Koleji * Özel Bağcılar Ensar Koleji * Özel Cihangir Lisesi * Özel Gökşen Akşam Lisesi * Özel Gökşen Lisesi * Özel Güneşli Okyanus Lisesi * Yavuz Sultan Selim Lisesi * Yunus Emre Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Bahçelievler == * Adnan Menderes Anadolu Lisesi * Bahçelievler Anadolu Lisesi * Bahçelievler Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi * Bahçelievler Necip Fazıl Kısakürek Lisesi * Dede Korkut Anadolu Lisesi * İstanbul Sosyal Bilimler Lisesi * İstanbul Fatih Fen Lisesi * Kemal Hasoğlu Lisesi == Bakırköy == * Ataköy Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi * Ataköy Lisesi * Bakırköy Anadolu Kız Meslek ve Kız Meslek Lisesi * Bakırköy Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Bakırköy İmam Hatip Lisesi * Bakırköy Lisesi * Bakırköy 70. Yıl Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Bakırköy Nüket Ercan Ticaret Meslek Lİsesi * Gürlek-Nakipoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Hasan Polatkan Anadolu Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Bilge Kağan Fen Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Bilge Kağan Lisesi * MEV Özel Basınköy Lisesi * Özel Asır Lisesi * Özel Bakırköy Akşam Lisesi * Özel Bireysel Tercihim Akşam Lisesi * Özel Florya Final Lisesi * Özel Florya Koleji * Özel Gökşen Akşam Lisesi * Özel Kültür Fen Lisesi * Özel Kültür Lisesi * Sabri Çalışkan Lisesi * Tevfik Ercan Anadolu Lisesi * Yahya Kemal Beyatlı Anadolu Lisesi * Yeşilköy 50. Yıl Lisesi * Yeşilköy Anadolu Lisesi == Başakşehir == * Altınşehir Lisesi * Bahçeşehir Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi * Bahçeşehir İMKB Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Başakşehir Lisesi * Başakşehir Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Özel Akçınar Lisesi * Özel Bahçeşehir Bilfen Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Bahçeşehir Fen ve Teknoloji Lisesi * Özel Bahçeşehir Lisesi * Özel Başakşehir Burç Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Başakşehir Burç Fen Lisesi * Özel Başakşehir Ensar Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Burç Güzel Sanatlar ve Spor Lisesi * Özel Burç Ticaret ve Meslek Lisesi * Özel Çınar Fen Lisesi * Özel Çınar Lisesi * Özel Yıldızlar Lisesi * Özel Yıldızlar Meslek Lisesi * Toki Kayaşehir Anadolu Lisesi * Toki Kayaşehir Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Bayrampaşa == * Bayrampaşa Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Bayrampaşa Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Hüseyin Bürge Anadolu Lisesi * İnönü Anadolu Teknik, Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * İTO Anadolu Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Prof. Dr. İbrahim ve Feti Pirlepeli Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Rıfat Canayakın Lisesi * Sabit Büyükbayrak Lisesi * Sağmalcılar Anadolu Lisesi * Şehit Büyükelçi İsmail Erez Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Suat Terimer Anadolu Lisesi * Tuna Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi == Beşiktaş == * Arnavutköy Korkmaz Yiğit Anadolu Lisesi * Beşiktaş Anadolu Lisesi * Beşiktaş Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi * Bingül Erdem Lisesi * Erhan Gedikbaşı Çok Programlı Lisesi * Etiler Anadolu Otelcilik Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Etiler Lisesi * İSOV-Dinçkök Anadolu Teknik Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Atanur Oğuz Anadolu Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Atanur Oğuz Fen Lisesi * Kabataş Erkek Lisesi * Levent Kız Meslek Lisesi * Mehmet Ali Büyükhanlı Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Ortaköy Zubeyde Hanım Anadolu Kız Meslek Lisesi * Özel Ata Lisesi * Özel BJK Lisesi * Özel MEF Lisesi * Özel MEF Uluslarası Lisesi * Özel Şişli Terakki Lisesi * Özel TUDEM Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Özel TÜRSAB İstanbul Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Özel Yeni Yıldız Lisesi * Özel Yıldız Lisesi * Rüştü Akın Anadolu Meslek Lisesi * Sakıp Sabancı Anadolu Lisesi * Ulus Özel Musevi Lisesi * Yeni Levent Lisesi * Ziya Kalkavan Anadolu Denizcilik Meslek Lisesi == Beykoz == * Akbaba Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Anadoluhisarı Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Barbaros Hayrettin Paşa Denizcilik Meslek Lisesi * Beykoz Anadolu Lisesi * Beykoz İmam Hatip Lisesi * Beykoz Kız Meslek Lisesi * Beykoz Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Çavuşbaşı Çok Programlı Lisesi * Celal Aras Anadolu Lisesi * Fevzi Çakmak Lisesi * Galip Öztürk Çok Programlı Lisesi * Özel Acarkent Doğa Anadolu Lisesi * Paşabahçe Ahmet Ferit İnal Anadolu Lisesi * Ted İstanbul Koleji Vakfı Özel Lisesi == Beylikdüzü == * 75. Yıl Cumhuriyet Lisesi * Beşir Balcıoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Beylikdüzü Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Beylikdüzü Çok Programlı Lisesi * Büyükşehir Hüseyin Yıldız Anadolu Lisesi * Cahit Zarifoğlu Lisesi * Gürpınar İMKB Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Gürpınar Lisesi * Vali Muammer Güler Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi * Yaşar Acar Fen Lisesi == Beyoğlu == * Ayşe Ege Anadolu Kız Meslek Lisesi * Beyoğlu Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Beyoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Beyoğlu Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Beyoğlu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Dilnihat Özyeğin Anadolu Lisesi * Fındıklı Lisesi * Galatasaray Lisesi * Güner Akın Lisesi * İstanbul Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi * İstanbul Atatürk Lisesi * İstanbul Ticaret Odası Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Kabataş Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Kasımpaşa Çok Programlı Lisesi * Özel Alman Lisesi * Özel Esayan Ermeni Lisesi * Özel Galileo Galilei İtalyan Lisesi * Özel Getronagan Ermeni Lisesi * Özel İtalyan Lisesi * Özel Merkez Rum Lisesi * Özel Opera Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi * Özel Saint Benoit Fransız Lisesi * Özel Sainte-Pulchérie Fransız Lisesi * Özel Sankt Georg Avusturya Lisesi ve Ticaret Okulu * Özel Tarhan Koleji * Özel Tudem Akşam Lisesi * Özel Tudem Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Özel Zapyon Rum Lisesi * Özel Zoğrafyon Rum Lisesi ve Ticaret Okulu * Taksim Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Büyükçekmece == * Büyükçekmece Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi * Büyükçekmece Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Büyükçekmece Lisesi * Büyükçekmece Recep Güngör Lisesi * Büyükçekmece Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Büyükçekmece Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Çakmaklı Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi * Çakmaklı Cumhuriyet Lisesi * Doç. Dr. Burhan Bahriyeli Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Emlak Konut Mimar Sinan Anadolu Lisesi * Gürpınar 80. Yıl Güzel Sanatlar ve Spor Lisesi * Istanbul International Community School * Kamiloba Sudi Özkan Çok Programlı Lisesi * Kumburgaz Mehmet Erçağ Ticaret Meslek Lis * Kumburgaz Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Özel Büyükçekmece Gurur Akşam Lisesi * Özel Beykent Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Beykent Fen Lisesi * Özel Beykent Sosyal Bilimler Lisesi * Özel Beylikdüzü Fatih Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Beylikdüzü Fatih Fen Lisesi * Özel Büyükçekmece Gurur Akşam Lisesi * Özel Çağ Fatih Lisesi * Özel Fatih Fen Lisesi * Özel Fatih Lisesi * Özel Kültür 2000 Lisesi * Özel Mimar Sinan Lisesi * Sudi Özkan Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Tepecik Hüsnü M.Özyeğin Lisesi * Tepekent Anadolu Lisesi == Çatalca == * Arif Nihat Asya Teknik Lise ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Binkılıç Çok Programlı Lisesi * Çatalca Anadolu Lisesi * Çatalca İmam Hatip Lisesi * Çatalca Kız Meslek Lisesi * İstanbul Ticaret Odası Çok Programlı Lisesi * Karacaköy Çok Programlı Lisesi * Kestanelik Çok Programlı Lisesi == Esenler == * Amiral Vehbi Ziya Dümer Anadolu Lisesi * Atışalanı Lisesi * Esenler İmam Hatip Lisesi * Esenler Kız Meslek Lisesi * Esenler Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * İbrahim Turhan Anadolu Lisesi == Esenyurt == *Ali Kul Çok Programlı Lisesi *Esenyurt Lisesi *Fatih Sultan Mehmet Lisesi *Halil Akkanat Çok Programlı Lisesi *Kıraç İMKB Anadolu Teknik Lisesi *Nakipoğlu Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi *Nakipoğlu İmam Hatip Lisesi == Eyüp == * Alibeyköy Anadolu Lisesi * Alibeyköy Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Eyüp Anadolu Lisesi * Eyüp Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Rami Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi *Phanar Ioakimio Greek High School for Girls (defunct) == Fatih == * Ahmet Rasim Lisesi * Alparslan Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Atatürk Çağdaş Yaşam Çok Programlı Lisesi * Cağaloğlu Anadolu Kız Meslek Lisesi * Cağaloğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Cağaloğlu Anadolu Moda Tasarım Meslek Lisesi * Çapa Fen Lisesi (Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi) * Çemberlitaş Anadolu Lisesi * Cibali Lisesi * Davutpaşa Lisesi * Fatih Anadolu İmamhatip Lisesi * Fatih Gelenbevi Anadolu Lisesi * Fatih Kız Lisesi * Fatih Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Fatih Vatan Lisesi * İstanbul İmam Hatip Lisesi * İstanbul Lisesi * Kadırga Teknik Lisesi ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Kocamustafapaşa Lisesi * Matbaa Meslek Lisesi * Mimar Sinan İşitme Engelliler Lisesi * Özel Akasya Lisesi * Özel Fener Rum Lisesi * Özel Görkem Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Özel İklim Lisesi * Özel Oğuzkaan Lisesi * Özel Sahakyan Nunyan Ermeni Lisesi * Özel Sultan Fatih Fen Lisesi * Özel Sultan Fatih Lisesi * Pertevniyal Anadolu Lisesi * Samiha Ayverdi Anadolu Lisesi * Şehremini Anadolu Lisesi * Selçuk Kız Anadolu Meslek Lisesi * Sultan Ahmet Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Sultan Selim Kız Meslek Lisesi * Sultanahmet Suphipaşa Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Vefa Lisesi == Gaziosmanpaşa == * Behçet Canbaz Anadolu Lisesi * Fahrettin Özüdoğru Ticaret ve Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Gaziosmanpaşa Anadolu Lisesi * Kadri Yörükoğlu Lisesi * Kardelen Lisesi * Kazım Karabekir İmam Hatip Lisesi * Küçükköy Anadolu Meslek Lisesi, Teknik Lise ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Küçükkoy İmam Hatip Lisesi ve Anadolu İ.H. Lisesi * Küçükköy Kız Teknik, Anadolu Kız Meslek ve Kız Meslek Lisesi * Mevlana Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Gaziosmanpaşa Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Özel Gaziosmanpaşa Şefkat Fen Lisesi * Özel Gaziosmanpaşa Şefkat Lisesi * Özel Gaziosmanpaşa Şefkat Meslek Lisesi * Özel Mavigün Lisesi * Plevne Anadolu Lisesi * Vefa Poyraz Anadolu Lisesi == Güngören == * Güngören İmam Hatip Ve Anadolu Lisesi * Güngören İMKB Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Güngören İzzet Ünver Lisesi * Güngören Teknik Ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Güngören Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Güngören Ticaret Ve Anadolu Lisesi == Kadıköy == * 50. Yıl Tahran Anadolu Lisesi * Ahmet Sani Gezici Lisesi * Erenköy Kız Anadolu Lisesi * Fenerbahçe Anadolu Lisesi * General Ali Rıza Ersin Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Gözcübaba Lisesi * Göztepe İhsan Kurşunoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Hayrullah Kefoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * İntaş (Mehmet Akif Ersoy) Lisesi * İstanbul Atatürk Fen Lisesi * İstanbul Avni Akyol Anadolu Güzel Sanatlar ve Spor Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Acıbadem Fen Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Semiha Şakir Fen Lisesi * İÜ Devlet Konservatuarı Müzik ve Sahne Sanatları Lisesi * Kadıköy Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi * Kadıköy Dumlupınar Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Kadıköy Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Kadıköy Lisesi * Kadıköy Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Kazım İşmen Anadolu Lisesi * Kemal Atatürk Lisesi * Kenan Evren Anadolu Lisesi * Mehmet Beyazıt Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Mustafa Saffet Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Anakent Lisesi * Özel Atacan Lisesi * Özel Doğuş Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Doğuş Fen Lisesi * Özel Duru Akşam Lisesi * Özel FMV Erenköy Işık Fen Lisesi * Özel FMV Erenköy Işık Lisesi * Özel Irmak Lisesi * Özel İstanbul Çevre Lisesi * Özel İSTEK Acıbadem Lisesi * Özel İSTEK Semiha Şakir Lisesi * Özel Kadıköy Akşam Lisesi * Özel Kadıköy Gökşen Akşam Lisesi * Özel Kervan Akşam Lisesi * Özel Moda Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi * Özel Saint Joseph Fransız Lisesi * Şenesenevler Mualla Selcanoğlu Lisesi * Suadiye Hacı Mustafa Tarman Lisesi == Kâğıthane == * Cengiz Han Anadolu Lisesi * Cengiz Han Lisesi * Ekrem Cevahir Çok Programlı Lisesi * Gültepe Lisesi * Gültepe Teknik Lise ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * İTO Ticaret Meslek Lisesi ve Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Kağıthane Anadolu Lisesi * Kağıthane İHKİB Hazır Giyim Meslek Lisesi * Kağıthane İmam Hatip Lisesi ve Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Profilo Anadolu Teknik Lisesi * Seyrantepe Dr. Sadık Ahmet Lisesi * Vali Hayri Kozakçıoğlu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Kartal == * Burak Bora Anadolu Lisesi * DİSK Tekstil Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Fatin Rüştü Zorlu Anadolu Lisesi * Hacı Hatice Bayraktar Lisesi * Hacı İsmail Gündoğdu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * İMKB Meslek Lisesi * İstanbul Köy Hizmetleri Anadolu Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Uluğbey Anadolu Lisesi * İSTEK Özel Uluğbey Fen Lisesi * Kartal Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Kartal Anadolu Lisesi * Kartal Anadolu Ticaret Meslek ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Medine Tayfur Sökmen Lisesi * Mehmet Akif Ersoy Anadolu İmam-Hatip ve İmam-Hatip Lisesi * Özel Ahmet Şimşek Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Balkanlar Akşam Lisesi * Özel Kartal Doğa Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Kartal Yesevi Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Özel Kıraç Lisesi * Özel Yakacık Doğa Anadolu Lisesi * Sabiha Gökçen Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Şehit Öğretmen Hüseyin Ağırman Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Semiha Şakir Anadolu Lisesi * Süleyman Demirel Lisesi * Türk Kızılayı Kartal Lisesi * Vali Erol Çakır Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Yakacık Lisesi * Yakacık Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Yüksel-İlhan Alanyalı Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi == Küçükçekmece== *Atakent İMKB Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Atatürk Kız Teknik Ve Meslek Lisesi *Dr. Oktay Duran Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Eşref Bitlis Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi *Fahrettin Kerim Gökay Anadolu Lisesi *Gazi Anadolu Lisesi *Gülten Özaydın Ticaret Meslek Lisesi *Halkalı İMKB Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi *Halkalı Ticaret Meslek Lisesi *Halkalı Toplu Konut Lisesi *İsmet Aktar Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Kadriye Moroğlu Lisesi *Küçükçekmece Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi *Küçükçekmece Anadolu Lisesi *Küçükçekmece İMKB Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi *Küçükçekmece Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Marmara Lisesi *Mustafa Barut Lisesi *Nahit Menteşe Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Orhan Cemal Fersoy Lisesi *Özel Balkaya Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi *Prof. Dr. Sabahattin Zaim Anadolu Lisesi *Sefaköy Lisesi *Şehit Binbaşı Bedir Karabıyık Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *TASEV Ayakkabı Anadolu Teknik Lisesi, Anadolu Meslek Lisesi ve Meslek Lisesi *Toki Atakent Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi *TOKİ Halkalı Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi *Toki Halkalı Güneşparkevleri Ticaret Meslek Lisesi *Zehra Mustafa Dalgıç Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Maltepe == *Anadolu Meslek Lisesi, Teknik Lise ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi *Atilla Uras Lisesi *E.C.A. Elginkan Anadolu Lisesi *Ertuğrul Gazi Anadolu Lisesi *Halit Armay Lisesi *Handan Hayrettin Yelkikanat Anadolu Teknik Lisesi *Hasan Şadoğlu Lisesi *Kadir Has Anadolu Lisesi *Küçükyalı Anadolu Teknik Lisesi *Maltepe Anadolu İmam Hatip ve İmam Hatip Lisesi *Maltepe Fen Lisesi *Maltepe Anadolu Meslek ve Meslek Lisesi *Maltepe Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi *Mediha Engizer Kız Meslek Lisesi *Mehmet Salih Bal Ticaret Meslek Lisesi *Orhangazi Lisesi *Özel Dragos Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi *Özel Günhan Koleji *Özel Kasımoğlu Coşkun Fen Lisesi *Özel Kasımoğlu Coşkun Lisesi *Özel Maltepe Coşkun Fen Lisesi *Özel Maltepe Coşkun Lisesi *Özel Maltepe Gökyüzü Fen Lisesi *Özel Maltepe Gökyüzü Lisesi *Özel Marmara Fen Lisesi *Özel Marmara Koleji *Özel Marmara Radyo- Televizyon ve Gazetecilik Anadolu Teknik Meslek Lisesi *Rezan Has Lisesi *Şehit Er Çağlar Mengü Lisesi == Pendik == * Gülizar Zeki Obdan Anadolu Lisesi * Halil Kaya Gedik Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Kırımlı Fazilet Olcay Anadolu Lisesi * Pendik Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Pendik Denizcilik Anadolu Meslek Lisesi * Pendik Fatih Anadolu Lisesi * Pendik Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Pendik Türk Telekom Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Pendik Yunus Emre Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi == Sancaktepe == * 75. Yıl DMO Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Aziz Bayraktar Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Samandıra Lisesi * Samandıra Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Sancaktepe Anadolu Lisesi * Sarıgazi Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Tolga Çınar Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Yenidoğan Çok Programlı Lisesi == Sarıyer == * Ali Akkanat Lisesi * Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Behçet Kemal Çağlar Lisesi * British International School * Cevat Koçak Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Firuzan Kemal Demironaran Lisesi * Hüseyin Kalkavan Lisesi * İstinye Lisesi * İTÜ Geliştirme Vakfı Özel Ekrem Elginkan Lisesi * Kız Meslek Lisesi * Mehmet Şam Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Mustafa Kemal Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi * Ömer Sabancı Emirgan Lisesi * Özel Ayazağa Işık Lisesi * Özel Bahçeköy Açı Lisesi * Özel Cent Lisesi * Özel Darüşşafaka Lisesi * Özel Doğa Lisesi * Özel Enka Lisesi * Özel Erol Altaca Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Erol Altaca Lisesi * Özel İSTEK Kemal Atatürk Lisesi * Özel İstinye Ufuk Fen Lisesi * Özel İstinye Ufuk Lisesi * Tarabya British Schools (Özel Tarabya Anadolu Lisesi) * Özel Tarabya Ufuk Lisesi * Özel Yüzyıl Işıl Lisesi * Rotary 100. Yıl Anadolu Lisesi * Ş. Ülgezel Anadolu Meslek Lisesi * Tarabya British Schools * Vehbi Koç Vakfı Lisesi * Yaşar Dedeman İmam Hatip Lisesi == Silivri == * Değirmenköy Lisesi * Gümüşyaka Anadolu Lisesi * Hasan-Sabriye Gümüş Anadolu Lisesi * İbrahim Yirik Lisesi * Özel Balkan Lisesi * Selimpaşa Atatürk Anadolu Lisesi * Selimpaşa İmam Hatip Lisesi * Şerife Baldöktü Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Selimpaşa İMKB Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Silivri Anadolu Teknik, Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Silivri Lisesi * Silivri Necip Sarıbekir Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Silivri Selimpaşa Fen Lisesi * TOKİ Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi == Şile == * Ağva Lisesi * Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi * Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Dr. Vasıf Topçu Fen Lisesi * Şile Ağva Anadolu Lisesi * Şile İMKB 50. Yıl Çok Programlı Lisesi * Şile Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Şile Tekstil Meslek Lisesi == Şişli == * Ahi Evran Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Ayazağa Lisesi * Halil Rıfat Paşa Lisesi * İSOV Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * İtalyan Koleji * Kurtuluş Lisesi * Maçka Akif Tuncel Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Mecidiyeköy Lisesi * Mehmet Pısak Lisesi * Mehmet Rıfat Evyap Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Nişantaşı Anadolu Lisesi * Nişantaşı Nuri Akın Anadolu Lisesi * Nişantaşı Rüştü Uzel Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Özel Bilgi Türk Lisesi * Özel Eşref Aydın Akşam Lisesi * Özel Eşref Aydın Lisesi * Özel FMV Işık Lisesi * Özel Nilgün Doğay Lisesi * Özel Notre Dame de Sion Fransız Lisesi * Özel Pangaltı Ermeni Lisesi * Özel Saint Michel Fransız Lisesi * Şişli Anadolu Lisesi * Şişli Lisesi * Şişli Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Şişli Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Yunus Emre Lisesi == Sultanbeyli == * Gediktaş Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Hüsnü Mehmet Özyeğin Anadolu Lisesi * Orhangazi Lisesi * Özel Altınay Lisesi ve Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Atılım Akşam Lisesi * Özel Bilgi Çağı Lisesi * Özel Sultanbeyli Akşam Lisesi * Sabiha Gökçen Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Sultanbeyli Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Sultanbeyli Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Sultanbeyli Lisesi * Sultanbeyli Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Turhan Feyzioğlu Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Türk Telekom Anadolu Lisesi == Sultangazi == * Atatürk Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi * Cumhuriyet Anadolu Lisesi * Mehmet Akif Ersoy Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Şair Abay Konanbay Anadolu Lisesi * Sultangazi Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Nuri Pakdil Anadolu Lisesi * Prof. Dr. Fuat Sezgin Anadolu Lisesi * Bahattin Yıldız Anadolu Lisesi * Sultangazi Anadolu Lisesi * Sultançiftliği Anadolu Lisesi * Sultangazi Selahaddin Eyyüb-i mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi * Gazi çok programlı Anadolu Lisesi * Habibler Anadolu Lisesi * Hacı Ayşe Ateş Anadolu Lisesi * Mehmet Yaşar Kandemir Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi == Tuzla == * Behiye - Dr. Nevhiz Işıl Anadolu Lisesi * Halil Türkkan Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi ve İmam Hatip Lisesi * İMKB Anadolu Meslek ve Meslek Lisesi * Kaşif Kalkavan Lisesi * Mehmet Tekinalp Lisesi * Orhanlı Lisesi * Piri Reis Anadolu Denizcilik Meslek Lisesi * Süleyman Demirel Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Tuğrulbey Lisesi * Tuzla Anadolu Teknik, Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Tuzla Lisesi * Yunus Emre Lisesi == Ümraniye == * 30 Ağustos Kız Meslek Lisesi * 75. Yıl Cumhuriyet Lisesi * 75. Yıl Cumhuriyet Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Asım Ülker Çok Programlı Lisesi * Asiye Ağaoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Atakent Lisesi * Atatürk Anadolu Teknik Lisesi, Teknik Lisesi ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Eczacı Neşe Özlen Güray Anadolu Lisesi * Erkut Soyak Anadolu Lisesi * Namık Kemal Lisesi * Nevzat Ayaz Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Anabilim Lisesi * Özel Atlas Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Özel Eyüboğlu Fen Lisesi * Özel Eyüboğlu Lisesi * Özel Gökkuşağı Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Gökkuşağı Koleji * Özel İrfan Lisesi * Özel Kapı Uluslararası Okulu * Türkiye Çimento Müstahsilleri Teknik Ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Ümraniye Anadolu İmam-Hatip Lisesi ve İmam-Hatip Lisesi * Ümraniye Anadolu Lisesi * Ümraniye Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi * Ümraniye Lisesi * Ümraniye Ticaret Meslek Lisesi == Üsküdar == * Burhan Felek Lisesi * Çağrıbey Anadolu Lisesi * Çamlıca Kız Anadolu Lisesi * Çengelköy Lisesi * Hacı Sabancı Anadolu Lisesi * Halide Edip Adıvar Anadolu Lisesi * Haydarpaşa Anadolu Lisesi * Haydarpaşa Anadolu Teknik Anadolu Meslek Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Haydarpaşa Bülent Akarcalı Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Henza Akın Çolakoğlu Lisesi * Hüseyin Avni Sözen Anadolu Lisesi * Kandilli Kız Anadolu Lisesi * Kuleli Askeri Lisesi * Mithatpaşa Anadolu Kız Meslek ve Kız Meslek Lisesi * Özel Arda Asalet Lisesi * Özel Asfa Ahmet Mithat Lisesi * Özel Asfa Fen Lisesi * Özel Bilfen Lisesi * Özel Biltek Lisesi * Özel Derya Öncü Lisesi * Özel Erdil Lisesi * Özel İstanbul Fen Lisesi * Özel İSTEK Belde Fen Lisesi * Özel İSTEK Belde Lisesi * Özel Sevgi Çiçeği Anafen Fen Lisesi * Özel Sevgi Çiçeği Anafen Gaye Lisesi * Özel Surp Haç Ermeni Lisesi * Özel Üsküdar Akşam Lisesi * Özel Üsküdar Amerikan Lisesi * Özel Üsküdar Bağlarbaşı Lisesi * Özel Üsküdar Fen Lisesi * Selimiye Tarım Meslek Lisesi * Şeyh Şamil Lisesi * Üsküdar Ahmet Keleşoğlu Anadolu Lisesi * Üsküdar Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi ve İmam Hatip Lisesi * Üsküdar Anadolu Ticaret ve Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Üsküdar Cumhuriyet Anadolu Kız Meslek ve Kız Meslek Lisesi * Üsküdar Cumhuriyet Lisesi * Üsküdar İMKB Anadolu Kız Meslek ve Kız Meslek Lisesi * Üsküdar Lisesi * Validebağ Anadolu Sağlık Meslek Lisesi * Zeynep Kamil Sağlık Meslek Lisesi == Zeytinburnu == * 100. Yıl Ticaret Meslek Lisesi * Adile Mermerci Anadolu Lisesi * Adnan Menderes Anadolu Lisesi * Haluk Ündeğer Anadolu Lisesi * İhsan Mermerci Lisesi * İMKB Kız Teknik Meslek Lisesi * Kırımlı İsmail Rüştü Olcay Anadolu Lisesi * Mehmet İhsan Mermerci Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Lisesi * Mensucat Santral Anadolu Lisesi * Özel Avrupa Koleji * Özel Topkapı Fetih Fen Lisesi * Özel Topkapı Fetih Koleji * Şehit Büyükelçi Galip Balkar Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * TRİSAD Kız Teknik Meslek Lisesi * Zeytinburnu Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi * Zeytinburnu Teknik ve Endüstri Meslek Lisesi * Zühtü Kurtulmuş Lisesi ==See also== Category:Education in Istanbul Category:Istanbul-related lists Istanbul
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Linwood Pendleton (born July 20, 1964), a Franco-American environmental economist, is the Executive Director of the Ocean Knowledge Action Network and formerly the Senior Vice-President for Science at the Centre for the 4th Industrial Revolution. Previously, he was the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Global Oceans Lead Scientist. Since October 2014, Pendleton has served as International Chair in Marine Ecosystem Services at the Laboratory of Excellence and European Institute for Marine Studies (IUEM - University of Western Brittany). He is also a senior fellow at Duke's Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions (NIEPS) and Adjunct Associate Professor at the Duke University Marine Laboratory, part of NIEPS. He previously served as the Director of Ocean and Coastal Policy for the Nicholas Institute (2009-2013) and was the founder of the Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership. Pendleton was the Acting Chief Economist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) from 2011-2013. Pendleton has collaborated with conservationists worldwide including at the WWF, The Nature Conservancy, Environmental Defense Fund, NRDC, and he served for nearly ten years on the Board of the Conservation Strategy Fund. He served on the Science Advisory Committee of the Gulf of Maine Research Institute, GEO Blue Planet steering committee, the Blue Carbon Finance Working Group, and the OBIS science advisory committee. Pendleton has served on several government and scholarly advisory boards and committees, including the California Marine Life Protection Act Initiative, as part of the statewide Science Advisory Team and Central Coast Subteam. He currently sits on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics (JOCE). His interests are now on international initiatives that focus on breaking down barriers to using 4th Industrial Revolution technologies (e.g. autonomous sensors, satellites, drones, big data, AI, etc.) for ocean science and conservation. ==Education and Academic Career== Pendleton left Lafayette High School after his junior year to start an undergraduate degree at the College of William and Mary where he graduated summa cum laude and a member of the Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi honor societies. In 1986 he started a Ph.D. in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior at Princeton University where he studied the evolutionary strategies for co- existence two species of caiman in the upper Amazon Basin, in Manu National Park. In 1989 Pendleton left Princeton with a terminal masters degree. He next attended Harvard's Kennedy School of Government where he earned a masters of public administration; his studies included field work in Belize, Nicaragua, and Honduras. His work in Nicaragua led to a chapter on the potential pitfalls of non-timber forestry. Immediately after graduating from Harvard, Pendleton enrolled in a doctoral degree in Forestry and Environmental Studies from Yale University. He left Yale in 1996 to become the first faculty member hired into the University of Southern California's new Environmental Studies Program, with a primary appointment in Economics. He received his doctoral degree from Yale later that year in the spring of 1997 while finishing his first year as an assistant professor. While at USC, Pendleton transitioned to the School of International Relations and eventually left the university to become an assistant professor of Economics and Finance at the University of Wyoming. In 2004 Pendleton returned to California to become a tenured associate professor in the Environmental Science and Engineering Program at UCLA's School of Public Health. == Interdisciplinary, Non-Academic Career == Pendleton took a one-year leave of absence from UCLA to become the senior fellow and director of economic research at The Ocean Foundation in Washington, D.C., and founder and director of the Coastal Ocean Values Cente r in North Sandwich, New Hampshire before leaving to become the Director of Ocean and Coastal Policy at Duke University's Nicholas Institute. While at Duke, Pendleton also served as the Acting Chief Economist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, through an Intergovernmental Personal Act appointment. In 2014, Pendleton was began the position of International Chair of Marine Ecosystem Services at the European Institute of Marine Studies, in the department of Marine Law and Economics (AMURE). While holding the "Chair" Pendleton also has served as the global lead ocean scientist at World Wildlife Fund and now serves as the Senior Vice-president for Science at the Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution Ocean. ==Scholarly Contributions== Pendleton's work is focused in the field of marine and coastal economics, policy, conservation, and the blue economy. Currently, his work has been cited more than 5000 times. CLIMATE CHANGE: In 2013, Pendleton and his collaborators published one of the first studies to show the global impact of the release of greenhouse gases costs by the loss of coastal ecosystems (known as blue carbon). This research was later cited by the UNFCCC's SBSTA in its finding that such ecosystems represent important means of keeping carbon out of the atmosphere. WATER QUALITY: In the United States, Pendleton has studied water quality off the beaches of Southern California, looking at the “economic contributions” of beaches and the impact that water quality has on that “contribution” including the “costs associated with pollution of coastal waters and the economic benefits associated with cleaning them.” His studies have included an investigation (in 2006) of the costs of health care and time missed from work by beachgoers due to illness related to low water quality at several South California beaches. This study was used as evidence in the Environmental Protection Agencies decision to institute the first fineable total maximum daily load regulation for beach water quality. Pendleton also filed an Amicus Curiae brief to the U.S. Supreme Court on behalf of the Natural Resources Defense Council regarding stormwater pollution. MARINE PROTECTION: In 2002, Pendleton published a report titled “A Preliminary Study of the Value of Coastal Tourism in Rincon, Puerto Rico” assessing the percentage of Rincon's income that has coastal tourism as its source. Pendleton stated that "should the quality of the coastal and ocean resources of the area become impaired, it is likely that a large portion of Rincon's economy will be lost" and estimated the annual income generated by tourism related to coastal and ocean resources to be greater than $51.9 million. The information from this 2002 report has been cited as instrumental to the designation of the Tres Palmas Marine Reserve (in 2008) as a marine protected area, resulting in the protection of “one of the last remaining elkhorn coral reefs in the Caribbean” and the continued status of Rincon as a “surfing epicenter”. Also in Southern California, Pendleton's research on behalf of the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Foundation played a role in instituting the Marine Life Protection Act, creating marine reserves off Westward Beach, Point Dume and Paradise Cove (in 2009). Pendleton's study surveyed California residents about their visits to the coast and determined that “more than 90 percent of visits to the Southern California coast are for ‘non-consumptive’ activities such as scuba diving, tide-pooling and surfing, and that such ‘non- take’ activities bring more money to coastal economies than ‘consumptive activities’ like fishing.” Data collected related to the impact visits to the coast have on coastal economies showed that consumptive visits brought $2.5 million to these economies while non-consumptive visits were the source of an almost $115 million. MARINE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: During his time at The Ocean Foundation’s Coastal Ocean Values Center in 2008, Pendleton coauthored and edited the published report “The Economic and Market Value of Coasts and Estuaries: What’s At Stake?” which presented the findings of a study assessing “the economic value of the nation’s coastal areas in excess of hundreds of billions of dollars”. The study also found that although estuaries and coasts cover a small percentage of the total land area of United States (only 13%) they are home to 43% of the United States’ population and produce 49% of its economic output. In discussion of the findings of the study, Pendleton said “We are only now coming to grips with the enormity of the economic value and potential from sustainable uses of our coastal resources, and more importantly, the potential economic losses we suffer each year because of underinvestment in coastal protection and restoration.” INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY: In 2010, Pendleton's work focused on rethinking the operation, maintenance, and management funding of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. As part of this work he undertook an expedition aboard his personal vessel, Indicator, travelling up the waterway from the Duke Marine Lab in Beaufort, NC to the Chesapeake Bay in July 2010. At the end of the expedition, Pendleton convened a policy lab in Washington, DC to bring together stakeholders interested in the Waterway's future such as governmental agency officials, commercial and recreational waterway users, environmental scientists and economists. The policy lab was convened at the request of Congressman Mike McIntyre and was planned as the first of a series of three meetings to discuss the Waterway. Pendleton's purpose in planning an expedition prior to the policy lab was to gain a “sea level perspective” of the challenges the waterway faced. He stated: “I don’t think you can speak credibly about managing the waterway without spending time on it. When you’re at the helm, it’s a completely different story.” RESEARCH AT THE LABEX MER: As the LabexMer International Chair in Marine Ecosystem Services, Pendleton gathered a research team to develop the use of ecosystem services' theoretical framework and data to improve the management of coastal and marine areas. This includes the following projects: * Using Impact Analysis and the Vulnerability Framework to understand the impact of Ocean Acidification on human communities ; * Applying an Ecosystem Services Approach to Marine Management (VALMER) ; * Blue Forests and Blue Carbon (Global Environmental Facility program) ; * Extra-Local Ecosystem Services (Mapping Ocean Wealth Program) ; * Combining Earth Observations and Ecosystem Data to Monitor the Impact of Protected Areas on Ecosystem Services (European Commission's H2020 program). ==Recent Keynote Addresses== Rethinking Marine Conservation Science in Three Acts – the opening Keynote for the World Congress on Marine Biodiversity (May 2018, Montreal) given as a 3-act play with poet Anna Zivian and concert pianist Robert Hodge as active collaborators. Homo digitus oceanus – The Human Side of Big Ocean Data – A collaboration with artist Adam Martinakis and poet Anna Zivian, given to the European Marine Board’s Ocean Big Data Forum. (October 2020) A Smart and Healthy Ocean e-Forum – Ocean Data – Developed and moderatored the Ocean Data technical session for this collaborative, bi-national conference hosted by the French Embassy of Norway and the Franco-Norwegian Chamber of Commerce. (October 2020) ==Online seminars and webinars== :*"From Caimans to Carbon" (February 2017) Marine Lab Seminar Series (presenter) :*MESP Webinar Series I (2013-2014) (host) :*The Conservation Economics Initiative Webinar Series (2014-2015) (host) :*The Pre-ESP Conference Webinars (November 2015) (host) :*The Deep-Sea Webinar Series (2015) (host) :*MESP Webinar Series II (2016) (host) ==Media== Pendleton comments frequently in newspapers and online media, some are referenced below. :*June 2017 "The dangers of deep-sea mining" Geographical (quoted). :*June 2017, "Biodiversity Loss from Deep-Sea Mining will be Unavoidable" Duke Today (quoted). :*March 2017, Fleming, D. "Mega Resort Threatens Puerto Rican Surf Spots" The Inertia (study referenced). :*December 2016, Patel, V. "Research maps countries that will be most impacted by large-scale coral reef loss" The Chronicle, Duke University (quoted). :*November 2016, "Coral Decay: Scientists pinpoint regions where declining coral reefs could impact people the most" PLOS Research News (interview). :*November 2016 "Rising carbon dioxide threatens coral and people who use reefs" ScienceDaily (quoted). :*November 2016, Dennis, B. "Why the death of coral reefs could be devastating for millions of humans" The Washington Post (quoted). :*October 2016 "Keeping Track of Deep-Sea Mining" Hakai Magazine for Coastal Science and Societies (quoted). :*August 2016, Pener, D. "Underwater in 40 Years? Which L.A. Beach Homes Are at Risk" Hollywood Reporter (quoted). :*May 2016 "Below the Surface with NOAA's Margaret Davidson" peopleandoceans.org (podcast). :*May 2016, "Where’s all the sand in La Jolla's beaches?" in La Jolla Light (interviewed). :*March 2016 "Scientists call for new strategy to study climate change impacts on coral reefs" Phys Org (study referenced). :*January 2016 "Time to Bring the Value of Nature Back to Earth" peopleandoceans.org (column). :*October 2015 "Inserting 'Oceans" into the Paris Climate Conversation" peopleandoceans.org (interviewer). :*May 2015, Op- Ed, "Don't weaken America's fisheries law" The News&Observer;, Raleigh, NC (author). :*May 2015, Stirn, A. "Goldgrund" Süddeutsche Zeitung Magazin (quoted). :*May 2015 Neumann, C., Pendleton, L., Kettunen, M. and Agardy, T. "Learning to Speak Ecosystem Services" (coauthor). :*April 2015, podcast, "You Say Conservation is Good for People Well, Prove It" peopleandoceans.org (writer and narrator). :*February 2015, Spotts, P. "Mussels, clams hit by ocean acidification: how effects could be forestalled" The Christian Science Monitor (quoted). :*February 2015, Profeta, T., Duke NIEPS, "The Climate Post" National Geographic (quoted). :*September 2014, "Marine Ecosystem Services: How Is That Valuation Thing Treating You?" peopleandoceans.org (author). :*November 2014, Barrett, K. "Pendleton Highlights Need to Communicate The Value of Marine Ecosystem Services to Wider Audience" Ecosystem Marketplace (interview). :*April 2014, Junida, A.I. "Kawasan pesisir Indonesia punya potensi tinggi" antaranews.com (quoted). :*April 2014 Tanggal, P. "Penumpukan Sampah Ancam Pesisir Indonesia" Harian Terbit (quoted). :*March 2014 Amberger, M. "Tagbau am Meeresgrund steht vor der Tür" futurezone (quoted). :*February 2014, Santini, J. "Científicos advierten por la explotación de fondos marinos" El Observador (quoted). :*February 2014 Laperche, D. "L'appel de scientifiques pour préserver les fonds marins d'une exploitation intensive" ActuEnvironnement.com (quoted). :*February 2014 "Les fonds marins sont en grand danger, clament les scientifiques" RTBF.BE (quoted). :*February 2014 "Negli oceani ci sono molti più pesci del previsto?" Greenreport (quoted). :*February 2014, "Des scientifiques sonnent l'alarme sur l'exploitation des fonds marins" godillante.info (quoted). :*February 2014, Smith, B. "Deep Ocean Management Needed to Protect Earth's Last Frontier" redOrbit (quoted). :*April 2014, Conathan, M., Buchanan, J. and Polka, S. "The Economic Case for Restoring Coastal Ecosystems" Center for American Progress (quoted). :*February 2014, Cookson, C. "Experts call for improved 'stewardship' for deep sea mining" Financial Times ft.com/globaleconomy (quoted). :*February 2014, Kennedy, N. "Scientists call for tougher treaty to protect the deep ocean" SciDevNet (quoted). :*Video address at SCCG Coastal Economics Forum. :*June 2013, Wall, T. "Investments in Clean Beaches Pay Off" Discovery News (quoted). :*June 2013 Usheroff, M. "Surfonomics: What's the value of a wave?" The Orange County Register (quoted). :*October 2012, "La destrucción de hábitats costeros promueve de forma importante ele fecto invernadero" Noticias de la Ciencia y la Tecnología (quoted). :*September 2012, Live Science Staff "Wetland Destruction May Be Major Carbon Culprit" livescience.com (quoted). :*September 2012, provided by Duke University "Destroyed coastal habitats produce significant greenhouse gas" Phys.Org (quoted). :*September 2012 Armstrong, D. "Blue Carbon estimates up!" The Earth Times (quoted). :*August 2012, Thomas, G. "Surfonomics quantifies the worth of waves" The Washington Post (quoted). :*July 2012, Jarful, D. "DC Service Transforms Faculty Research and Teaching" DukeToday (quoted). :*March 2012, Miles, K. "California Rising Sea Levels Threaten Southern California Beaches" The Huffington Post (quoted). :*February 2012, "Climate effects on Calif. beaches studied" UPI.com (quoted). :*February 2012, Barboza, T. "California beach towns: Who wins, who loses as sea levels rise" Los Angeles Times (quoted). :*February 2012 Johnson, R. "Blue Economy Can Protect Mediterranean Sea" Global Perspectives (quoted). :*January 2012, UNEP. "Green investment needed in marine sector to trigger economic, social benefits - UN" UN News Centre (quoted). :*January 2012, Barringer, F. "Home, Home... on Less Range" New York Times (green blog) (quoted). :*January 2012, "La inversión en el secgtor marino crea empleo" (quoted). :*January 2012, "Pnuma: sustentabilidade pode alavancar produtividade marinha" Terra Brasil (quoted). :*January 2012, Mazzantini, U. "Green economy nel mare blu: una marea di benefici economici e sociali" Greenreport (quoted). :*May 2010 Hargreaves, S. "Oil spill: How much is a pelican worth?" CNNMoney (quoted). He has also appeared on TV shows such as The History Channel's Modern Marvels as an aquaculture consultant and CBS News as a public health expert. ==Literature== Pendleton is the editor or co-author of 2 books and several peer-reviewed scientific papers, several of which are referenced below. Books: :* 2008, The Economic and Market Value of America’s Coasts and Estuaries: What’s at Stake (editor and author) :* 2001, with Grafton, Q. and H. Nelson, A Dictionary of Environmental Economics, Science, and Policy Selected marine and coastal articles: :*2017, Sala, E., Giakoumi, S., Handling editor: Pendleton, L. "No-take marine reserves are the most effective protected areas in the ocean" In ICES Journal of Marine Science. :*2017, Pendleton et al. "Debating the effectiveness of marine protected areas" In ICES Journal of Marine Science. :*2017, Van Dover, C.L., et al. "Biodiversity loss from deep-sea mining" In Nature Geoscience. :* 2017, Pendleton, L. and Edwards, P. “Measuring the Human ‘So What’ of Large-Scale Coral Reef Loss?” In Biodiversity. :* 2017, Drakou, E. G., Pendleton, L., Effron, M., Ingram, J.C., and Teneva< L. “When Ecosystems and Their Services Are Not Co-Located: Oceans and Coasts.” In ICES Journal of Marine Science. :* 2017, Kraemer, R.A. et al. "Sustainable Ocean Economy, Innovation and Growth: A G20 Initiative for the 7th Largest Economy in the World" In G20 Insights. :* 2016, Pendleton et al. "Coral Reefs and people in a High-CO2 World: Where Can Science Make a Difference to People?" In PLoS ONE. :* 2016, Pendleton, L.H., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Langdon, C. and Comte, A. "Multiple Stressors and Ecological Complexity Require a New Approach to Coral Reef Research" In Frontiers in Marine Science. :*2015, Pendleton, L., Krowicki, F., Strosser, P., and Hallett-Murdoch, J. "Assessing the Economic Contribution of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services in the Sargasso Sea. NI R 14-05. Durham, NC: Duke University. :* 2015, Wasson, K., Suarez, B., Akhavan, A., McCarthy, E., Kildow, J., Johnson, K.S., Fountain, M.C., Woolfolk, A., Silberstein, M. Pendleton, L., Feliz, D. "Lessons learned from an ecosystem-based management approach to restoration of a California estuary" In Marine Policy. :* 2015, Clark, N.A., Ardron, J.A., Pendleton, L.H. "Evaluating the basic elements of transparency of regional fisheries management organizations" In Marine Policy. :* 2015, Pendleton, L.H. "Signed Peer Reviews as a Means to Improve Scholarly Publishing" In Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics. :* 2015, Ekstrom, J.A., Suatoni, L., Cooley, S.R., Pendleton, L.H., Waldbusser, G.G., Cinner, J.R., Langdon, C., van Hooidonk, R., Gledhill, D., Wellman, K., Beck, M.W., Brander, L.M., Rittschof, D., Doherty, C., Edwards, P.E.T., Portela, R. "Vulnerability and adaptation of US shellfisheries to ocean acidification" In Nature Climate Change. :* 2014, Vegh, T., Jungwiwattanaporn, M., Pendleton, L., Murray, B. "Mangrove Ecosystem Services Valuation: State of the Literature" NI WP 14-06. :* 2014, Svensson, L.E. and Pendleton, L. "Transitioning to a New Blue Economy: Proceedings of the December 2013 Economics of the Ocean Summit" NI CP 14-01. :* 2014, Svensson, L.E. and Pendleton, L. "Working toward a More Valuable Ocean: Concepts and Ideas from Thinkers and Doers" NI WP14-01. :* 2014, 2. Börger, T., Beaumont, N., Pendleton, L., Boyle, K. Cooper, P. Fletcher, S. Haab, T., Hanemann, M. Hooper, T., Hussain, S., Portela, R., Stithou, M., Stockhill, J. Taylor, T. and M. Austen. "Incorporating Ecosystem Services in Marine Planning: The Role of Valuation" In Marine Policy. :* 2014, Barbier, E. Moreno-Mateos, D., Rogers, A., Aronoson, J. Pendleton, L. Danovaro, R., Henry, L., Morato, T., Ardron, J. and C. van Dover "Ecology: Protect the Deep Sea". In Nature. :* 2013, Baker, E., Beaudoin, Y. and Pendleton, L. "Deep Sea Minerals and the Green Economy" (Eds.) Ch. 8, Vol. 2, Secretariat of the Pacific Community. :* 2013, Pendleton, L., Solgaard, A., Hoagland, P., Holland, P., Hanley, N., Jobstvogt, N. "Sustainable Economic Development and Deep Sea Mining" (Eds.) Ch. 4, Vol. 2, Secretariat of the Pacific Community. :*2013, Van Dover, C., Aronson, J., Pendleton, L. et al. "Ecological Restoration in the Deep Sea: Desiderata" In Marine Policy. :* 2013, 3. Aminzadeh, S., Pendleton, L., Bothwell, S., Pickle, A. and A. Boehm. "U.S. Coastal and Estuarine Stormwater Management Approaches" In Choices. :* 2013, Pendleton L. et al. "Considering Coastal Carbon in Existing U.S. Federal Statutes and Policies" In Coastal Management Journal. :* 2013, Pendleton, L., Lotker, M. "Enabling Conditions and Outstanding Challenges in Marine Protection and Management" NI PB 13-02. :* 2013, Pendleton L. et al. "Growing the U.S. Economy in the Face of Weather and Climate Extremes: A Call for Better Data" Eos, Journal of the American Geophysical Union. Volume 94, Issue 25, pages 225–226. :* 2012, Pendleton L. "Amicus Curiae Brief of Dr. Linwood Pendleton Regarding Economic Impacts of Storm Water Runoff in Support of Respondents" Supreme Court of the United States: Los Angeles County Flood District v. Natural Resources Defense Council. :*2013, Atiyah, P., Pendleton, L., Vaughn, R., Lessem, N. "Measuring the effects of stormwater mitigation on beach attendance" In Marine Pollution Bulletin. :*2013, Honey-Rosés, J. and Pendleton, L.H. "A Demand Driven Research Agenda for Ecosystem Services" In Ecosystem Services. :* 2012, Pendleton, L. et al. "Estimating Global “Blue Carbon” Emissions from Conversion and Degradation of Vegetated Coastal Ecosystems" Volume 7, No. 9. PLOS ONE. :* 2012, Murray, B. et al. "Coastal Blue Carbon and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" NI- PB 12-01, Nicholas Institute of Environmental Solutions. :*2013, Pendleton, L., Gordon, D., Murray, B., Victor, B., Griffis, R., Sutton-Grier, A., Lechuga, J. "Considering 'Coastal Carbon' in Existing U.S. Federal Statutes and Policies" In Coastal Management. :* 2012, International Seabed Authority, et al. "Environmental Management Needs for Exploration and Exploitation of Deep Sea Minerals" ISA TECHNICAL STUDY: No.10.International Seabed Authority :* 2012, Gopnik, M. et al. "Coming to the table: Early stakeholder engagement in marine spatial planning" Volume 36, Issue 5. Marine Policy :* 2012, Beaudoin, Y. & Pendleton, L. "Why Value the Oceans?" UNEP-GRID Arendal and Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :*2012 United Nations Environment Programme, et al."Green Economy in a Blue World" UNEP/GRID- Arendal. :* 2011, Pendleton, L. et al. "Estimating the potential economic impacts of climate change on Southern California beaches" Volume 109, Issue 1. Climatic Change. :* 2011, Shaw, R. et al. "The impact of climate change on California’s ecosystem services" Volume 109, Issue 1. Climatic Change. :* 2011, Gordan, D. et al. "Financing Options for Blue Carbon: Opportunities and Lessons from the REDD+ Experience" NI R 11-11 Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2011, International Seabed Authority, et al. "Environmental Management of Deep-Sea Chemosynthetic Ecosystems: Justification of and Considerations for a Spatially-Based Approach" ISA Technical Study No. 9. :* 2011, Sifleet, A. et al. "State of the Science on Coastal Blue Carbon: A Summary for Policy Makers" NI R 11-06 Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2011, Murray, B., et al. "Green Payments for Blue Carbon: Economic Incentives for Protecting Threatened Coastal Habitats" NI R 11-04 C. :* 2011, Pendleton, L. et al "Size Matters: The Economic Value of Beach Erosion and Nourishment in Southern California" Volume 30, Issue 2. Contemporary Economic Policy. :* 2010, Pendleton, L. & Giles, S. "Measuring and Monitoring the Economic Effects of Restoration: Recommendations from a Blue Ribbon Panel" Volume 32, Issue 5. National Wetlands Newsletter. :* 2010, Pendleton, L. "Rethinking the Funding and Management of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway: Policy Lab 1 Executive Summary" Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2010, Murray, B. et al "Payments for Blue Carbon: Potential for Protecting Threatened Coastal Habitats" NI PB 10-05 Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2010, Pendleton, L. et al. "Marine Protection in the Gulf of Mexico: Current Policy, Future Options, and Ecosystem Outcomes" NI PB 10-04 Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2010, Pendleton, L. "Measuring and Monitoring the Economic Effects of Habitat Restoration: A Summary of a NOAA Blue Ribbon Panel" Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2009, Cantral, L. et al. "Principles for Marine Spatial Planning: Outcomes of the Ocean Industries MSP Policy Labs" Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2009, Pendleton, L. & Orbach, M. "Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning in North Carolina" NI PB 09-15 Nicholas Institute of Environmental Policy Solutions. :* 2008, Pendleton, L. "The Economics of Using Ocean Observing Systems to Improve Beach Closure Policy" Volume 36, No. 2. Coastal Management Journal. :* 2008, Pendleton, L. Are We Collecting the Right Economic Data for Conservation Needs? Indicators of Human Uses of Ecosystems in Economics and Conservation in the Tropics: A Strategic Dialogue, Resources for the Future. :* 2007, Pendleton, L. et al. Is the Non- Market Literature Adequate to Support Coastal and Marine Management? Volume 50, Issues 5-6, Pages 363-378. :* 2006, Given, S., Pendleton, L. and A. Boehm. Public Health Costs of Contaminated Coastal Waters: A Case Study of Gastroenteritis at Southern California Beaches Volume 40, No. 16, Pages 4851 -4858. :* 2006, Pendleton, L and J. Kildow. The Non-Market Value of California’s Beaches Shore and Beach (Journal of the American Shore and Beach Preservation Association), Volume 74, No. 2, Pages 34-37. :* 2004, T. Emerson and L. Pendleton. Income, Environmental Disamenity, and Toxic Releases Economic Inquiry. :* 2001, Pendleton, L. Managing Beach Amenities to Reduce Exposure to Coastal Hazards: Stormwater Coastal Management Journal, Volume 29, Pages 239-252. :* 2001, Pendleton, L., Martin, N. and D.G. Webster. Public Perceptions of Environmental Quality: A Survey Study of Beach Use and Perceptions in Los Angeles County Marine Pollution Bulletin Volume 42, Pages 1155-1160. :* 2001, Murray, C., Sohngen, B. and L. Pendleton. 2001. Valuing Water Quality Advisories and Beach Amenities in the Great Lakes Water Resources Research Volume 37, Pages 2583 – 25 :* 1998, Pendleton, L. and R. Mendelsohn. Estimating the Economic Impact of Climate Change on The Freshwater Sportsfisheries of the Northeastern United States Land Economics Volume 74, Pages 483-497. ==References== ==External links== *World Wildlife Fund Oceans *Labex Mer *Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer *AnthropOcean *peopleandoceans.org *The MESP: marineecosystemservices.org *Nicholas Institute: Linwood Pendleton’s Bio and Research Category:Environmental economists Category:Economists from Virginia Category:Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies alumni Category:Harvard Kennedy School alumni Category:Princeton University alumni Category:College of William & Mary alumni Category:People from Richmond, Virginia Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration personnel Category:21st-century American economists
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The Voice of Finland (season 2) is the second season of the Finnish reality singing competition based on The Voice format. The season premiered on Nelonen on January 4, 2013. The coaches are legendary singer Paula Koivuniemi, glam rock singer Michael Monroe, former Lauri Tähkä & Elonkerjuu frontman Lauri Tähkä, and rapper Elastinen. Axl Smith hosts the program. The winner of the second season was Antti Railio, mentored by Paula Koivuniemi. The runner-up was Emilia Ekström. ==Overview== The series consists of three phases: a blind audition, a battle phase, and live performance shows. Four judges/coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, choose teams of contestants through a blind audition process where the coaches cannot see, but only hear the auditioner. Each judge has the length of the auditioner's performance (about one minute) to decide if he or she wants that singer on his or her team; if two or more judges want the same singer (as happens frequently), the singer has the final choice of coach. Each team of contestants is mentored and developed by its respective coach. In the second stage, called the battle phase, coaches have two of their team members battle against each other directly by singing the same song together, with the coach choosing which team member to advance from each of four individual "battles" into the first live round. In the final phase, the remaining contestants (Final 24) compete against each other in live broadcasts. Within the first live round, the surviving six acts from each team again compete head-to-head, with public votes determining one of two acts from each team that will advance to the final eight, while the coach chooses which of the remaining acts comprises the other performer remaining on the team. The television audience and the coaches have equal say 50/50 in deciding who moves on to the semi-final. In the semi-final the results are based on a mix of public vote, Spotify listening and Ruutu.fi viewing of the previous week's performances, and voting of coaches. Each carries equal weight of 100 points for a total of 300 points. With one team member remaining for each coach, the (final 4) contestants compete against each other in the finale with the outcome decided by Spotify/Ruutu.fi vote and public vote, both with equal weight of 100 points for a total of 200 points. All finalists will release a single and the winner will receive a record deal with Universal. In addition, the winner gets an Opel Mokka at his/her disposal for one year. ==Episodes== ===The Blind Auditions=== Key 20px ==== Episode 1: January 4, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Antti Railio "Who Wants to Live Forever" 20px 20px 20px 20px 2 Anni Saikku "You and I" — — — — 3 Marija Tauriainen "Holding Out for a Hero" — 20px — — 4 Eve Hotti "Nobody's Perfect" — 20px — — 5 Erik Forsström "My Hero" — — — — 6 Reetta Kaartinen "I'm Yours" — — 20px — 7 Suvi Aalto "Listen" 20px — — 20px 8 Olivia Amupala "Feeling Good" — — — — 9 Reetta Korhonen "Dark Side" — — — — 10 Janina Aro "I Don't Want to Talk About It" — 20px — — 11 Päivisusanna Raatikainen "Ikävä" — — — — 12 Tomas Höglund "You Are So Beautiful" 20px 20px 20px 20px 13 Gary Revel Jr. "The Show Must Go On" — 20px 20px 20px ==== Episode 2: January 11, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Luca Sturniolo "Still Loving You" — — — — 2 Laura Savio "Hair" 20px 20px 20px — 3 Ilari Hämäläinen "Ensi Kertaa" — — — — 4 Pekka Lehtola "Ain't No Sunshine" — — 20px — 5 Osku Ketola "Kelpaat Kelle Vaan" — — 20px — 6 Ikenna (Ike) Ikegwuonu "Save Room" 20px — 20px — 7 Rebecka Sretenovíc "Annie's Song" — — — — 8 Saija-Reetta Kotirinta "Maan Päällä Niin Kuin Taivaassa" — — — — 9 Emilia Ekström "Jolene" — 20px — — 10 Sini Kupiainen "The Story" — — — — 11 Anna Paatero "You and I" — — — — 12 Maya Paakkari "Whole Lotta Rosie" — 20px — 20px ==== Episode 3: January 18, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Annica Milan "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" — — — 20px 2 Henri Winter "Basket Case" — — — — 3 Christa Renwall "At Last" 20px 20px 20px — 4 Kirsi Lehtosaari "Läpikulkumatkalla" — 20px 20px — 5 Toni Savolainen "Bad Company" — — — — 6 Ilona Chevakova "You Oughta Know" — — — — 7 Regina Chevakova "I Put a Spell on You" — — — 20px 8 Milla Kakko "Jar of Hearts" — — — — 9 Laura Alajääski "Stop" — — 20px — 10 Henry Lee Roots "Enjoy the Silence" — — — — 11 Reeta Vestman "Listen" 20px — 20px 20px 12 Christian Casagrande "Highway to Hell" 20px — 20px 20px ==== Episode 4: January 25, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Marko Kela "Touch Me" — — — — 2 Hanna-Maaria Tuomela "Reflection" 20px — — 20px 3 Katri Somerjoki "Hymypoika" — — — — 4 Adriana Ylijurva "Smackwater Jack" — — — — 5 Joonas Salonen "Simple Man" — — 20px — 6 Carolina Storrank "Read All About It (Part III)" — — — 20px 7 Susa Saukko "The House of the Rising Sun" — 20px — — 8 Merikukka Kiviharju "(In My) Solitude" — 20px 20px — 9 Roope Permanto "Naleigh Moon" — 20px — — 10 Kaapo Kokkonen "Human" — 20px 20px — 11 Niina Kähönen "If I Were a Boy" 20px — — 20px ==== Episode 5: February 1, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Jussi Määttä "Take On Me" — 20px — — 2 Jussi Ahokas "Kurjuuden kuningas" — — — — 3 Tea Tähtinen "Perfect Strangers" — — — 20px 4 Jepa Lambert "What's Going On" 20px — 20px — 5 Veli-Pekka Tähtinen "Billie Jean" — — — — 6 Anna-Kaisa Riitijoki "Blue Jeans" — 20px 20px — 7 Anna Halmetoja "Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours" 20px — 20px — 8 Anssi Tamminen "Always on My Mind" — — — 20px 9 Toni Häppölä "Bohemian Rhapsody" — — — — 10 Tommi Kaikkonen "Bridge over Troubled Water" — 20px 20px 20px 11 Maria Kiiski "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" — — — — 12 Johanna Pekkarinen "Whole Lotta Love" — 20px — — ==== Episode 6: February 8, 2013 ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Jone Ullakko "Desperado" — 20px 20px 20px 2 Alina Huldén "Black Velvet" — — — — 3 Linda Herranen "Whole Lotta Love" — — — 20px 4 Niina Sallinen "Duran Duran" — — — — 5 Sara Komu "Hurt" — 20px — — 6 Juna Reini "Sait miehen kyyneliin" — — — — 7 Daniela Persson "Use Somebody" — 20px 20px 20px 8 Inga Söder "Who You Are" 20px — 20px 20px 9 Dennis Fagerström "Can't Help Falling in Love" — 20px — — 10 Johanna Kyykoski "I (Who Have Nothing)" — — — — 11 Katri Korpisaari "Let's Stay Together" 20px 20px 20px 20px ==== The Wildcards ==== Order Contestant Song Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Coaches' and Contestants' Choices Order Contestant Song Elastinen Lauri Tähkä Paula Koivuniemi Michael Monroe 1 Juha Arikoski "Still Loving You" — — — — 2 Luca Sturniolo "Whole Lotta Rosie" — — — 20px 3 Reetta Korhonen "I Can't Make You Love Me" 20px 20px — — 4 Kadi Liivak "I Put a Spell on You" — — — — 5 Toni Savolainen "Ain't No Sunshine" — — 20px — 6 Johanna Kyykoski "Kesällä kerran" 20px — — — 7 Olli Hartonen "Breakeven" — — — — 8 Satu Piipari "I Can't Make You Love Me" — 20px — 20px === Episodes 7–10: Battle Rounds (4 weeks) === After the Blind Auditions, each coach had 12 contestants, except for Tähkä who had one extra. The Battle Rounds aired between February 15 and March 8. : – Battle winner Week/Order Coach Contestant Contestant Song 1.1 Elastinen Jepa Lambert Katri Korpisaari "Ain't Nobody" 1.2 Paula Koivuniemi Anna-Kaisa Riitijoki Laura Alajääski "Ei se mennyt niin" 1.3 Michael Monroe Luca Sturniolo Linda Herranen "Baba O'Riley" 1.4 Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström Jussi Määttä "Pieni sydän" 1.5 Elastinen Christa Renwall Tomas Höglund "Another Day in Paradise" 1.6 Paula Koivuniemi Daniela Persson Antti Railio "(I Just) Died in Your Arms" 2.1 Michael Monroe Carolina Storrank Regina Chevakova "Time After Time" 2.2 Lauri Tähkä Reetta Korhonen Emilia Ekström "Lautturi" 2.3 Elastinen Ikenna Ikegwuonu Johanna Kyykoski "Somebody That I Used To Know" 2.4 Paula Koivuniemi Tommi Kaikkonen Osku Ketola "Hyvää ja kaunista" 2.5 Lauri Tähkä Maria Tauriainen Susa Saukko "Rakkautta ja piikkilankaa" 2.6 Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr. Tea Tähtinen "Tonight It's You" 3.1 Paula Koivuniemi Reetta Kaartinen Merikukka Kiviharju "You Know I'm No Good" 3.2 Elastinen Niina Kähönen Anna Halmetoja "Complicated" 3.3 Michael Monroe Anssi Tamminen Jone Ullakko "The Heart of the Matter" 3.4 Lauri Tähkä Sara Komu Eveliina Hotti "Jäätelökesä" 3.5 Paula Koivuniemi Pekka Lehtola Kirsi Lehtosaari "Tahroja paperilla" 3.6 Elastinen Hanna-Maaria Tuomela Laura Savio "Puhu äänellä jonka kuulen" 4.1 Lauri Tähkä Kaapo Kokkonen Roope Permanto "Yhtenä iltana" 4.2 Michael Monroe Annica Milan Suvi Aalto "Crazy on You" 4.3 Elastinen Inga Söder Reeta Vestman "No One" 4.4 Paula Koivuniemi Toni Savolainen Joonas Salonen "She's a Lady" 4.6 Michael Monroe Christian Casagrande Maya Paakkari "Razamanaz" Week/Order Coach Contestant Contestant Contestant Song 4.5 Lauri Tähkä Satu Piipari Johanna Pekkarinen Janina Aro "Mullonikäväsua" The trusted advisors for these episodes are: producer Jukka Immonen working with Elastinen; musician and composer Milla Viljamaa working with Lauri Tähkä; producer Mika Toivanen with Paula Koivuniemi; and producer Riku Mattila working with Michael Monroe. : – Eliminated in the battle rounds Coach Adviser Contestant Contestant Contestant Contestant Contestant Contestant Elastinen Jukka Immonen Jepa Lambert Christa Renwall Ikenna Ikegwuonu Niina Kähönen Hanna-Maaria Tuomela Inga Söder Elastinen Jukka Immonen Katri Koivusaari Tomas Höglund Johanna Kyykoski Anna Halmetoja Laura Savio Reeta Vestman Lauri Tähkä Milla Viljamaa Dennis Fagerström Reetta Korhonen Maria Tauriainen Sara Komu Kaapo Kokkonen Johanna Pekkarinen Lauri Tähkä Milla Viljamaa Jussi Määttä Emilia Ekström Susa Saukko Eve Hotti Roope Permanto Janina Aro Satu Piipari Paula Koivuniemi Mika Toivanen Anna-Kaisa Riitijoki Daniela Persson Tommi Kaikkonen Reetta Kaartinen Pekka Lehtola Toni Savolainen Paula Koivuniemi Mika Toivanen Laura Alajääski Antti Railio Osku Ketola Merikukka Kiviharju Kirsi Lehtosaari Joonas Salonen Michael Monroe Riku Mattila Luca Sturniolo Carolina Storrank Gary Revel Jr. Anssi Tamminen Annica Milan Christian Casagrande Michael Monroe Riku Mattila Linda Herranen Regina Chevakova Tea Tähtinen Jone Ullakko Suvi Aalto Maya Paakkari === The Live Rounds === ====Episode 1: March 15, 2013 ==== Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr "Don't Stop Believin'" Michael Monroe's vote 2 Lauri Tähkä Eve Hotti "Nuori ja kaunis" Lauri Tähkä's vote 3 Michael Monroe Luca Sturniolo "Stop This Game" Eliminated 4 Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström "Näytän sulle rannan" Public vote 5 Michael Monroe Jone Ullakko "Bad Case of Loving You" Public vote 6 Lauri Tähkä Marija "Tässä elämä on" Eliminated 7 Elastinen Inga Söder "One" Elastinen's vote 8 Paula Koivuniemi Osku Ketola "Kuu" Public vote 9 Elastinen Niina Kähönen "Vision of Love" Public vote 10 Paula Koivuniemi Toni Savolainen "I Don't Need No Doctor" Eliminated 11 Elastinen Laura Savio "Try" Eliminated 12 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio "Maniac" Paula Koivuniemi's vote ====Episode 2: March 22, 2013 ==== Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Elastinen Jepa Lambert "Halo" Eliminated 2 Lauri Tähkä Kaapo Kokkonen "Näe minut tässä" Lauri Tähkä's vote 3 Elastinen Tomas Höglund "I Can't Make You Love Me" Elastinen's vote 4 Lauri Tähkä Johanna Pekkarinen "Kohtalon oma" Eliminated 5 Elastinen Ikenna Ikegwuonu "I Believe I Can Fly" Public vote 6 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström "Rakkauslaulu" Public vote 7 Paula Koivuniemi Reetta Kaartinen "Supreme" Eliminated 8 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto "Undo It" Public vote 9 Paula Koivuniemi Laura Alajääski "Pikku lurjus" Paula Koivuniemi's vote 10 Michael Monroe Regina Chevakova "Sober" Eliminated 11 Paula Koivuniemi Kirsi Lehtosaari "Mä annan sut pois" Public vote 12 Michael Monroe Christian Casagrande "Rock and Roll" Michael Monroe's vote ====Episode 3: March 29, 2013 ==== Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Paula Koivuniemi Kirsi Lehtosaari "Katson autiota hiekkarantaa" Eliminated 2 Elastinen Inga Söder "My All" Elastinen's vote 3 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio "Rebel Yell" Paula Koivuniemi's vote 4 Elastinen Ikenna Ikegwuonu "So Sick" Public vote 5 Paula Koivuniemi Laura Alajääski "Elämän nälkä" Paula Koivuniemi's vote 6 Elastinen Niina Kähönen "I Want You Back" Eliminated 7 Paula Koivuniemi Osku Ketola "Kukkurukuu" Public vote 8 Elastinen Tomas Höglund "The Power of Love" Elastinen's vote ====Episode 4: April 5, 2013 ==== Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Michael Monroe Jone Ullakko "Wanted Dead or Alive" Eliminated 2 Lauri Tähkä Eve Hotti "Jos sä tahdot niin" Lauri Tähkä's vote 3 Michael Monroe Christian Casagrande "Dude (Looks Like a Lady)" Michael Monroe's vote 4 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström "On elämä laina" Public vote 5 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto "I Remember You" Public vote 6 Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström "Ainutkertainen" Lauri Tähkä's vote 7 Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr "Many Rivers to Cross" Michael Monroe's vote 8 Lauri Tähkä Kaapo Kokkonen "Kaikki nuoret tyypit" Eliminated ====Episode 5: April 12, 2013 ==== Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Elastinen Inga Söder "Girl on Fire" Eliminated 2 Paula Koivuniemi Osku Ketola "Aurora" Paula Koivuniemi's vote 3 Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström "Linnuton puu" Lauri Tähkä's vote 4 Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr "Tie Your Mother Down" Michael Monroe's vote 5 Elastinen Ike Ikegwuonu "Let Me Love You" Elastinen's vote 6 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio "Romanssi" Public vote 7 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström "Hento kuiskaus" Public vote 8 Michael Monroe Christian Casagrande "Welcome to the Jungle" Eliminated 9 Elastinen Tomas Höglund "Grace is Gone" Public vote 10 Paula Koivuniemi Laura Alajääski "Jos sua ei ois ollut" Eliminated 11 Lauri Tähkä Eve Hotti "En haluu kuolla tänä yönä" Eliminated 12 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto "Sama nainen" Public vote ====Semifinal: April 19, 2013 ==== ;Competition performances Performance Order Coach Contestant Song Result 1 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto "Stupid Girl" Advancing 2 Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström "Minun tuulessa soi" Eliminated 3 Paula Koivuniemi Osku Ketola "Leijat" Eliminated 4 Elastinen Ike Ikegwuonu "Silkkii" Advancing 5 Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr "Sweet Child o' Mine" Eliminated 6 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström "Joutsenet" Advancing 7 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio "Skyfall" Advancing 8 Elastinen Tomas Höglund "Pride (In the Name of Love)" Eliminated ;Semi-Final results Team Artist Coach points Spotify/Ruutu.fi points Public points Total points Result Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto 49 67 61 177 Advancing to final Michael Monroe Gary Revel Jr 51 33 39 123 Eliminated Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström 60 51 48 159 Advancing to final Lauri Tähkä Dennis Fagerström 40 49 52 141 Eliminated Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio 60 62 73 195 Advancing to final Paula Koivuniemi Osku Ketola 40 38 27 105 Eliminated Elastinen Ike Ikegwuonu 60 54 48 162 Advancing to final Elastinen Tomas Höglund 40 46 52 138 Eliminated ====Final: April 26, 2013 ==== ;Competition performances Each finalist performed an original song and a duet with their team coach. Performance Order Coach Contestant Type Song Result 1 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto Duet "Kids" 3rd-4th place 2 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio Duet "Kuuleeko yö" Winner 3 Elastinen Ike Ikegwuonu Duet "Jos mä oisin sun mies" 3rd-4th place 4 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström Duet "Mysteriet" Runner-up 5 Michael Monroe Suvi Aalto Solo "Kuuntelen" 3rd-4th place 6 Paula Koivuniemi Antti Railio Solo "Sulava jää" Winner 7 Elastinen Ike Ikegwuonu Solo "Vaiheillaan" 3rd-4th place 8 Lauri Tähkä Emilia Ekström Solo "Askel askeleelta" Runner-up ;Final results : – Winner : – Runner-up : – 3rd/4th place Artist Team Spotify/Ruutu.fi points Public points Total points Result Antti Railio Paula Koivuniemi 57 67 124 Winner Emilia Ekström Lauri Tähkä 43 33 76 Runner-up Suvi Aalto Michael Monroe 3rd/4th place Ike Ikegwuonu Elastinen 3rd/4th place === The Best of the Voice of Finland: May 4, 2013 === All finalists and semifinalists performing live on a cruise day after the final. ==Summaries== === Results table=== Color Key : – Team Elastinen : – Team Lauri : – Team Paula : – Team Michael Contestant Contestant Top 24 Top 16 Quarter-finals Semi-final Final Contestant Contestant Top 24 Top 16 Top 12 Top 8 Top 4 Antti Railio Paula's choice Paula's choice Public choice Advanced Winner Emilia Ekström Public choice Public choice Public choice Advanced Runner-up Suvi Aalto Public choice Public choice Public choice Advanced 3rd-4th place Ike Ikegwuonu Public choice Public choice Elastinen's choice Advanced 3rd-4th place Tomas Höglund Elastinen's choice Elastinen's choice Public choice Not advanced Eliminated (5th–8th place) Dennis Fagerström Public choice Lauri's choice Lauri's choice Not advanced Eliminated (5th–8th place) Osku Ketola Public choice Public choice Paula's choice Not advanced Eliminated (5th–8th place) Gary Revel Jr Michael's choice Michael's choice Michael's choice Not advanced Eliminated (5th–8th place) Inga Söder Elastinen's choice Elastinen's choice Not saved Eliminated (9th–12th place) Eliminated (9th–12th place) Eve Hotti Lauri's choice Lauri's choice Not saved Eliminated (9th–12th place) Eliminated (9th–12th place) Laura Alajääski Paula's choice Paula's choice Not saved Eliminated (9th–12th place) Eliminated (9th–12th place) Michael's choice Michael's choice Not saved Eliminated (9th–12th place) Eliminated (9th–12th place) Niina Kähönen Public choice Not saved Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Kaapo Kokkonen Lauri's choice Not saved Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Kirsi Lehtosaari Public choice Not saved Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Jone Ullakko Public choice Not saved Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Eliminated (13th–16th place) Laura Savio Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Jepa Lambert Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Marija Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Johanna Pekkarinen Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Toni Savolainen Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Reetta Kaartinen Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Luca Sturniolo Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Regina Chevakova Not saved Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) Eliminated (17th–24th place) ==Reception and TV ratings== Season two premiered on January 4, 2013 and was watched by 746,000 viewers. It was down 8.9 percent from first season's premiere December 30, 2011 which was the most viewed program on Nelonen in the year 2011. The Voice of Finland airs twice a week, first Friday evening at 8:00 pm and re-run on Sunday afternoon at 5:00 pm. # Episode Original air date Time Rating on same day Rating within 7 days 1 "Season 2 Premiere" Friday 8:00pm n/a 746,000 2 "The Blind Auditions, Part 2" Friday 8:00pm 695,000 733,000 3 "The Blind Auditions, Part 3" Friday 8:00pm 717,000 780,000 4 "The Blind Auditions, Part 4" Friday 8:00pm 683,000 720,000 5 "The Blind Auditions, Part 5" Friday 8:00pm 743,000 803,000 6 "The Blind Auditions, Part 6" Friday 8:00pm 787,000 837,000 7 "The Battle, Part 1" Friday 8:00pm 697,000 745,000 8 "The Battle, Part 2" Friday 8:00pm 718,000 762,000 9 "The Battle, Part 3" Friday 8:00pm 640,000 694,000 10 "The Battle, Part 4" Friday 8:00pm 609,000 661,000 11 "Live show 1" Friday 8:00pm 698,000 735,000 12 "Live show 2" Friday 8:00pm 673,000 719,000 13 "Live show 3" Friday 8:00pm 660,000 680,000 14 "Live show 4" Friday 8:00pm 619,000 659,000 15 "Live show 5" Friday 8:00pm 620,000 650,000 16 "Semifinal" Friday 8:00pm 621,000 647,000 17 "Final" Friday 8:00pm 755,000 779,000 18 "Best of" Saturday 7:00pm 104,000 109,000 ;Notes: *Rating is the average number of viewers during the program. *The latest weekly ratings contain timeshift viewing only during the same day. Older weekly ratings contain timeshift viewing during seven days. ==See also== *The Voice (TV series) *:fi:The Voice of Finland ==References== ==External links== *The Voice of Finland Official website 2 Category:2013 Finnish television seasons Category:2011 Finnish television series debuts Category:2010s Finnish television series
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Free! is an anime series produced by Kyoto Animation and Animation Do centered on the fictional Iwatobi High School Swim Club, with its first season premiering in 2013. Music for the series is published by Lantis. Since the series' premiere, the show has released 3 extended plays, 7 soundtrack albums, 6 audio drama albums, and 7 radio albums. In addition, 23 singles (8 A-side and 15 character) were released for the series. The soundtrack is primarily composed by Tatsuya Kato. The show's opening theme songs were performed by Oldcodex. The ending theme songs were performed by Style Five, a tie-in group consisting of Nobunaga Shimazaki, Tatsuhisa Suzuki, Tsubasa Yonaga, Daisuke Hirakawa, and Mamoru Miyano, the voice actors for the main characters of the show (respectively Haruka, Makoto, Nagisa, Rei, and Rin). ==Albums== ===Extended plays=== List of albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications Title Year Album details Peak chart positions Sales Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Top Albums: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 1 Seven to High: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 2 Close Up Memories: Certifications JPN Oricon Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart: * Free! Remix Mini Album: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 1 Seven to High: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 2 Close Up Memories: JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 1 Seven to High: * Free! Dive to the Future Character Song Mini Album Vol. 2 Close Up Memories: Free! Remix Mini Album 2013 * Released: October 23, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 29 -- Free! Dive to the Future: Character Song Mini Album Vol. 1 Seven to High 2018 * Released: October 31, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 9 14 * JPN: 4,304 Free! Dive to the Future: Character Song Mini Album Vol. 2 Close Up Memories * Released: December 26, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 40 52 * JPN: 2,445 "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ===Soundtrack albums=== List of albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications Title Year Album details Peak chart positions Sales Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Top Albums: * Free! Original Soundtrack: Ever Blue Sounds: * Free! Timeless Medley Original Soundtrack: Bond and Promise: * Free! Dive to the Future Original Soundtrack: Deep Blue Harmony: * Free! Road to the World: Yume Original Soundtrack: Forward Blue Waves: Certifications JPN Oricon Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart: * Free! Original Soundtrack: Ever Blue Sounds: * Free! Eternal Summer Original Soundtrack: Clear Blue Notes: * High Speed! Free! Starting Days Original Soundtrack: Pure Blue Scenes: * Free! Timeless Medley Original Soundtrack: Bond and Promise: * Free! Take Your Marks Original Soundtrack: Bring it In!: * Free! Dive to the Future Original Soundtrack: Deep Blue Harmony: * Free! Road to the World: Yume Original Soundtrack: Forward Blue Waves: JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums: * Free! Timeless Medley Original Soundtrack: Bond and Promise: * Free! Dive to the Future Original Soundtrack: Deep Blue Harmony: * Free! Road to the World: Yume Original Soundtrack: Forward Blue Waves: Free! Original Soundtrack: Ever Blue Sounds 2013 * Released: October 2, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 10 -- Free! Eternal Summer Original Soundtrack: Clear Blue Notes 2014 * Released: October 8, 2014 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 12 -- High Speed! Free! Starting Days Original Soundtrack: Pure Blue Scenes 2015 * Released: December 16, 2015 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 42 -- Free! Timeless Medley Original Soundtrack: Bond and Promise 2017 * Released: July 31, 2017 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 17 22 * JPN: 4,581 Free! Take Your Marks Original Soundtrack: Bring it In! 2017 * Released: November 29, 2017 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 42 -- -- Free! Dive to the Future Original Soundtrack: Deep Blue Harmony 2018 * Released: October 10, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 31 50 * JPN: 1,649 Free! Road to the Future: Yume Original Soundtrack: Forward Blue Waves 2019 * Released: July 10, 2019 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD, digital download 25 27 * JPN: 1,963 "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ===Audio drama albums=== List of albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications Title Year Album details Peak chart positions Sales Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Top Albums: * High Speed! Free! Starting Days Drama CD: Iwatobi Chūgaku Suiei-bu Katsudō Nishi: * Free! Dive to the Future Drama CD: Extra Short Films: Certifications JPN Oricon Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart: * Free! Drama CD: Iwatobi Kōkō Suiei-bu Katsudō Nishi 1: * Free! Drama CD: Iwatobi Kōkō Suiei-bu Katsudō Nishi 2: * Free! Eternal Summer Drama CD: Iwatobi Samezuka Kōkō Suiei- bu Kōdō Katsudō Nishi 1: * Free! Eternal Summer Drama CD: Iwatobi Samezuka Kōkō Suiei-bu Kōdō Katsudō Nishi 2: * High Speed! Free! Starting Days Drama CD: Iwatobi Chūgaku Suiei-bu Katsudō Nishi: * Free! Dive to the Future Drama CD: Extra Short Films: JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums: * High Speed! Free! Starting Days Drama CD: Iwatobi Chūgaku Suiei-bu Katsudō Nishi: * Free! Dive to the Future Drama CD: Extra Short Films: 2013 * Released: August 21, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 4 -- * Released: September 25, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 5 -- 2014 * Released: September 17, 2014 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 9 -- * Released: November 26, 2014 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 12 -- 2016 * Released: February 17, 2016 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 13 26 * JPN: 4,962 2018 * Released: December 12, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 24 38 * JPN: 3,623 "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ===Radio albums=== List of albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications Title Year Album details Peak chart positions Sales Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 1: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 2: * Free! Road to the World: Yume: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel RW Radio CD Shucchō-ban: Certifications JPN Oricon Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart: * Free! Radio CD "Iwatobi Channel": Vol. 1: * Free! Radio CD "Iwatobi Channel": Vol. 2: * Iwatobi Channel ES: Vol. 1: * Iwatobi Channel ES: Vol. 1: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 1: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 2: * Free! Road to the World: Yume: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel RW Radio CD Shucchō-ban: JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Albums: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 1: * Free! Dive to the Future Radio CD: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel DF Vol. 2: * Free! Road to the World: Yume: Fukkatsu! Iwatobi Channel RW Radio CD Shucchō-ban: Free! Radio CD "Iwatobi Channel": Vol. 1 2013 * Released: August 21, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 15 -- Free! Radio CD "Iwatobi Channel": Vol. 2 * Released: September 25, 2013 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 12 -- Iwatobi Channel ES: Vol. 1 2014 * Released: September 17, 2014 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 16 -- Iwatobi Channel ES: Vol. 2 * Released: November 26, 2014 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 19 -- 2018 * Released: September 26, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 16 51 * JPN: 2,199 * Released: November 28, 2018 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 50 78 * JPN: 1,665 2019 * Released: September 11, 2019 * Label: Lantis * Formats: CD 18 39 * JPN: 2,560 "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ==Singles== ===A-side singles=== Title Year Peak chart positions Sales Sales figures for physical releases on the Billboard Japan Top Singles Chart: * "Heading to Over": * "Free-style Spirit" / "What Wonderful Days!": * "Gold Evolution": Sales figures for physical releases on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart: * "Rage On": * "Dried Up Youthful Fame": * "Aching Horns": * "Heading to Over": * "Gold Evolution": Album JPN Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart: * "Rage On": * "Dried Up Youthful Fame": * "Aching Horns": * "Heading to Over": * "Splash Free": * "Future Fish": * "Free-style Spirit" / "What Wonderful Days!": * "Gold Evolution": JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot 100: * "Rage On": * "Dried Up Youthful Fame": * "Aching Horns": * "Heading to Over": * "Splash Free": * "Future Fish": * "Free-style Spirit": * "Gold Evolution": JPN Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Animation: * "Rage On": * "Dried Up Youthful Fame": * "Aching Horns": * "Heading to Over": * "Splash Free": * "Future Fish": * "Free-style Spirit": * "Gold Evolution": Oldcodex "Rage On" 2013 6 26 6 * JPN: 24,281 "Dried Up Youthful Fame" 2014 7 4 2 * JPN: 26,009 "Aching Horns" 2015 10 19 3 * JPN: 15,106 "Heading to Over" 2018 9 17 6 * JPN: 13,646 (physical) * JPN: 2,098 (streaming & download) Style Five (Nobunaga Shimazaki, Tatsuhisa Suzuki, Tsubasa Yonaga, Daisuke Hirakawa, and Mamoru Miyano) "Splash Free" 2013 8 8 1 -- "Future Fish" 2014 5 3 2 -- "Free- style Spirit" 2017 19 55 15 * JPN: 5,311 "What Wonderful Days!" -- -- "Gold Evolution" 2018 17 34 7 * JPN: 8,042 (physical) * JPN: 1,395 (streaming & download) "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ===Character singles=== Title Year Peak chart positions Sales Album JPN Peak chart positions on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart: * Free! Character Song Vol. 1 Haruka Nanase: * Free! Character Song Vol. 2 Makoto Tachibana: * Free! Character Song Vol. 3 Rin Matsuoka: * Free! Character Song Vol. 4 Tsubasa Yonaga: * Free! Character Song Vol. 5 Rei Ryugazaki: * Free! Character Song Duet Series 001 Haruka Nanase & Makoto Tachibana: * Free! Character Song Duet Series 002 Nagisa Hazuki & Rei Ryugazaki: * Free! Character Song Duet Series 003 Rin Matsuoka & Rei Ryugazaki: * Free! Character Song Duet Series 004 Haruka Nanase & Rin Matsuoka: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 01 Haruka Nanase: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 02 Makoto Tachibana: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 03 Rin Matsuoka: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 04 Nagisa Hazuki: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 05 Rei Ryugazaki: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 06 Sosuke Yamazaki: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 07 Aiichiro Nitori: * Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 08 Momotaro Mikoshiba: Free! Character Song Vol. 1 Haruka Nanase 2013 17 -- Free! Character Song Vol. 2 Makoto Tachibana 16 -- Free! Character Song Vol. 3 Rin Matsuoka 7 -- Free! Character Song Vol. 4 Nagisa Hazuki 10 -- Free! Character Song Vol. 5 Rei Ryugazaki 8 -- Free! Character Song Duet Series 001 Haruka Nanase & Makoto Tachibana 13 -- Free! Character Song Duet Series 002 Nagisa Hazuki & Rei Ryugazaki 2014 10 -- Free! Character Song Duet Series 003 Rin Matsuoka & Rei Ryugazaki 14 -- Free! Character Song Duet Series 004 Haruka Nanase & Rin Matsuoka 5 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 01 Haruka Nanase 11 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 02 Makoto Tachibana 10 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 03 Rin Matsuoka 6 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 04 Nagisa Hazuki 10 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 05 Rei Ryugazaki 9 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 06 Sosuke Yamazaki 12 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 07 Aiichiro Nitori 14 -- Free! Eternal Summer Character Song Series 08 Momotaro Mikoshiba 13 -- "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. ==Other charted songs== Title Year Peak chart positions Sales Album JPN Hot Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot 100: * "Ao no Kanata" / "Mirai e no Stroke": * "Break Our Balance" / "Fun!" / "Dive & Fly": * "Always Here": * "Summer High Tension": * "Vision": * "Real Wave": * "Deep Moment" / "Ryūsen no Yukue": * "Over the Dream" / "Boku Kakumei" / "Coming Soooon!": * "Ashita e no Last Race" / "Akogare no Starting Block!" / "Momo Beat": JPN Peak chart positions on the Billboard Japan Hot Animation: * "Ao no Kanata" / "Mirai e no Stroke": * "Break Our Balance" / "Fun!" / "Dive & Fly": * "Always Here": * "Summer High Tension": * "Vision": * "Real Wave": * "Deep Moment" / "Ryūsen no Yukue": * "Over the Dream" / "Boku Kakumei" / "Coming Soooon!": * "Ashita e no Last Race" / "Akogare no Starting Block!" / "Momo Beat": 2013 33 10 -- 27 7 -- "Break Our Balance" 18 3 -- "Fun!" 29 4 -- "Dive & Fly" 26 3 -- "Always Here" 22 1 -- 2014 40 3 -- "Vision" 45 5 -- "Real Wave" 33 6 -- "Deep Moment" 23 6 -- 20 6 -- "Over the Dream" 14 2 -- 19 4 -- "Coming Soooon!" 18 3 -- 32 7 -- 45 11 -- "Momo Beat" 40 10 -- "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that region. == Notes == == References == Category:Anime soundtracks Category:Film and television discographies
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Vincent Lamar Carter Jr. (born January 26, 1977) is an American former professional basketball player who serves as a basketball analyst for ESPN. He primarily played the shooting guard and small forward positions, but occasionally played power forward later in his NBA career. He was an eight- time All-Star and a two-time All-NBA Team selection. He is the only player in NBA history to play as many as 22 seasons and in three different decades, from his debut in 1999 to his retirement in 2020. He was the scoring leader on the 2000 United States Men’s Olympic Basketball Team where the USA defeated France to win the nation’s twelfth Men’s Basketball Olympic gold medal. He entertained crowds with his leaping ability and slam dunks, earning him nicknames such as "Vinsanity", "Air Canada", and "Half Man, Half Amazing". He has been ranked as the greatest dunker of all time by numerous players, journalists, and by the National Basketball Association (NBA). In addition to his dunking prowess, he was a prolific three-point shooter, making the seventh most three-point field goals in league history. A high school McDonald's All- American, Carter played college basketball for three years with the North Carolina Tar Heels and twice advanced to the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament. He was selected with the fifth overall pick in the 1998 NBA draft by the Golden State Warriors, who traded him to the Toronto Raptors. Carter emerged as a star in Toronto as he won the 1999 NBA Rookie of the Year Award and the Slam Dunk Contest at the 2000 NBA All-Star Weekend. He represented the United States in the 2000 Summer Olympics, where he won a gold medal. In December 2004, he was traded to the New Jersey Nets, where he continued his offensive success. He also played for the Orlando Magic, Phoenix Suns, Dallas Mavericks, Memphis Grizzlies, Sacramento Kings, and Atlanta Hawks. He received the Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award in 2016. Off the court, Carter established the Embassy of Hope Foundation, helping children and their families in Florida, New Jersey and Ontario. He was recognized in 2000 as Child Advocate of the Year by the Children's Home Society, and received the Florida Governor's Points of Light award in 2007 for his philanthropy in his home state. ==Early life== Born in Daytona Beach, Florida, Carter is the son of Michelle and Vincent Carter Sr. His parents divorced when he was seven. His mother remarried at least twice. Carter attended Mainland High School in Daytona Beach. He played football as a quarterback until a broken wrist in his freshman year forced him to switch to volleyball. In volleyball, he was named the Volusia County Player of the Year as a junior and averaged 24 kills per match; for comparison, none of his teammates averaged more than one. He was also offered a saxophone scholarship to attend Bethune–Cookman University in Daytona Beach. He led Mainland's basketball team to its first Class 6A state title in 56 years, and was a 1995 McDonald's All-American. On January 31, 2012, he was designated one of the 35 greatest McDonald's All-Americans. In his senior year he averaged 22 points, 11.4 rebounds, 4.5 assists and 3.5 blocks per game. His career totals at Mainland are 2,299 points, 1,042 rebounds, 356 assists and 178 steals. He was contacted by 77 NCAA Division I schools but ultimately chose North Carolina over Florida. ==College== Carter attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He is a member of the Omega Psi Phi fraternity. He played three seasons of college basketball for the North Carolina Tar Heels under Dean Smith and later Bill Guthridge. During the 1997–98 season, he was a member of new coach Guthridge's "Six Starters" system that also featured Antawn Jamison, Shammond Williams, Ed Cota, Ademola Okulaja, and Makhtar N'Diaye. During his sophomore and junior seasons, Carter helped North Carolina to consecutive ACC men's basketball tournament titles and Final Four appearances. He finished the 1997–98 season with a 15.6 points per game average and was named second-team All-American, First-Team All-ACC, and to the fan's guide third-annual Coaches ACC All- Defensive Team. In May 1998, Carter declared for the 1998 NBA draft, following his classmate Jamison, who had declared earlier that spring. During his NBA career, Carter continued his coursework at North Carolina, and in August 2000, he graduated with a degree in African-American studies. ==Professional career== ===Toronto Raptors (1998–2004)=== Carter was initially drafted by the Golden State Warriors with the fifth overall pick in the 1998 NBA draft. He was then immediately traded to the Toronto Raptors for the fourth overall pick, Antawn Jamison on draft night. The Raptors had struggled in their first three years as a franchise. Carter was instrumental in leading the Raptors to their first-ever playoff appearance in 2000 before going on to lead them to a 47-win season and their first-ever playoff series win in 2001, advancing them to the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Due to the NBA lockout, Carter's rookie season did not start until January 1999. Carter quickly became a fan favorite with a soaring offensive game that earned him the nickname "Air Canada". He won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award after averaging 18.3 points and throwing down countless highlight-reel dunks. Carter ascended to full-fledged stardom in his second season—he averaged 25.7 points per game (fourth-highest in the league) and lifted Toronto to its first playoff appearance in franchise history. He subsequently earned his first NBA All-Star selection and was named to the All-NBA Third Team. During the 2000 NBA All-Star Weekend, Carter showcased arguably the most memorable Slam Dunk Contest event in its history. He won the contest by performing an array of dunks including a 360° windmill, a between-the-legs bounce dunk, and an "elbow in the rim" dunk (also known as a "cookie jar" dunk or the "honey dip"). Carter and his distant cousin Tracy McGrady formed a formidable one-two punch as teammates in Toronto between 1998 and 2000. However, McGrady left in free agency to the Orlando Magic in August 2000, leaving Carter as the Raptors' franchise player. thumb|left|upright|Carter with the Raptors in November 2000 In 2000–01, his third season, Carter averaged a career-high 27.6 points per game, made the All-NBA Second Team, and was voted in as a starter for the 2001 NBA All-Star Game. The Raptors finished the regular season with a then franchise-record 47 wins. In the playoffs, the Raptors beat the New York Knicks 3–2 in the first round and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals to face off against the Philadelphia 76ers. Carter and 76ers star Allen Iverson both dominated in a seven-game series that see-sawed back and forth. Carter scored 50 points in Game 3 and set an NBA playoff record for most three-point field goals made in one game. In Game 7, Carter missed a potential game-winning shot with 2.0 seconds remaining. Iverson said of the series in July 2011: "It was incredible. (Carter) had great games at home and I had some great games at home, but both of us were just trying to put our teams on our back and win basketball games. It is great just having those memories and being a part of something like that." In August 2001, Carter signed a six-year contract extension worth as much as $94 million. Carter missed the final 22 games of the 2001–02 regular season due to injury. He started in 60 games and averaged 24.7 points per game. On December 7, 2001, Carter recorded 42 points, 15 rebounds, 6 assists and 5 steals against the Denver Nuggets. He joined Charles Barkley (1988) as just the second player ever to finish a game with 40 points, 15 rebounds, five steals and five assists, dating back to the 1973–74 season, when the league began officially tracking steals. He was voted into the 2002 NBA All-Star Game, but he could not participate due to injury. Without Carter during the playoffs, the Raptors were defeated in five games by the Detroit Pistons in the first round. Following off-season surgery, Carter only managed 43 games during the 2002–03 season. In February 2003, Carter gave up his starting spot in the 2003 NBA All-Star Game to Michael Jordan to allow Jordan to make his final start as an All-Star. Carter played in 73 games during the 2003–04 season, but the Raptors fell three games short of making the playoffs. ====Trade to the Nets==== During the 2004 off-season, general manager Glen Grunwald and the entire coaching staff were fired. Following trade rumours all season long, on December 17, 2004 new general manager Rob Babcock traded Carter to the New Jersey Nets for Alonzo Mourning, Aaron Williams, Eric Williams and two first round draft picks. In his first game back in Toronto, on April 15, 2005, Carter was heavily booed and jeered by Raptors fans. Carter would finish with 39 points in a 101–90 New Jersey victory. Carter continued to receive similar treatment for years to come in the town that once embraced him. Despite this, he thrived on many occasions in Toronto as a Net. On January 8, 2006 after a missed free throw by the Raptors, Carter hit a long three pointer at the other end with 0.1 seconds left to seal a 105–104 win to shock the Toronto crowd. Afterwards Carter, who finished with 42 points, referred to it among his greatest shots ever saying "That's definitely number one. The atmosphere, the emotion, the hostility in the arena, it was a fun game." On November 21, 2008, Carter's late game heroics sent the game into overtime where he would hit another game winner doing so on an inbounds alley- oop dunk with 1.5 seconds left in a 129–127 victory. Carter scored 39 points and regarding the continued booing he insisted he held no grudges to the fans "I know, deep down, that's just sports, that's the way it goes. I root for my team and I'm a terrible fan." In November 2011, Carter, along with his cousin Tracy McGrady and Charles Oakley, addressed the Toronto audience in an interview on Off the Record with Michael Landsberg. When asked about being booed in Toronto, Carter said, "They watched myself and Tracy grow up. And when we left they still got to see (us) flourish and become (who we are). For me, I looked at it as, a young child growing up into a grown man and moving on. And I get it. Leaving, hurt a lot of people. It hurt me because I tell you what... I accomplished a lot, I learned a lot, I became the person and player of who I am today because of that experience, through the coaches, players, and everything else. I get it... but regardless I still love the city. I have friends there and my heart is still there because that's where it all started." Later in the interview, when asked about any words to the Toronto fans, Carter said, "I appreciate the fans and whether you cheer for me, boo me, or hate me, I still love you. Toronto's one of the best kept secrets... puts one of the best products on the floor and one of the top places to play in." On November 6, 2012, in an interview with TSN Radio 1050, Carter reiterated his love for the city and his appreciation for the Toronto Raptors organization. The next day, Sam Mitchell and Rob Babcock revealed on Sportsnet 590, The Fan that the night before Carter was traded to New Jersey, Carter phoned Mitchell to express his desire to stay in Toronto. However, Babcock said it was too late and the trade had already been verbally agreed upon. Looking back on it, Mitchell feels he should have personally contacted the MLSE chairman, Larry Tanenbaum, but was reluctant because he did not want to break the chain of command. Raptors general manager Masai Ujiri referred to Carter in April 2014 as "one of the symbols of the Toronto Raptors." To this day, Carter remains as one of the Raptors' elite scorers in franchise history having amassed 9,420 points averaging 23.4 points per game during his -year run in Toronto . On November 19, 2014, nearly a decade after the trade, as a part of the Raptors' 20th anniversary celebration, the team paid tribute to Carter with a video montage during the first quarter of the Raptors–Grizzlies game. Leading up to the game, questions were raised about how Raptors fans would receive the planned video tribute. As the sellout crowd watched the video tribute featuring highlights of Carter's high-flying Raptors days, what began as the usual booing turned into an overwhelmingly positive standing ovation. An emotional Carter used his warm-up shirt to wipe tears running down his face as he pointed to his heart and waved to the fans in appreciation. He later stated, "It was a great feeling, I couldn't write it any better." ===New Jersey Nets (2004–2009)=== Carter was acquired by the New Jersey Nets on December 17, 2004, playing five seasons for them before departing in June 2009. “What’s up?” Carter produced some of his highest numbers with the Nets, surpassing his 23.4 points per game with the Raptors to average 23.6 points per game over his tenure in New Jersey. He missed just 11 games in his four full seasons and helped lead the Nets to three straight playoff runs between 2005 and 2007. Carter joined a Nets team with Jason Kidd and Richard Jefferson as the leading players. However, the trio never got to play together at full strength during the 2004–05 season. Carter and Kidd carried a shallow roster on a 15–4 run to end the season to make the playoffs. thumb|upright|Carter talks with a referee during a game with the Nets, January 2006 In the 2005–06 season, the Carter-Kidd duo co-led the Nets to 49 wins, an Atlantic Division title, and the No. 3 seed in the playoffs. Carter helped lead the Nets to the second round of the playoffs before losing to the eventual NBA champions Miami Heat in five games. Carter averaged 29.6 points, 7.0 rebounds and 5.3 assists in 11 playoff games. Carter was named an Eastern Conference All-Star in 2006. On November 7, 2005, Carter threw down a very memorable dunk against the Miami Heat, over defensive stalwart, Alonzo Mourning. On December 23, 2005, Carter set an NBA record for the most free throws made in a quarter (4th quarter) with 16 against Miami. He tied his career-high of 51 points in the same game. In the 2006–07 season, Carter was named as a reserve to the 2007 NBA All-Star Game, marking his eighth All-Star appearance. In a 120–114 overtime win over the Washington Wizards on April 7, 2007, Carter and Kidd became the first teammates in over 18 years to record triple-doubles in the same game since the Chicago Bulls' Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen achieved this feat against the Los Angeles Clippers in 1989. Carter finished with 46 points, a career- high 16 rebounds, and 10 assists. Kidd finished with 10 points, tied a career high with 16 rebounds, and tied a season high with 18 assists. Carter finished the 2006–07 season playing all 82 games, averaging over 25 points with a 21 PER. In July 2007, Carter re-signed with the Nets to a four-year, $61.8 million contract. During the 2007–08 season, Kidd was traded to the Dallas Mavericks. Carter was credited for becoming a leader following the All-Star break. He became captain of the Nets, and in 2008–09, he and teammate Devin Harris were the highest-scoring starting backcourt in the league. On November 21, 2008, Carter scored a season-high 39 points, including a game winning two- handed reverse dunk, as the Nets battled back from an 18-point deficit to defeat the Toronto Raptors 129–127 in overtime at the Air Canada Centre. He hit a 29-foot, game tying three-pointer to send the game into overtime and then scored the winning basket in the extra period. On February 3, 2009, Carter recorded his fifth career triple-double with 15 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds in a 99–85 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. ===Orlando Magic (2009–2010)=== On June 25, 2009, Carter was traded, along with Ryan Anderson, to the Orlando Magic in exchange for Rafer Alston, Tony Battie and Courtney Lee. Orlando hoped Carter would provide center Dwight Howard with a perimeter scorer who can create his own shot—something the Magic had lacked when they were defeated in the 2009 NBA Finals by the Los Angeles Lakers. On February 8, 2010, Carter had a season-high 48 points, 34 in the second half, when the Magic rallied from a 17-point deficit to defeat the New Orleans Hornets 123–117. Carter helped the Magic reach the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated 4–2 by the Boston Celtics. This was the only time Carter played in a conference finals series. ===Phoenix Suns (2010–2011)=== On December 18, 2010, Carter was acquired by the Phoenix Suns along with Marcin Gortat, Mickael Pietrus, and a first-round draft pick in 2011 NBA draft in exchange for Jason Richardson, Hedo Turkoglu, and Earl Clark. On January 17, 2011, Carter recorded 29 points and 12 rebounds in a 129–121 win over the New York Knicks. He reached 20,000 career points during the game, becoming the 37th NBA player to reach that plateau. On December 9, 2011, following the conclusion of the NBA lockout, Carter was waived by the Suns, meaning the team only had to pay him $4 million of the $18 million he was due for the 2011–12 season. Carter appeared in 51 games with 41 starts, averaging 13.5 points while shooting 42 percent. ===Dallas Mavericks (2011–2014)=== On December 12, 2011, Carter signed a three-year contract with the defending NBA champion Dallas Mavericks. This move reunited Carter with former Nets teammate Jason Kidd. On April 20, 2012, against the Golden State Warriors, Carter became the eighth player in NBA history with 1,500 3-pointers when he made one in the closing minutes. thumb|upright|Carter with the Mavericks in October 2012 While known early on in his career for his circus dunks, Carter became known for his 3-point shooting with the Mavericks. On February 13, 2013, in a 123–100 win over the Sacramento Kings, Carter scored 26 points to pass Larry Bird on the NBA's career scoring list, moving him into 29th place. Carter turned aside a Sacramento rally in the third quarter by going 5 of 7 from long range and scoring 17 of Dallas' last 21 points in the period. He ended the night with 21,796 career points for 29th on the all-time list, five ahead of Bird. He also became the 11th NBA player with at least 1,600 3-pointers. He finished the season ranked 27th on the NBA's all-time scoring list with 22,223 career points. His 162 3-pointers tied his career high for 3s made in a season (162-of-397, .408, with Toronto in 2000–01). Over the course of the season, he advanced from 17th place to 11th place on the NBA's all-time 3-point field goals made list (passing Nick Van Exel, Tim Hardaway, Eddie Jones, Glen Rice, Jason Richardson and Kobe Bryant), finishing the year with 1,663 career 3-pointers. Prior to the 2013–14 season, Carter established himself as the Mavericks' sixth man, after the departure of Jason Terry. He averaged just 10.5 points and shot 37.6% from the field during the first 22 games of the season due to increased responsibilities and pressure to be the team's lone scoring punch off of the bench. He saw his numbers improve in December, averaging 12.5 points and shooting 44.3% from the field during an 18-game stretch. On March 16, 2014, against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Carter raised his career total to 23,010 points, becoming the 27th NBA player to pass the 23,000-point mark with a 3-pointer with 2:17 left in the third quarter. In Game 3 of the Mavericks' first-round playoff series against the San Antonio Spurs, Carter drilled the game-winning 3-pointer with no time remaining on the clock to give the eighth-seeded Mavericks a 109–108 win and a 2–1 series edge over the top-seeded Spurs. The Mavericks went on to lose the series in seven games. ===Memphis Grizzlies (2014–2017)=== ==== 2014–15 season ==== On July 12, 2014, Carter signed a multi-year deal with the Memphis Grizzlies. On November 13, 2014, he made a game winning alley-oop assist from the sideline to teammate Courtney Lee at the buzzer to win the game 111–110 over the Sacramento Kings. On December 17, 2014, Carter scored a season-high 18 points in a 117–116 triple overtime win over the San Antonio Spurs. Carter moved into 25th in all-time NBA scoring during the game, passing Robert Parish (23,334). ==== 2015–16 season ==== Carter appeared in just one of the Grizzlies' first 12 games of the 2015–16 season. On February 24, 2016, with nine points scored against the Los Angeles Lakers, Carter passed Charles Barkley (23,757) for 24th in career points scored. Two days later, he scored a season-high 19 points in a 112–95 win over the Lakers. For the latter half of April and the whole first round playoff series against the Spurs, Carter was inserted in the starting lineup and played well. In Game 1 against the Spurs, Carter scored a team-high 16 points in a 106–74 loss. The Grizzlies went on to lose the series in four games. After finishing second behind Tim Duncan in the 2014–15 season, Carter was awarded with the Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award for the 2015–16 season. The award recognizes the player deemed the best teammate based on selfless play, on- and off-court leadership as a mentor and role model to other NBA players, and commitment and dedication to team. ==== 2016–17 season ==== On November 1, 2016, Carter played in his 1,278th NBA game, tying him with A. C. Green for 25th on the NBA's career list. He also became the 24th player in NBA history to surpass 24,000 career points. On November 8, he scored 20 points against the Denver Nuggets and became the oldest player in the NBA to post a 20-point game since Michael Jordan scored 25 for the Washington Wizards in April 2003, at age 40. It was also Carter's first 20-point game since April 30, 2014. On November 12, Carter made seven field goals against the Milwaukee Bucks to pass Gary Payton (8,708) for 21st in NBA history. Carter also passed Charles Oakley for 24th on the NBA's career games played list with 1,283. On November 14, in a win over the Utah Jazz, Carter had his second 20-point game of the season, joining Michael Jordan and Patrick Ewing as the only players in NBA history to put up 20 points and 5+ rebounds off the bench at the age of 39, with Carter being the oldest at 39 years and 287 days. Carter missed seven games in early December with a right hip flexor strain. On January 11, Carter hit his 1,989th career three-pointer to move ahead of Jason Kidd and into fifth on the all-time list. On February 1, in a game against the Denver Nuggets, Carter hit his 2,000th career three-pointer, making him only the fifth player to ever reach that mark. On February 6 against San Antonio, Carter joined Karl Malone, Dikembe Mutombo, Kareem Abdul- Jabbar and Robert Parish as the only 40-year-old players to record at least four blocks in a game. On February 15, in a game against the New Orleans Pelicans, Carter passed Allen Iverson for 23rd on the NBA all-time scoring list. On March 13, Carter made his first start of the season and made all eight of his shots, including six from beyond the arc, to score a season-high 24 points and lead the Grizzlies past the Milwaukee Bucks 113–93. He became the first 40-year-old in NBA history to hit six triples in one game. At 40 years, 46 days old, Carter also became the oldest player to start an NBA game since Juwan Howard in April 2013. On March 29 against the Indiana Pacers, Carter passed Ray Allen for 22nd on the NBA all-time scoring list. In the Grizzlies' regular-season finale on April 12 against the Dallas Mavericks, Carter played in his 1,347th game and passed Kobe Bryant for 13th in regular- season games played. On April 22, Carter became the first 40-year-old to make three or more 3-pointers in a playoff game during Game 4 of the Grizzlies' first-round series against the San Antonio Spurs. ===Sacramento Kings (2017–2018)=== On July 10, 2017, Carter signed a one-year, $8 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. On August 18, 2017, during the Players Voice Awards, Carter was named by the NBA Players Association as the Most Influential Veteran. Carter missed seven games early in the season with a kidney stone. On December 27, 2017, Carter scored a season-high 24 points in a 109–95 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was the first time in NBA history that a 40-plus-year-old reserve scored at least 20 points in a game. He shot 10-of-12 from the field in 30 minutes off the bench, with his 83 percent shooting marking the second highest percentage of his career. On January 28, 2018 against the San Antonio Spurs, Carter and Manu Ginóbili scored 21 and 15 points respectively; it was the first game in NBA history where two players over the age of 40 each scored at least 15 points. On March 19, 2018, in a 106–90 loss to the Detroit Pistons, Carter had seven points to move past Patrick Ewing into 22nd place on the NBA's career scoring list. At the season's end, he was named the recipient of the NBPA's Backbone Award and Most Respected Award, as part of the Players Voice Awards. ===Atlanta Hawks (2018–2020)=== ==== 2018–19 season ==== On August 24, 2018, Carter signed with the Atlanta Hawks. In his debut for the Hawks on October 17, 2018, Carter started at forward and scored 12 points in a 126–107 loss to the New York Knicks, becoming the second oldest player in NBA history to start a season opener at 41 years and 264 days old. Only Robert Parish (42 years and 65 days old) was an older opening-night NBA starter than Carter. On November 21, he scored 14 points off the bench in a 124–108 loss to the Toronto Raptors, and became the 22nd player in NBA history to reach 25,000 career points. The milestone moment, which happened in the final seconds of the game, was made even more memorable for coming via a slam dunk and also for coming against his original team who joined in congratulating him on the court. On December 29, he scored an equal team-high 21 points in 111–108 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was his first game with 20 points for Atlanta and became the oldest player in history to lead or tie for the team lead in scoring. He also became the oldest player in NBA history to score 20+ points at 41 years and 337 days old, breaking Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's record by 6 days. On February 7, 2019, against the Raptors, Carter passed Jerry West for 21st on the NBA's all- time scoring list. On March 1, 2019, he logged the second-most minutes for the Hawks in a 168–161 quadruple-overtime loss to the Chicago Bulls. At 42, Carter became the oldest player in NBA history to play at least 45 minutes in a game. On March 4, he scored 21 points, all on 3-pointers, in a 114–113 loss to the Miami Heat. He thus surpassed Reggie Miller for 20th on the all-time scoring list, passed Jamal Crawford for sixth on the all-time 3-point field goals made list, became the oldest player to shoot seven 3-pointers, and broke his own record of being the oldest player to score 20+ points in a game at 42 years old. On March 31, against the Milwaukee Bucks, Carter passed Karl Malone for fifth place on the all-time games played list with his 1,477th game. ==== 2019–20 season ==== In June 2019, Carter stated that he was planning to retire at the end of the 2019-20 NBA season. On September 20, 2019, Carter re-signed with the Hawks and played his first game on October 24, 2019, making his 22nd season official. Four of Carter's teammates were born after he was drafted in 1998. On December 10, 2019, he became the fifth player in NBA history to play at least 1,500 games. On January 4, 2020, during a 116–111 win over the Indiana Pacers, Carter became the only player in NBA history to have played in four different decades. On January 22, 2020, Carter moved past Alex English for 19th on the NBA all-time scoring list. On January 31, 2020, Carter moved up to 3rd place in all-time NBA games played with 1,523 passing Dirk Nowitzki in the process. On March 11, 2020, against the New York Knicks, Carter returned to the floor in the final seconds of the game, making a three-pointer in what would be his final game. The NBA suspended the season the same day due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Carter officially announced his retirement from the NBA on June 25, 2020, over a month before the scheduled resumption of play on July 30, where the Hawks had not been invited to compete. ==National team career== Carter played for head coach Kelvin Sampson on the United States men's national under-19 team at the 1995 FIBA Under-19 Basketball World Cup in Athens. He and Samaki Walker tied for the team lead in blocks in the team's eight games. During the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Carter led the U.S. in scoring averaging 14.8 points a game. He also performed one of the most memorable dunks of his career when he jumped over French center Frédéric Weis. Teammate Jason Kidd said "It was one of the best plays I've ever seen." The French media later dubbed it "le dunk de la mort" ("the Dunk of Death"). The U.S. team went on to win the gold medal that year. Carter admitted he channeled his frustrations in his personal life and Tracy McGrady leaving the Raptors before the Olympics. Carter replaced Kobe Bryant on the USA roster for the 2003 FIBA Americas Tournament while Bryant was undergoing surgeries on his knee and shoulder. He wore Bryant's jersey number 8. Bryant was supposed to take his spot back in time for the 2004 Olympics, but would later withdraw due to allegations of sexual assault. Carter was offered the Olympic spot but chose instead to take time off during the summer to rest and heal, as well as to get married. ==Other pursuits== Carter opened a restaurant named for himself in Daytona Beach in 2010. His mother operated the restaurant. They sold it in January 2017 for $4.3 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Carter signed a sponsorship deal with Puma prior to his first NBA season, and his first signature shoe, the Puma Vinsanity, was released. However Carter broke his contract with Puma prematurely, citing the "shoes were hurting his feet" and played out the rest of the 1999-2000 NBA season in various brands. Prior to the 2000 Summer Olympics, Carter signed with Nike as a 'signature athlete' and his first signature Nike Shox shoe, a Nike Shox BB4 PE, debuted and released publicly in 2000 to coincide with the Olympic games. Nike released five other signature Shox models bearing Carter's initials. During his final season, Nike commemorated Carter's 22 year NBA career by publicly re-releasing his first Nike signature shoe, the Shox BB4. On September 17, 2020, ESPN announced that Carter had signed a multi-year contract with them, serving as an NBA and college basketball analyst. ==Awards and achievements== Carter is the only player in NBA history to appear in a game in four different decades. He is one of six players in NBA history to average at least 20 points, 4 rebounds and 3 assists per game in 10 straight seasons. He is also one of six players in league history to record 24,000 points, 6,000 rebounds, 2,500 assists, 1,000 steals and 1,000 3-point field goals. *8× NBA All-Star selection: 2000–2007 (did not play in 2002 due to injury) *Olympic gold medal: 2000 *2× All-NBA: **Second Team: 2001 **Third Team: 2000 *NBA Slam Dunk Champion: 2000 *NBA All-Rookie First Team: 1999 *NBA Rookie of the Year Award: 1999 *The Sporting News NBA Rookie of the Year: 1999 *Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award: 2016 *NBA Sportsmanship Award: 2020 ;NBA playoff record *Most three-point field goals made in one half: 8 (May 11, 2001 vs. Philadelphia 76ers, Eastern Conference Semifinals) *Most consecutive three- point field goals made in one game: 8 (same game as above) *Most consecutive three-point field goals made in one half: 8 (same game as above) *First and only 40-year-old player to hit at least three 3-pointers in a playoff game: 3 (April 22, 2017 vs. San Antonio Spurs, Western Conference 1st round) ;Toronto Raptors franchise records *Most points scored in a season: 2,107 (1999–2000) *Most points scored in a playoff game: 50 (May 11, 2001 vs. Philadelphia 76ers) *Highest franchise career points per game average: 23.4 *Highest points per game in a season: 27.6 (2000–01) *Most field goals made in a season: 788 (1999-2000) *Most field goals made in a game: 20 (January 14, 2000 vs. Milwaukee Bucks) *Most minutes played in a game: 63 (February 23, 2001 vs. Sacramento Kings)Vince Carter Info Page – Career Stats and Totals , nba.com. Retrieved 21 January 2008. ;New Jersey Nets franchise records *Most points scored in a season: 2,070 (2006–07) ;Career highs *Points: 51 (2 times) *Field goals made: 20 vs. Milwaukee January 14, 2000 *Three point field goals made: 9 vs. Memphis December 11, 2006 *Free throws made: 23 vs. Miami December 23, 2005 *Rebounds: 16 vs. Washington April 7, 2007 *Assists: 14 vs. Milwaukee January 9, 2009 *Steals: 6 (5 times) *Blocks: 6 vs. Chicago March 28, 1999 ==Video game, TV and film appearances== *Cover of NBA Live 2004 *Cover of NBA Inside Drive 2002 *Feature film Like Mike (2002), in which the fictional Los Angeles Knights team must beat Carter and the Toronto Raptors in order to gain the 8th seed in the playoffs *Music videos for Fabolous' "This Is My Party" (2002), and Glenn Lewis' "Back for More" (2003) *TV series Moesha, as himself in the episode "Mis-Directed Study" (1999) *Documentary film The Carter Effect (2017), by Sean Menard, about Carter's impact in the Canadian basketball scene; shown at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival; 60 minutes It was also made available on Netflix. *Video game Barkley, Shut Up and Jam: Gaiden; Carter has been turned into a cyborg by the evil terrorist organization B.L.O.O.D.M.O.S.E.S. *Host of Vince's Places (2022), on espn+, a ten-episode series where Vince takes the viewer on a fun tour through the history of basketball. Guests on season 1 include: Alonzo Mourning, Peyton Manning, Julius Erving, Dominique Wilkins, Mark Cuban, Molly Bolin, Jerry West, Jamaal Wilkes, Patrick Ewing, Dirk Nowitzki, Chris Mullin, Dikembe Mutombo, Gary Payton, Danny Schayes, Marv Albert, Ray Allen, Lusia Harris, Jeff Garcia, Spencer Haywood. ==Personal life== Carter married Ellen Rucker, a chiropractor, in July 2004; the couple divorced in 2006. They have one daughter together. Carter is now married to Sondi Carter, an NASM trainer. They have a son and a daughter. Carter has donated to his high school, Mainland High School, and he established charitable foundation, The Embassy of Hope, upon being drafted into the NBA in 1998. On February 3, 2007, a statue of Carter was unveiled at Mainland. Carter visited with the Duquesne University men's basketball team in Pittsburgh as a show of support after five of its players were shot in September 2006. Carter is also the second cousin once removed of basketball player Tracy McGrady, whose grandmother was the sister of Carter's step-great-grandfather. They were teammates with the Raptors in 1998–2000. Both players were unaware of the relation until a family reunion in 1997. ==Career statistics== ===NBA=== ====Regular season==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 50 || 49 || 35.2 || .450 || .288 || .761 || 5.7 || 3.0 || 1.1 || 1.5 || 18.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 82 || 82 || 38.1 || .465 || .403 || .791 || 5.8 || 3.9 || 1.3 || 1.1 || 25.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 75 || 75 || 39.7 || .460 || .408 || .765 || 5.5 || 3.9 || 1.5 || 1.1 || 27.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 60 || 60 || 39.8 || .428 || .387 || .798 || 5.2 || 4.0 || 1.6 || .7 || 24.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 43 || 42 || 34.2 || .467 || .344 || .806 || 4.4 || 3.3 || 1.1 || 1.0 || 20.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 73 || 73 || 38.2 || .417 || .383 || .806 || 4.8 || 4.8 || 1.2 || .9 || 22.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 20 || 20 || 30.4 || .411 || .322 || .694 || 3.3 || 3.1 || 1.3 || .8 || 15.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 57 || 56 || 38.9 || .462 || .425 || .817 || 5.9 || 4.7 || 1.5 || .6 || 27.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 79 || 79 || 36.8 || .430 || .341 || .799 || 5.8 || 4.3 || 1.2 || .7 || 24.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 38.1 || .454 || .357 || .802 || 6.0 || 4.8 || 1.0 || .4 || 25.2 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 76 || 72 || 38.9 || .456 || .359 || .816 || 6.0 || 5.1 || 1.2 || .4 || 21.3 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 80 || 80 || 36.8 || .437 || .385 || .817 || 5.1 || 4.7 || 1.0 || .5 || 20.8 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Orlando | 75 || 74 || 30.8 || .428 || .367 || .840 || 3.9 || 3.1 || .7 || .2 || 16.6 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Orlando | 22 || 22 || 30.2 || .470 || .346 || .747 || 4.1 || 2.9 || .9 || .1 || 15.1 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix | 51 || 41 || 27.2 || .422 || .366 || .735 || 3.6 || 1.6 || .9 || .3 || 13.5 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 61 || 40 || 25.3 || .411 || .361 || .826 || 3.4 || 2.3 || .9 || .4 || 10.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 81 || 3 || 25.8 || .435 || .406 || .816 || 4.1 || 2.4 || .9 || .5 || 13.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 81 || 0 || 24.4 || .407 || .394 || .821 || 3.5 || 2.6 || .8 || .4 || 11.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Memphis | 66 || 1 || 16.5 || .333 || .297 || .789 || 2.0 || 1.2 || .7 || .2 || 5.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 60 || 3 || 16.8 || .388 || .349 || .833 || 2.4 || .9 || .6 || .3 || 6.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 73 || 15 || 24.6 || .394 || .378 || .765 || 3.1 || 1.8 || .8 || .5 || 8.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Sacramento | 58 || 5 || 17.7 || .403 || .345 || .757 || 2.6 || 1.2 || .7 || .4 || 5.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 76 || 9 || 17.5 || .419 || .389 || .712 || 2.6 || 1.1 || .6 || .4 || 7.4 |- | style="text-align:left;| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 60 || 0 || 14.6 || .352 || .302 || .793 || 2.1 || .8 || .4 || .4 || 5.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 1,541 || 983 || 30.7 || .437 || .374 || .798 || 4.4 || 3.2 || 1.0 || .6 || 16.7 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star | 7 || 5 || 18.0 || .477 || .375 || .600 || 2.6 || 1.9 || .9 || .1 || 10.1 ====Playoffs==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2000 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 3 || 3 || 39.7 || .300 || .100 || .871 || 6.0 || 6.3 || 1.0 || 1.3 || 19.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2001 | style="text-align:left;"| Toronto | 12 || 12 || 44.9 || .436 || .410 || .784 || 6.5 || 4.7 || 1.7 || 1.7 || 27.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2005 | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 4 || 4 || 44.8 || .365 || .316 || .861 || 8.5 || 5.8 || 2.3 || .0 || 26.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2006 | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 11 || 11 || 40.9 || .463 || .241 || .796 || 7.0 || 5.3 || 1.8 || .5 || 29.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2007 | style="text-align:left;"| New Jersey | 12 || 12 || 40.6 || .396 || .389 || .693 || 6.8 || 5.3 || .9 || .6 || 22.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2010 | style="text-align:left;"| Orlando | 14 || 14 || 34.4 || .402 || .235 || .826 || 4.2 || 2.3 || .9 || .2 || 15.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2012 | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 4 || 0 || 26.8 || .293 || .300 || .750 || 5.5 || .3 || 1.2 || .5 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2014 | style="text-align:left;"| Dallas | 7 || 0 || 27.1 || .456 || .484 || .786 || 3.6 || 2.4 || .4 || .3 || 12.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2015 | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 11 || 0 || 17.8 || .403 || .250 || .889 || 4.3 || 1.0 || .6 || .2 || 6.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2016 | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 4 || 4 || 22.8 || .455 || style="background:#cfecec;"| .700* || style="background:#cfecec;"| 1.000* || 3.8 || 1.3 || .5 || .3 || 11.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2017 | style="text-align:left;"| Memphis | 6 || 6 || 32.5 || .476 || .400 || 1.000 || 3.3 || 1.5 || .3 || .0 || 9.2 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 88 || 66 || 34.5 || .416 || .338 || .796 || 5.4 || 3.4 || 1.1 || .5 || 18.1 ===College=== Source |- | style="text-align:left;"| 1995–96 | style="text- align:left;"| North Carolina | 31 || 19 || 17.9 || .492 || .345 || .689 || 3.8 || 1.3 || .6 || .6 || 7.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 1996–97 | style="text-align:left;"| North Carolina | 34 || 34 || 27.6 || .525 || .336 || .750 || 4.5 || 2.4 || 1.4 || .8 || 13.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 1997–98 | style="text-align:left;"| North Carolina | 38 || 38 || 31.2 || .591 || .411 || .680 || 5.1 || 1.9 || 1.2 || .9 || 15.6 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 103 || 91 || 26.0 || .547 || .368 || .705 || 4.5 || 1.9 || 1.1 || .8 || 12.3 ==See also== *List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders *List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders *List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders *List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders *List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders *List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders *List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders *List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders *List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players *List of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders *List of Olympic medalists in basketball *NBA regular season records *NBA post- season records == Notes == ==References== ==External links== * Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:African-American basketball players Category:All-American college men's basketball players Category:American expatriate basketball people in Canada Category:American men's basketball players Category:American restaurateurs Category:Atlanta Hawks players Category:Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players from Florida Category:Dallas Mavericks players Category:ESPN people Category:Golden State Warriors draft picks Category:Mainland High School alumni Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans Category:Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Memphis Grizzlies players Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars Category:New Jersey Nets players Category:North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball players Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball Category:Orlando Magic players Category:Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) Category:People from Saddle River, New Jersey Category:Phoenix Suns players Category:Sacramento Kings players Category:Shooting guards Category:Small forwards Category:Sportspeople from Daytona Beach, Florida Category:Toronto Raptors players Category:United States men's national basketball team players Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople Category:20th-century African-American sportspeople
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==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 275 - For the last time, the Roman Senate chooses an emperor; they elect 75-year-old Marcus Claudius Tacitus. * 762 - Led by Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, the Hasanid branch of the Alids begins the Alid Revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate. *1066 - In the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harald Hardrada, the invading King of Norway, is defeated by King Harold II of England. *1237 - England and Scotland sign the Treaty of York, establishing the location of their common border. *1396 - Ottoman Emperor Bayezid I defeats a Christian army at the Battle of Nicopolis. *1513 - Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa reaches what would become known as the Pacific Ocean. *1555 - The Peace of Augsburg is signed by Emperor Charles V and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. ===1601–1900=== *1690 - Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick, the first newspaper to appear in the Americas, is published for the first and only time. *1768 - Unification of Nepal *1775 - American Revolution: Ethan Allen surrenders to British forces after attempting to capture Montreal during the Battle of Longue-Pointe. * 1775 - American Revolution: Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec sets off. *1789 - The United States Congress passes twelve constitutional amendments: the ten known as the Bill of Rights, the (unratified) Congressional Apportionment Amendment, and the Congressional Compensation Amendment. *1790 - Four Great Anhui Troupes introduce Anhui opera to Beijing in honor of the Qianlong Emperor's eightieth birthday. *1804 - The Teton Sioux (a subdivision of the Lakota) demand one of the boats from the Lewis and Clark Expedition as a toll for allowing the expedition to move further upriver. *1868 - The Imperial Russian steam frigate Alexander Nevsky is shipwrecked off Jutland while carrying Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia.Jernkysten, Stories, Alexander Nevskij Lemvig Museum, Denmark *1890 - The United States Congress establishes Sequoia National Park. ===1901–present=== *1906 - Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrates the Telekino, guiding a boat from the shore, in what is considered to be the first use of a remote control. *1911 - An explosion of badly degraded propellant charges on board the French battleship Liberté detonates the forward ammunition magazines and destroys the ship. *1912 - Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism is founded in New York City. *1915 - World War I: The Second Battle of Champagne begins. *1918 - World War I: The end of the Battle of Megiddo, the climax of the British Army's Sinai and Palestine campaign under General Edmund Allenby. *1926 - The international Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery is first signed. *1937 - Second Sino-Japanese War: The Chinese Eighth Route Army gains a minor, but morale-boosting victory in the Battle of Pingxingguan. *1944 - World War II: Surviving elements of the British 1st Airborne Division withdraw from Arnhem via Oosterbeek. *1955 - The Royal Jordanian Air Force is founded. *1956 - TAT-1, the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable system, is inaugurated. *1957 - Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, is integrated by the use of United States Army troops. *1959 - Solomon Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, is mortally wounded by a Buddhist monk, Talduwe Somarama, and dies the next day. *1962 - The People's Democratic Republic of Algeria is formally proclaimed. Ferhat Abbas is elected President of the provisional government. * 1962 - The North Yemen Civil War begins when Abdullah al-Sallal dethrones the newly crowned Imam al-Badr and declares Yemen a republic under his presidency. *1963 - Lord Denning releases the UK government's official report on the Profumo affair. *1964 - The Mozambican War of Independence against Portugal begins. *1969 - The charter establishing the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation is signed. *1974 - Dr. Frank Jobe performs first ulnar collateral ligament replacement surgery (better known as Tommy John surgery) on baseball player Tommy John. *1977 - About 4,200 people take part in the first running of the Chicago Marathon. *1978 - PSA Flight 182, a Boeing 727, collides in mid-air with a Cessna 172 and crashes in San Diego, killing all 135 aboard Flight 182, both occupants of the Cessna, as well as seven people on the ground. *1981 - Belize joins the United Nations. *1983 - Thirty-eight IRA prisoners, armed with six handguns, hijack a prison meals lorry and smash their way out of the Maze Prison. *1987 - Fijian Governor- General Penaia Ganilau is overthrown in a coup d'état led by Lieutenant colonel Sitiveni Rabuka. *1992 - NASA launches the Mars Observer. Eleven months later, the probe would fail while preparing for orbital insertion. *1998 - PauknAir Flight 4101, a British Aerospace 146, crashes near Melilla Airport in Melilla, Spain, killing 38 people. *2003 - The 8.3 Hokkaidō earthquake strikes just offshore Hokkaidō, Japan. *2018 - Bill Cosby is sentenced to three to ten years in prison for aggravated sexual assault. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1358 - Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1408) *1403 - Louis III of Anjou (d. 1434) *1525 - Steven Borough, English explorer and navigator (d. 1584) *1528 - Otto II, Duke of Brunswick-Harburg (d. 1603) *1529 - Günther XLI, Count of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt (d. 1583) *1599 - Francesco Borromini, Swiss-Italian architect, designed the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and Sant'Agnese in Agone (d. 1667) ===1601–1900=== *1636 - Ferdinand Joseph, Prince of Dietrichstein, German prince (d. 1698) *1644 - Ole Rømer, Danish astronomer and instrument maker (d. 1710) *1663 - Johann Nikolaus Hanff, German organist and composer (d. 1711) *1683 - Jean-Philippe Rameau, French composer and theorist (d. 1764) *1694 - Henry Pelham, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1754) *1711 - Qianlong Emperor of China (d. 1799) *1738 - Nicholas Van Dyke, American lawyer and politician, 7th Governor of Delaware (d. 1789) *1741 - Wenzel Pichl, Czech violinist, composer, and director (d. 1805) *1744 - Frederick William II of Prussia (d. 1797) *1758 - Josepha Barbara Auernhammer, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1820) *1761 - William Mullins, 2nd Baron Ventry, Anglo-Irish politician and peer (d. 1827) *1764 - Fletcher Christian, English sailor (d. 1793) *1766 - Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu, French general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of France (d. 1822) *1771 - Nikolay Raevsky, Russian general and politician (d. 1829) *1773 - Agostino Bassi, Italian entomologist and author (d. 1856) *1782 - Charles Maturin, Irish author and playwright (d. 1824) *1798 - Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont, French geologist and engineer (d. 1874) *1816 - Georg August Rudolph, German lawyer and politician, 3rd Mayor of Marburg (d. 1893) *1825 - William Pitt Ballinger, American lawyer and politician (d. 1888) * 1825 - Joachim Heer, Swiss lawyer and politician, President of the National Council (d. 1879) *1839 - Karl Alfred von Zittel, German palaeontologist and geologist (d. 1904) *1862 - Léon Boëllmann, French organist and composer (d. 1897) * 1862 - Billy Hughes, English-Australian carpenter and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1952) *1865 - Henri Lebasque, French artist (d. 1937) *1866 - Thomas Hunt Morgan, American biologist, geneticist, and embryologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945) *1867 - Yevgeny Miller, Russian general (d. 1938) *1877 - Plutarco Elías Calles, Mexican general and President (d. 1945) *1879 - Lope K. Santos, Filipino lawyer and politician, 4th Governor of Rizal (d. 1963) *1881 - Lu Xun, Chinese author and critic (d. 1936) *1884 - Adolf Bolm, Russian ballet dancer and choreographer (d. 1951) *1888 - Hanna Ralph, German actress (d. 1978) *1889 - Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff, Scottish author and translator (d. 1930) *1893 - Harald Cramér, Swedish mathematician and statistician (d. 1985) *1896 - Sandro Pertini, Italian journalist and politician, 7th President of Italy (d. 1990) *1897 - William Faulkner, American novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962) *1898 - Robert Brackman, Ukrainian- American painter and educator (d. 1980) *1899 - Udumalai Narayana Kavi, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1981) *1900 - Artur Sirk, Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 1937) ===1901–present=== *1901 - Robert Bresson, French director and screenwriter (d. 1999) * 1901 - Gordon Coventry, Australian footballer (d. 1968) *1903 - Mark Rothko, Latvian-American painter and educator (d. 1970) *1906 - Volfgangs Dārziņš, Latvian composer, pianist, and music critic (d. 1962) * 1906 - Phyllis Pearsall, English painter, cartographer, and author (d. 1996) * 1906 - Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1975) *1908 - Jacqueline Audry, French director and screenwriter (d. 1977) *1910 - Ralph Jordan, American football player and coach (d. 1980) *1911 - Eric Williams, Trinidadian historian and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 1981) *1914 - John Manners, English naval officer and cricketer (d. 2020) *1916 - Jessica Anderson, Australian author and playwright (d. 2010) * 1916 - Deendayal Upadhyaya, Indian economist, sociologist, and journalist (d. 1968) *1917 - Phil Rizzuto, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2007) *1920 - Sergei Bondarchuk, Ukrainian-Russian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1994) * 1920 - Satish Dhawan, Indian engineer (d. 2002) *1921 - Rob Muldoon, New Zealand sergeant, accountant, and politician, 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1992) *1922 - Hammer DeRoburt, Nauruian educator and politician, 1st President of Nauru (d. 1992) *1923 - Robert Laxalt, American author and academic (d. 2001) * 1923 - Sam Rivers, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 2011) *1924 - Norman Ayrton, English actor and director (d. 2017) * 1924 - Red Webb, American baseball player (d. 1996) *1925 - Silvana Pampanini, Italian model, actress, and director, Miss Italy 1946 (d. 2016) *1926 - Jack Hyles, American pastor and author (d. 2001) * 1926 - Aldo Ray, American actor (d. 1991) *1927 - Carl Braun, American basketball player and coach (d. 2010) * 1927 - Colin Davis, English conductor and educator (d. 2013) *1929 - Ronnie Barker, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2005) * 1929 - Delia Scala, Italian ballerina and actress (d. 2004) * 1929 - Barbara Walters, American journalist, producer, and author (d. 2022) *1930 - Nino Cerruti, Italian fashion designer, founded Cerruti (d. 2022) * 1930 - Shel Silverstein, American author, poet, illustrator, and songwriter (d. 1999) *1931 - Manouchehr Atashi, Iranian journalist and poet (d. 2005) * 1931 - Bryan John Birch, English mathematician and scholar *1932 - Glenn Gould, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 1982) * 1932 - Terry Medwin, Welsh footballer and manager * 1932 - Adolfo Suárez, Spanish lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Spain (d. 2014) *1933 - Hubie Brown, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster * 1933 - Ian Tyson, Canadian folk singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2022) *1936 - Ken Forsse, American toy creator and author, created Teddy Ruxpin (d. 2014) * 1936 - Juliet Prowse, South African-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1996) * 1936 - Moussa Traoré, Malian general and politician 2nd President of Mali (d. 2020) *1937 - Mary Allen Wilkes, American computer scientist and lawyer *1938 - Ron Hill, English runner and businessman (d. 2021) * 1938 - Jonathan Motzfeldt, Greenlandic priest and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Greenland (d. 2010) * 1938 - Enn Tarto, Estonian politician (d. 2021) *1939 - Leon Brittan, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (d. 2015) * 1939 - Feroz Khan, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 2009) * 1939 - David S. Mann, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of Cincinnati *1940 - Tim Severin, Indian-English explorer, historian, and author (d. 2020) *1941 - Vivien Stern, Baroness Stern, English academic and politician *1942 - Oscar Bonavena, Argentinian boxer (d. 1976) * 1942 - Robert Miano, American actor and producer * 1942 - Henri Pescarolo, French race car driver * 1942 - John Taylor, English pianist and educator (d. 2015) * 1942 - Dee Dee Warwick, American singer (d. 2008) *1943 - Robert Gates, American lieutenant, academic, and politician, 22nd United States Secretary of Defense * 1943 - John Locke, American keyboard player (d. 2006) * 1943 - Aram Saroyan, American poet and novelist * 1943 - Robert Walden, American actor, director, and screenwriter *1944 - Michael Douglas, American actor and producer * 1944 - Doris Matsui, American politician * 1944 - Grayson Shillingford, Dominican cricketer (d. 2009) *1945 - Kathleen Brown, American lawyer and politician, 29th California State Treasurer * 1945 - Carol Vadnais, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2014) *1946 - Bishan Singh Bedi, Indian cricketer and coach * 1946 - Felicity Kendal, English actress * 1946 - Bryan MacLean, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1998) * 1946 - Janusz Majer, Polish mountaineer * 1946 - Gil Morgan, American golfer * 1946 - Ali Parvin, Iranian footballer * 1946 - Jerry Penrod, American bass player *1947 - Giannos Kranidiotis, Greek politician and diplomat (d. 1999) * 1947 - Cheryl Tiegs, American model and actress * 1947 - Cecil Womack, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013) *1948 - Mimi Kennedy, American actress and screenwriter * 1948 - Vasile Șirli, Romanian musical composer and producer * 1948 - Vladimir Yevtushenkov, Russian businessman *1949 - Pedro Almodóvar, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter * 1949 - Jeff Borowiak, American tennis player * 1949 - Steve Mackay, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2015) *1950 - Stanisław Szozda, Polish cyclist and trainer (d. 2013) *1951 - Yardena Arazi, Israeli singer * 1951 - Burleigh Drummond, American drummer and songwriter * 1951 - Graeme Knowles, English bishop * 1951 - Mark Hamill, American actor, singer, and producer * 1951 - Bob McAdoo, American basketball player and coach *1952 - Colin Friels, Scottish- Australian actor * 1952 - Jimmy Garvin, American wrestler and manager * 1952 - bell hooks, American author and activist (d. 2021) * 1952 - Cherríe Moraga, American poet, playwright, and activist * 1952 - Tommy Norden, American actor * 1952 - Chris Pond, English politician * 1952 - Christopher Reeve, American actor, producer, and activist (d. 2004) *1953 - Richard Harvey, English mandolin player, keyboard player, and composer * 1953 - Ron Rash, American novelist, short story writer, poet * 1954 - Sylvester Croom, American football player and coach * 1954 - Joep Lange, Dutch physician and academic (d. 2014) * 1954 - Juande Ramos, Spanish footballer and manager *1955 - Ludo Coeck, Belgian footballer (d. 1985) * 1955 - Zucchero Fornaciari, Italian singer- songwriter and guitarist * 1955 - Amyr Klink, Brazilian sailor and explorer * 1955 - Luanne Rice, American author and activist * 1955 - Karl-Heinz Rummenigge, German footballer and manager * 1955 - Steven Severin, English bass player, songwriter, and producer *1956 - W. Daniel Hillis, American computer scientist, engineer, and author, founded the Thinking Machines Corporation * 1956 - Jamie Hyneman, American special effects designer and television host, founded M5 Industries * 1956 - Miroslav Volf, Croatian Protestant theologian and public intellectual *1957 - Michael Madsen, American actor and producer * 1957 - Vladimir Popovkin, Russian general (d. 2014) *1958 - Randy Kerber, American keyboard player, composer, and conductor *1959 - Jeon Soo-il, South Korean director, producer, and screenwriter *1960 - Igor Belanov, Ukrainian footballer and manager *1961 - Mehmet Aslantuğ, Turkish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter * 1961 - Heather Locklear, American actress * 1961 - Steve Scott, British journalist and presenter * 1961 - Tim Zoehrer, Australian cricketer *1962 - Kalthoum Sarrai, Tunisian-French psychologist and journalist (d. 2010) * 1962 - Aida Turturro, American actress * 1962 - Dariusz Wdowczyk, Polish footballer and coach *1963 - Tate Donovan, American actor * 1963 - Keely Shaye Smith, American journalist and author *1964 - Gary Ayles, English race car driver * 1964 - Barbara Dennerlein, German organist * 1964 - Rebecca Gablé, German novelist * 1964 - Kikuko Inoue, Japanese singer-songwriter and voice actress * 1964 - Joey Saputo, Canadian businessman *1965 - Matt Battaglia, American football player, actor, and producer * 1965 - Saffron Henderson, Canadian voice actress and singer * 1965 - Scottie Pippen, American basketball player and sportscaster * 1965 - Anne Roumanoff, French actress and screenwriter * 1965 - Dave Rundle, South African cricketer * 1965 - Rob Schmidt, American director and screenwriter * 1965 - Rafael Martín Vázquez, Spanish footballer and coach * 1965 - Nicky Winmar, Australian footballer *1966 - Stanislav Bunin, Russian pianist and educator * 1966 - Todd Philcox, American football player *1967 - Kim Issel, Canadian ice hockey player * 1967 - Ashwin Sood, English-Canadian drummer and producer *1968 - John A. List, American economist and academic * 1968 - Will Smith, American actor, producer, and rapper * 1968 - John Worsfold, Australian footballer and coach *1969 - Hansie Cronje, South African cricketer (d. 2002) * 1969 - Bill Simmons, American journalist and author * 1969 - Hal Sparks, American actor, comedian, musician and political commentator * 1969 - Tony Womack, American baseball player * 1969 - Catherine Zeta-Jones, Welsh actress *1970 - Curtis Buckley, American football player and psychiatrist *1971 - Nikos Boudouris, Greek basketball player and manager * 1971 - John Lynch, American football player and sportscaster * 1971 - Seb Sanders, English jockey *1972 - Douglas September, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1973 - Tijani Babangida, Nigerian footballer * 1973 - Jenny Chapman, English politician *1974 - Bill Bowler, Canadian ice hockey player and coach * 1974 - Olivier Dacourt, French footballer * 1974 - John Granville, American scholar and diplomat (d. 2008) * 1974 - Paul Hurst, English footballer and manager * 1974 - Daniel Kessler, English-American singer and guitarist * 1974 - Frank Leder, German fashion designer * 1974 - Robbie Mears, Australian rugby league player and coach * 1974 - Eric Moss, American football player (d. 2019) * 1974 - Joel Prpic, Canadian ice hockey player * 1974 - Javier Rosas, Mexican triathlete * 1974 - Kemel Thompson, Jamaican hurdler *1975 - Daniela Ceccarelli, Italian skier * 1975 - Declan Donnelly, English entertainer * 1975 - Matt Hasselbeck, American football player * 1975 - Dat Nguyen, American football player and coach *1976 - Santigold, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1976 - Chauncey Billups, American basketball player * 1976 - Eric Roberson, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1976 - Charlotte Ayanna, Puerto Rican American actress *1977 - Clea DuVall, American actress * 1977 - Joel David Moore, American actor * 1977 - Mike Krahulik, American illustrator * 1977 - Wil Nieves, Puerto Rican-American baseball player *1978 - Joe Cotton, Canadian-New Zealand singer * 1978 - Roudolphe Douala, Cameroonian footballer * 1978 - Ricardo Gardner, Jamaican footballer * 1978 - Jodie Kidd, English model and actress * 1978 - Ryan Leslie, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1978 - Joel Piñeiro, Puerto Rican baseball player *1979 - Kyle Bennett, American BMX rider (d. 2012) * 1979 - Rashad Evans, American mixed martial artist and wrestler * 1979 - Jason Koumas, Welsh footballer * 1979 - Jean-René Lisnard, French tennis player *1980 - T.I., American rapper, songwriter, producer, and actor *1981 - Rocco Baldelli, American baseball player * 1981 - Jason Bergmann, American baseball player *1982 - Hyun Bin, South Korean actor *1983 - Donald Glover, American actor, rapper, producer, and screenwriter * 1983 - Terrance Pennington, American football player *1984 - Cherine Anderson, Jamaican singer-songwriter and actress * 1984 - Matías Silvestre, Argentinian footballer *1985 - Gökhan Güleç, Turkish footballer * 1985 - Marvin Matip, German footballer *1986 - Heidi El Tabakh, Egyptian- Canadian tennis player * 1986 - Jamie O'Hara, English footballer * 1986 - Marten Strauch, German rugby player * 1986 - Steve Forrest, American drummer * 1986 - Choi Yoon-young, South Korean actress *1987 - Monica Niculescu, Romanian tennis player * 1987 - Mustafa Yumlu, Turkish footballer *1989 - Cuco Martina, Curaçaoan footballer * 1989 - Aldon Smith, American football player *1990 - Mao Asada, Japanese figure skater * 1990 - Daria Strokous, Russian model, actress, and photographer *1991 - Emmy Clarke, American actress * 1991 - Alessandro Crescenzi, Italian footballer * 1991 - Calle Järnkrok, Swedish ice hockey player *1992 - Zoël Amberg, Swiss race car driver * 1992 - Kerrod Holland, Australian rugby league player * 1992 - Massimo Luongo, Australian footballer * 1992 - Keauna McLaughlin, American figure skater * 1992 - Ruslan Zhiganshin, Russian ice dancer *1993 - Toby Greene, Australian footballer *1995 - Todd Hazelwood, Australian race car driver *1996 - Anett Vilipuu, Estonian footballer *1996 - Yue Yuan, Chinese tennis player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *1066 - Harald Hardrada, Norwegian king (b. 1015) * 1066 - Maria Haraldsdotter, Norwegian princess * 1066 - Tostig Godwinson, English son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. c. 1029) *1086 - William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1025) *1087 - Simon I de Montfort, French nobleman (b. c. 1025) *1333 - Prince Morikuni, Japanese shōgun (b. 1301) *1367 - Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese poet (b. 1290) *1396 - Jean de Carrouges, French knight (b. 1330) * 1396 - Jean de Vienne, French general and admiral (b. 1341) *1496 - Piero Capponi, Italian soldier and politician (b. 1447) *1506 - Philip I of Castile (b. 1478) *1534 - Pope Clement VII (b. 1478) *1536 - Johannes Secundus, Dutch author and poet (b. 1511) *1550 - Georg von Blumenthal, German bishop (b. 1490) *1588 - Tilemann Heshusius, German Gnesio-Lutheran theologian (b. 1527) ===1601–1900=== *1602 - Caspar Peucer, German physician, scholar, and reformer (b. 1525) *1615 - Arbella Stuart, English noblewoman and woman of letters (b. 1575) *1617 - Emperor Go-Yōzei of Japan (b. 1572) * 1617 - Francisco Suárez, Spanish priest, philosopher, and theologian (b. 1548) *1621 - Mary Sidney, English writer (b. 1561) *1626 - Lancelot Andrewes, English bishop and scholar (b. 1555) *1630 - Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, Italian general and politician, Governor of the Duchy of Milan (b. 1569) *1665 - Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (b. 1610) *1703 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of Argyll, Scottish general (b. 1658) *1774 - John Bradstreet, Canadian- English general (b. 1714) *1777 - Johann Heinrich Lambert, Swiss mathematician, physicist, and astronomer (b. 1728) *1791 - William Bradford, American soldier and publisher (b. 1719) *1792 - Adam Gottlob Moltke, Danish politician and diplomat (b. 1710) *1794 - Paul Rabaut, French pastor (b. 1718) *1828 - Charlotta Seuerling, Swedish singer, harpsichord player, and composer (b. 1783) *1849 - Johann Strauss I, Austrian composer (b. 1804) *1867 - Oliver Loving, American rancher, co-developed the Goodnight–Loving Trail (b. 1812) *1893 - Louise von François, German author (b. 1817) *1900 - Félix-Gabriel Marchand, Canadian journalist and politician, 11th Premier of Québec (b. 1832) * 1900 - John M. Palmer, American general and politician, 15th Governor of Illinois (b. 1817) ===1901–present=== *1901 - Arthur Fremantle, English general and politician, Governor of Malta (b. 1835) *1905 - Jacques Marie Eugène Godefroy Cavaignac, French educator and politician (b. 1853) *1917 - Thomas Ashe, Irish Republican Brotherhood volunteer and rebel commander. Died as a result of forced feeding while on hunger strike. (b. 1885) *1918 - Mikhail Alekseyev, Russian general (b. 1857) *1926 - Herbert Booth, English songwriter and bandleader (b. 1862) *1928 - Richard F. Outcault, American cartoonist, created The Yellow Kid and Buster Brown (b. 1863) *1929 - Miller Huggins, American baseball player and manager (b. 1879) *1933 - Ring Lardner, American journalist and author (b. 1885) *1938 - Lev Zadov, Ukrainian intelligence agent (b. 1893) *1939 - Ali Saip Ursavaş, Turkish soldier and politician (b. 1885) *1941 - Foxhall P. Keene, American polo player, golfer, and race car driver (b. 1867) *1943 - Alexander Hall, Scottish-Canadian soccer player (b. 1880) *1946 - Hans Eppinger, Austrian physician (b. 1879) *1955 - Martha Norelius Swedish-born American swimmer (b. 1909) *1958 - John B. Watson, American psychologist and academic (b. 1878) *1960 - Emily Post, American author and educator (b. 1873) *1961 - Frank Fay, American actor and singer (b. 1897) *1968 - Hans F. K. Günther, German eugenicist and academic (b. 1891) * 1968 - Cornell Woolrich, American author and screenwriter (b. 1903) *1970 - Erich Maria Remarque, German-Swiss author and translator (b. 1898) *1971 - Hugo Black, American captain, jurist, and politician (b. 1886) *1980 - John Bonham, English drummer and songwriter (b. 1948) * 1980 - Lewis Milestone, Russian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1895) * 1980 - Marie Under, Estonian author and poet (b. 1883) *1983 - Leopold III of Belgium (b. 1901) *1984 - Walter Pidgeon, Canadian-American actor (b. 1897) *1986 - Darshan Singh Canadian, Indian-Canadian trade union leader and activist (b. 1917) * 1986 - Donald MacDonald, Canadian union leader and politician (b. 1909) * 1986 - Nikolay Semyonov, Russian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1896) * 1986 - Hans Vogt, Norwegian linguist and academic (b. 1909) *1987 - Mary Astor, American actress (b. 1906) * 1987 - Emlyn Williams, Welsh actor and playwright (b. 1905) *1988 - Billy Carter, American farmer and businessman (b. 1937) * 1988 - Arthur Võõbus, Estonian- American orientalist and scholar (b. 1909) *1990 - Prafulla Chandra Sen, Indian accountant and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of West Bengal (b. 1897) *1991 - Klaus Barbie, German SS captain, known as the "Butcher of Lyon" (b. 1913) * 1991 - Viviane Romance, French actress and producer (b. 1912) *1992 - Ivan Vdović, Serbian musician (b. 1961) *1995 - Dave Bowen, Welsh footballer and manager (b. 1928) * 1995 - Annie Elizabeth Delany, American dentist and author (b. 1891) *1997 - Hélène Baillargeon, Canadian singer and actress (b. 1916) * 1997 - Jean Françaix, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1912) *1999 - Marion Zimmer Bradley, American author (b. 1930) *2003 - Aqila al-Hashimi, Iraqi translator and politician (b. 1953) * 2003 - Herb Gardner, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1934) * 2003 - Franco Modigliani, Italian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) * 2003 - George Plimpton, American writer and literary editor (b. 1927) *2005 - Don Adams, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1923) * 2005 - Madeline-Ann Aksich, Canadian businesswoman and philanthropist (b. 1956) * 2005 - George Archer, American golfer (b. 1939) * 2005 - Urie Bronfenbrenner, Russian-American psychologist and ecologist (b. 1917) * 2005 - Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Pakistani linguist and critic (b. 1912) * 2005 - M. Scott Peck, American psychiatrist and author (b. 1936) * 2005 - Friedrich Peter, Austrian lawyer and politician (b. 1921) *2006 - Jeff Cooper, American target shooter and author (b. 1920) * 2006 - John M. Ford, American author and poet (b. 1957) *2007 - Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Palestinian physician and politician (b. 1919) * 2007 - André Emmerich, German-American art dealer (b. 1924) *2008 - Derog Gioura, Nauruan politician, 23rd President of Nauru (b. 1932) *2009 - Alicia de Larrocha, Spanish pianist (b. 1923) * 2009 - Pierre Falardeau, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1946) *2011 - Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmentalist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1940) *2012 - Billy Barnes, American composer and songwriter (b. 1927) * 2012 - John Bond, English footballer and manager (b. 1923) * 2012 - Eric Ives, English historian and academic (b. 1931) * 2012 - Alonso Lujambio, Mexican academic and politician (b. 1962) * 2012 - Andy Williams, American singer (b. 1927) *2013 - Ron Fenton, English footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1940) * 2013 - Choi In-ho, South Korean author and screenwriter (b. 1945) * 2013 - José Montoya, American poet and academic (b. 1932) * 2013 - Billy Mure, American guitarist and composer (b. 1915) * 2013 - Pablo Verani, Italian-Argentinian lawyer and politician (b. 1938) * 2013 - Bennet Wong, Canadian psychiatrist and academic, co-founded Haven Institute (Gabriola Island, Canada) (b. 1930) *2014 - Ulrick Chérubin, Haitian-Canadian educator and politician (b. 1943) * 2014 - Sulejman Tihić, Bosnian lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1951) * 2014 - Dorothy Tyler- Odam, English high jumper (b. 1920) *2015 - Claudio Baggini, Italian Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1936) * 2015 - John Galvin, American general (b. 1929) * 2015 - Tom Kelley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1944) * 2015 - Moti Kirschenbaum, Israeli journalist (b. 1939) *2016 - José Fernández, Cuban- American baseball player (b. 1992) * 2016 - Arnold Palmer, American golfer (b. 1929) * 2016 - Nahid Hattar, Jordanian writer and political activist (b. 1960) *2017 - Jan Tříska, Czech actor (b. 1936) ==Holidays and observances== *Armed Forces Day or Revolution Day (Mozambique) *Christian feast day: **Abadir and Iraja and Companions (Coptic Church) **Aunarius (Aunacharius) **Anathalon (Archdiocese of Milan) **Cadoc **Ceolfrith **Cleopas **Euphrosyne of Alexandria **Finbarr **Fermin of Amiens **Lancelot Andrewes (Church of England) **Sergius of Radonezh (repose) **Vincent Strambi **September 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) *Day of National Recognition for the Harkis (France) *National Research Administrators Day (United States) *National Youth Day (Nauru) ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:Days of the year Category:September
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Safecracker is a 1997 puzzle adventure game developed by Daydream Software and published by GT Interactive. It casts the player as a security professional, whose goal is to infiltrate the mansion headquarters of a safe manufacturer and break into 35 of its unusual models. Each safe is guarded by a different type of puzzle, including sliding tiles, anagram codes and translations from braille. The player's progression is nonlinear: the mansion can be explored, and its safes unlocked, in multiple orders. However, the game must be completed within a 12-hour time limit. Safecracker was conceived in 1994 as the debut title by Daydream, one of Sweden's first major computer game developers. After signing with Warner Interactive Entertainment (WIE) in 1995, Daydream began to develop the game with Macromedia Director and QuickTime VR. Expensive Silicon Graphics machines were purchased with Warner's funding to create the visuals; musicians Rob 'n' Raz were hired to compose the soundtrack. However, corporate upheaval at WIE led to costly delays. GT Interactive ultimately bought the publisher in 1996 and purposely slow-walked Safecrackers release and promotion. Having anticipated problems with GT, Daydream went public: its hit IPO drew enough capital for the team to repurchase Safecrackers rights in 1997 and sign new distributors worldwide. While Safecrackers troubled release hurt its retail performance, long-tail sales at a budget price eventually carried it to 650,000 units sold. Reviewers broadly panned the game's limited core premise, although certain writers considered it a strength and recommended the title to fans of puzzle games. Critical reception of the puzzles and visuals ranged from positive to strongly negative. Following the launch of Safecracker, Daydream became a foundational company in the Swedish game industry. Nevertheless, problems caused by its early public launch led to the developer's bankruptcy in 2003. Kheops Studio and The Adventure Company later released a spiritual successor to Safecracker under the name Safecracker: The Ultimate Puzzle Adventure (2006). == Gameplay and plot == Safecracker is a puzzle adventure game that takes place from a first-person view in a pre-rendered visual environment. The player uses a point-and-click interface to traverse the game world and interact with objects. In a manner that has been compared to Zork Nemesis, the player's movement is restricted to jumps between panoramic static screens. The camera view can rotate 360° on each screen. In Safecracker, the player assumes the role of a professional in the security systems business, who seeks a job with the fictional Crabb & Sons Company. The firm is a manufacturer of safes with unusual designs. As an audition, the player character is contracted by Crabb & Sons' owner to infiltrate his mansion headquarters and crack the safes within, with the ultimate goal of breaking into the new "F-9-12" design. The game begins outside Crabb & Sons' building, after which the player sneaks in and begins to explore. Safecracker features nonlinear progression: the mansion's rooms can be navigated, and their safes tackled, in multiple orders. However, the game must be beaten under a 12-hour time limit. The mansion contains over 50 rooms and 35 safes, which are guarded by puzzles in a range of styles. Among these are mathematics puzzles, anagram codes, conversions of temperature units, translations from braille, musical problems and sliding puzzles. Unlocking a safe provides the player with clues and keys, which open up new areas and allow other puzzles to be solved. At the same time, certain clues are hidden around the mansion in books and other objects that the player may investigate. Clue items are stored in the inventory on the heads-up display (HUD) interface, which also features a meter that tracks the number of puzzles solved. == Development == ===Origins=== Safecracker was conceived in 1994 by acquaintances Jörgen Isaksson and Nigel Papworth of Umeå, Sweden. Papworth's interest in making games was first sparked when Isaksson showed him Myst: its simple HyperCard engine suggested to Papworth that game programming could be easy. Isaksson himself had previously experimented with the medium to entertain his younger sister, yielding a computer conversion of the board game Mastermind. Papworth seized on this idea and reworked Isaksson's Mastermind board into a safe puzzle. After a short time, the pair had devised five more safes in this style, and the thought arose for an entire game about cracking safes in a single building. This concepting stage began in summer 1994. Isaksson and Papworth soon pitched the Safecracker idea to Erik Phersson and Jan Phersson-Broburg, the heads of a local computer services company, Sombrero, that Isaksson had co-founded. The more recent hire Leif Holm was present as well. At a meeting in fall 1994, roughly one month after Isaksson had shown Myst to Papworth, the five men resolved to create Safecracker together. The Phersson brothers had already been anxious to expand into new fields. Phersson-Broburg immediately arranged an interview with Sanji Tandan, the head of Warner Music Sweden, based on the logic that the publisher had a worldwide foothold in the CD business. The first contact with Warner occurred in October 1994. However, the Safecracker team initially lacked any materials to sell Tandan on the game. Papworth, a professional illustrator, wrote that he hurriedly "made 2 pretty crude visuals with colored felt tips on an A1 sketch pad that showed a start sequence and some examples of different safe puzzles". Phersson-Broburg composed a financial roadmap for the project, while Isaksson cooperated with Papworth to construct the game's plot. The team used StrataVision 3D to create a test of Safecrackers pre-rendered graphics. Tandan enjoyed their presentation and the meeting was a success. Based on this event, the five team members founded Daydream Software in November 1994. Nevertheless, Daydream's handshake deal with the publisher fell through. Tandan reported back that the rest of Warner Music Sweden was uninterested in pursuing computer games. Shortly thereafter, the Safecracker plan was revived during the 1994 Christmas party at Daydream's new office space. The team was called by the London-based Warner Interactive Entertainment, whose executive Laurence Scotford expressed interest in the game and soon flew to Umeå to learn more. The team then traveled to the publisher's London headquarters and pitched Safecracker directly. A writer for the city of Umeå later remarked that it was "a tricky display with cumbersome computers", but the parties reached a tentative agreement to partner on the game. Afterward, the contract was carefully tweaked at Daydream's offices. The developer signed with Warner to develop Safecracker in March 1995, as part of a three-year, multi-title deal set to run until March 1998. Funding was provided via an advance against royalties of 2.5 million kr; Daydream was set to earn 50 kr per unit sold, while Warner retained all revenues for the first 50,000 sales of the game. In retrospect, Papworth felt that Daydream was "lucky" to have joined the game industry when it did, as many of "the big record companies" were entering the computer game business with low standards as to the content they financed. ===Production=== Daydream Software began development of Safecracker by creating thorough blueprints of the mansion and its rooms on paper. Objects inside the building were similarly drawn on paper ahead of the modeling stage. Nigel Papworth wrote that he "raided the local bookshops and bought up all the books [he] could find on antique furniture and Victoriana" for inspiration. The plan was to build the game's visual assets on Macintosh computers with Strata StudioPro after the concepting phase. However, Daydream soon deduced that the agreed-upon budget and deadline for Safecracker were unworkable with the developer's existing personnel and technology, according to Papworth. Hoping to speed up production, Jörgen Isaksson suggested that the team develop Safecrackers graphics on expensive Silicon Graphics workstations instead. Daydream felt that these machines and their software "offered an unbeatable combination of speed, quality in modeling and rendering". The company persuaded Warner Interactive Entertainment to pay $50,000 for three workstations and a server, which made Daydream one of Sweden's top three buyers of Silicon Graphics computers. As a result, the graphics-production setup for Safecracker consisted of SGI Indy machines, for modeling the visuals, and a single SGI Challenge server. All of them were used for rendering. For Safecrackers design, the team adopted a nonlinear approach because they were "allergic" to linear gameplay, Papworth later said. While researching adventure games in preparation, Papworth catalogued his dislikes with the genre and shaped Safecracker accordingly. This resulted in a scheme to make the basement and first floor fully traversable from the start, and the second floor unlockable after a relatively short time. In this way, Papworth noted, "Only the end task would be dependent on most of the clues having been already solved", which prevented Safecracker from becoming a series of roadblocks. Nonlinearity proved to be a challenge for both the designers and programmers. In an attempt to prevent the open structure from confusing players, the team included "exact instructions and advice" in the starting sequence, Papworth explained. Papworth used each room's theme to determine the design of its puzzles: for example, the music room contains a jukebox-inspired safe. He recalled creating roughly "80% of the safe designs in the first 3–4 weeks" of production; the rest were handled by other team members at later times. Safecracker was developed primarily on Macintosh hardware with Macromedia Director and QuickTime VR. The latter software, which displays virtual-reality panoramas, had not yet been used for many games. It was one of the selling points in the Warner Interactive deal: Papworth remarked that the team hoped to "be the first developer to use [3D rotating panoramas] in a full sized game." Daydream worked initially with a beta edition, as QuickTime VR was not launched until July 1995. To create Safecrackers visuals, Daydream used its Silicon Graphics computers to build wire-frame 3D models with programs from Alias Wavefront, including PowerAnimator. Each modeler consulted a collective to-do list, from which he would "pick an object ... and write his name beside it", according to Papworth. This list cited the relevant reference pages in Papworth's books. Texture maps were drawn on Macintosh computers with Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator. Once a textured environment was lit, the team inserted a camera to render 12 images in a 360° radius, and the results were image-stitched into a rotatable panorama with QuickTime VR. During production, Daydream legally had zero employees, and instead hired Sombrero staff and outside freelancers on a contractual basis. Team members assumed multiple roles. Leif Holm and the new hire Fredrik Jonsson modeled environments and furniture; Holm simultaneously managed aspects of Unix programming. Papworth, alongside his other jobs, textured environments and arranged objects inside them. Isaksson modeled and coded, but also compiled the team's visual assets into QuickTime VR and Macromedia Director, in which they were made playable and interactive. Sound effects, handled with Digital Audio Tapes and Macromedia's SoundEdit, were overseen by Erik Phersson. Papworth recalled that Daydream "purchased about 100 sound effect CDs" to assist him. Hoping to increase the soundtrack's quality by hiring professionals, Daydream contracted Swedish artists Rob 'n' Raz to create a unique musical theme for every room in Safecracker. This deal caused issues with STIM and the Nordisk Copyright Bureau regarding Rob 'n' Raz's rates, as there were no guidelines for computer software scores. Near the end of development, Daydream similarly contracted the firm Datadesign & Multimedia AB for coding assistance. ===Delays and public offering=== As Safecrackers production progressed, instability at Warner Interactive Entertainment became a major concern for Daydream Software. These issues resulted in costly delays. The team finished "a basic build of Safecracker in less than a year", according to Nigel Papworth, and the game was nearing completion by the first part of 1996. However, around that time, Warner informed Daydream that it wanted the game localized in eight languages, even though the original contract had only accounted for English. This pushed the completion date back four months: the game's pre-rendered visuals contained writing in English and had to be deconstructed and re-rendered in other languages. Laurence Scotford was moved off Safecracker thanks to corporate restructuring; meanwhile, Warner Interactive Entertainment's sister branch Time Warner Interactive was sold to WMS Gaming in April 1996. Warner demonstrated Safecrackers progress at the spring European Computer Trade Show (ECTS) that month, by which time it was on track for July. Inscape, a Warner affiliate that served as the game's North American distributor, subsequently showed Safecracker at the 1996 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). In July 1996, Time Warner signaled plans to exit the game industry entirely, after its moves earlier in the year. Daydream learned that Warner Interactive Entertainment was being sold to GT Interactive around the time that the localizations for Safecracker were almost finished. By September 1996, talks of the buyout effort had become public at the fall ECTS. A writer for the city of Umeå noted that Daydream had "an uneasy feeling" about the deal, partly because GT Interactive was known for shooter games antithetical to Safecrackers nonviolent ethos. In addition, Papworth recalled his negative impression of a leading GT executive, whom he later dubbed "the most arrogant and unpleasant individual whom we had stumbled across in [the] industry". Before Warner's sale was completed, Daydream began to explore alternative business strategies to offer the team greater flexibility. The developer sought to increase its economic and decision-making independence compared to traditional publishing arrangements, and, for future projects, to select publishers nearer to the end of development. In particular, Jan Phersson- Broberg wrote that Daydream wanted to secure partners that were "strong at the time of launch." Daydream struggled to find investors in Sweden. The country's game industry was small: Daydream itself was "one of Sweden's first international developers", according to a writer for the city of Umeå. It was the only development house in the city. Attempts to obtain money from banks were unsuccessful, as they were indifferent to Safecracker and did not see computer games as valuable in comparison to staple industries like lumber. Phersson-Broberg noted that Swedish venture capitalists were similarly uninterested in his business, thanks to the long-term returns on investment that Daydream promised. This problem ultimately led Daydream to attempt an initial public offering (IPO), after the brokerage firm Matteus Corporate Finance approached the developer and assessed its worth as 40 million kr. Phersson-Broberg called the plan dangerous and "probably the last thing you choose as a young company". However, he argued that self-financing Daydream's future games with money from Swedish shareholders would provide more stability, adaptability and room for growth. In November 1996, Daydream bought Sombrero to incorporate the team into a single business. GT Interactive announced its purchase of Warner Interactive Entertainment on November 25, and Daydream released its IPO prospectus to potential investors on the 26th. According to the plan, the company was not expected to reach profitability for more than three years. Safecracker had been in development for roughly one- and-a-half years by that time, and was set to launch around the turn of 1997. Papworth's work on the game concluded in November, and he started to explore possibilities for Daydream's next title. A large amount of media attention began to surround Daydream's IPO. The team hosted regular meetings with Swedish and international investors at Stockholm's Sturehof restaurant, where they demonstrated Safecracker on large displays. In early December 1996, during the run-up to the public offering, Safecracker won the "Best Entertainment Title" and "Overall People's Choice" prizes at the Macromedia European Users Conference. Later that month, Daydream sold 2.6 million shares—roughly 45.5% of the company—to Matteus Corporate Finance at 7.65 kr each. This raised 20 million kr. Matteus's role as the subscriber was to sell these shares to the wider public, with a starting price of 8.35 kr per share. Daydream opened on the Stockholm Stock Exchange's Stockholm Börsinformation (SBI) list on January 16, 1997. Its launch was an immediate hit: the company's share price ended the first day at 29 kr. Stocks quickly rose to 48 kr, and ultimately stabilized around 58 kr. Buyers included Berth Milton and Björn Nordstrand. The Wall Street Journal reported that Daydream became "the darling of the country's stock market"; its IPO achieved a 25-time oversubscription, Matteus's biggest success by that date. Soon after the launch, Pål Leveraas of Norway's Digi.no wrote, "With nothing but a new, self-developed computer game in the portfolio, the five [founders] have already become multi-millionaires." A writer for the city of Umeå similarly noted that "Daydream didn't even have a game on the market, let alone any revenue." Meanwhile, Safecracker began to encounter problems with GT Interactive. Daydream told investors that the new publisher was set to honor Warner's agreements on the project, and that the team viewed the situation as "very positive". However, GT Interactive delayed Safecracker past its due date of January 1997 to redesign its physical packaging—initially to late March and finally to May. ==Release and distribution== Safecracker was first released in Sweden in the middle of May 1997. Later that month and in early June, it received follow-up launches in 14 other territories across Europe and South America. Despite significant pre- release coverage, Safecrackers many delays meant that the "momentum for the game ... could not be exploited", according to the academic researchers Ola Henfridsson, Helena Holmström and Ole Hanseth. It accrued sales of 18,000 units in its first two weeks. Jan Phersson-Broberg later told investors that GT Interactive failed to support Safecracker at retail. He reported that the publisher "did not advertise, [and] did not place interviews, reviews" or other press relations material for the game, and that he received silence when Daydream Software sought an explanation. Behind the scenes, according to The Wall Street Journal, the project had "ended up on the 'let-die' pile" at GT Interactive. Global sales of Safecracker reached 22,000 units by the start of autumn, before its launch in the Australian and North American markets. It remained unreleased in the latter region by late 1997. Nigel Papworth noted that North America was "seen as the paramount market to crack" for international developers; its buying power was equivalent to the rest of the world's combined. Reacting to these delays, Daydream publicly reported trouble with GT Interactive Europe in late 1997, and questioned the publisher's competence with and interest in Safecracker. Next Generation quoted the team's statement that it was "increasingly frustrated over the lack of marketing and the stalling of a North American release". In September 1997, Daydream initiated a plan to repurchase all rights to Safecracker, a move enabled by the developer's independent financing from shareholders. The buyout was executed on November 27. It cost roughly 1.4 million kr, compared to the 2.2 million kr that Daydream owed its publisher for the Warner Interactive advance. The money spent to purchase Safecracker counted toward repayment of the advance, which had been set to bankrupt Daydream. In place of the GT Interactive contract, Daydream hired the talent agency Octagon Entertainment, a firm also involved with Fable and Starship Titanic. Octagon's job was to sign local distribution partners in Asia, Europe, Australia and North America for Safecracker. Phersson-Broberg told investors that partnering with regional companies, each of which understood its respective market, enabled the developer to "spread [its] eggs in more baskets". This strategy was intended to raise Safecrackers chances of becoming a hit. Daydream offloaded marketing and unit production to each distributor, which Phersson-Broberg said would allow the company to "focus solely on developing more good computer games." The developer forecast that the repayment of its advance, combined with its full ownership of the game, would hasten Safecrackers breaking even. As part of the buyback deal with GT Interactive, Daydream recalled around 7,500 unsold copies of the game's original release to storage. The developer proceeded to resell these to new distributors at prices ranging from 80 to 180 kr. Safecrackers Macintosh version launched in Sweden in December 1997. By March 1998, Safecrackers display at the Milia festival in Cannes had secured it new distribution agreements in nine countries, including Germany, France, Australia and—with publisher PXL Computers—Canada and the United States. Daydream signed with Ahead Multimedia in June 1998 to re-release the game in Sweden, attracted by the publisher's penetration of unusual storefronts such as post offices and gas stations. In markets where GT Interactive had previously launched Safecracker, the game was sold at a lower price. Phersson- Broberg promised investors greater earnings from North America, as it was a new market for the game. Safecracker had reappeared in certain countries by the end of May 1998; revenue on each unit ranged between 30 and 130 kr at the time. Despite PXL Computers' release of the game, Papworth reported in 1999 that Safecracker had underperformed in North America. He felt that its tumultuous history had prevented it from receiving "the crack it deserve[d] at the American Market". Safecrackers global sales totaled 65,000 units by January 1999, for revenues of 3.2 million kr. This performance amounted to a lifetime loss of 500,000 kr. Sales had risen to roughly 70,000 units the following month, at which point the game's development costs were fully capitalized. Although Safecracker had become a budget game by that time, Daydream told investors that its revenues remained "at the same level as when the product was launched and sold as a full-cost product." Conversely, the company reported later in 1999 the game's lower price point had decreased its earnings. Safecracker sold roughly 200,000 units by May 30 and 235,000 by September 30. By April 2000, European and Asian markets alone had accounted for 250,000 sales. In spring 2000, Safecracker received a second launch in North America through DreamCatcher Interactive, the distributor for Daydream's Traitors Gate in the region. This deal offered Safecracker access to mainstream retailers such as Best Buy, Babbage's and CompUSA, at around 1,600 locations throughout the territory. It became successful for DreamCatcher. The game's worldwide sales reached approximately 275,000 copies by the end of May 2000 and 300,000 copies by mid-2001. In the 2010s, a writer for the city of Umeå retrospectively judged Safecracker a success. The author remarked that the game ultimately "sold 650,000 copies, not least via the department store chain Walmart", where it was stocked as a budget title. ==Reception== In October 1997, Safecracker won the "People's Choice" prize among entertainment products at the Macromedia International User Conference (UCON). This followed the game's wins, before its launch, at the Macromedia European User Awards. Reviewing the game's PXL Computers edition, Joseph Novicki of PC Gamer US and Joel Strauch of PC Games offered conflicting opinions. Novicki praised the "clarity of purpose" in Safecrackers narrow focus on puzzle-solving, compared to Myst-inspired titles that combine puzzles with plot. By contrast, Strauch considered the game's limited story and premise to be major flaws. The lack of interaction beyond safecracking was likewise cited as a positive and a negative, respectively, by the two writers. While Novicki summarized Safecracker as "good puzzle game for gamers of all skill levels", despite problems with its inventory system, Strauch called the puzzles a mixed bag and ultimately panned the game. The reviewer for PC PowerPlay, David Wildgoose, continued Strauch's complaints about the "stifling and pointless basic premise" in Safecracker. Charlie Brooker of PC Zone concurred: he dismissed the title as a dull, limited experience, and "the sort of thing that [only] impresses computer game virgins and Macintosh owners". He also echoed Strauch's criticism of the QuickTime VR implementation, which both writers found unimpressive as a computer game engine. Brooker's only praise went to the soundtrack, which he considered "alright". Wildgoose joined Brooker in calling Safecrackers visuals technically impressive but nevertheless drab and boring, and took a harder line than Strauch against the "witless, haphazard" puzzles. Writing for IGN, Scott Steinberg was more positive on the puzzles, of which he noted that "a rather large quantity ... are nothing short of ingenious". He also offered light praise to the visuals, in contrast to Brooker and Wildgoose. Despite these concessions, Steinberg ultimately declared Safecracker prohibitively difficult and confusing, and he sharply criticized its "techno crud" score. The adventure game websites Just Adventure and Adventure Gamers were more approving of Safecracker. Ray Ivey of the latter publication called the puzzle design "simply a delight", and felt that the game was addictive. Just Adventure's Randy Sluganski similarly lauded the puzzles. Although he found them extremely difficult, he wrote that "you actually feel a sense of accomplishment and pride" after solving them. Sluganski also enjoyed the "top-notch" visuals. While he and Ivey both declared Safecrackers plot an afterthought, neither writer felt that its simplicity detracted from the game. Both compared the proceedings to Jewels of the Oracle, which Sluganski believed would limit its appeal, but he nonetheless strongly recommended Safecracker to puzzle devotees. Ivey offered a more general recommendation: to him, Safecracker was a "breezy good time, not to be missed." ==Legacy== With Safecracker as its first release, Daydream Software became an important force in Swedish games. A writer for the city of Umeå later remarked that Daydream "laid the foundation for the lucrative gaming industry in northern Sweden", which later included Coldwood Interactive and Nifflas Games in Umeå itself. The team followed Safecracker with Traitors Gate (1999) and the online game Clusterball (2000). However, Daydream was hounded by problems related to its public launch. The Umeån writer noted that shareholders did not understand the game industry or "the time it takes to develop a large, extensive computer game", and that they demanded faster returns than the prospectus had promised. The Wall Street Journal reported that stocks had crashed at Daydream by early 1998. In retrospect, Nigel Papworth called the company's hit IPO "bad for us [in the end]. Here we were, blue-eyed, no proper management, no board." Jan Phersson-Broberg likewise believed that the IPO was premature. After a series of financial and management problems related to its public status, the developer was shuttered in 2003. In April 2006, plans for another Safecracker installment were revealed by publisher DreamCatcher Interactive. It was developed by Kheops Studio, previously known for Return to Mysterious Island. At the time of the announcement, Adventure Gamers reported that the game was to be a spiritual sequel rather than a direct follow-up, and that it would feature 35 safe puzzles. According to Kheops' Benoît Hozjan, DreamCatcher first contacted his team about developing a new Safecracker in early 2006, thanks to the original's status as a hit for the publisher. Kheops responded with a pitch for the game and suggested a story based on locating a will. Hozjan noted that the team had difficulty with the title's "fully puzzle-oriented" design, as its earlier projects had emphasized plot. The resultant game, entitled Safecracker: The Ultimate Puzzle Adventure, follows a safecracking professional who seeks the lost will of Duncan W. Adams, a wealthy collector of safes with unusual designs. After going gold in July 2006, the title reached store shelves in August. A port for the Wii was released in December 2008. == References == == External links == * Category:1997 video games Category:Point-and-click adventure games Category:Adventure games Category:First-person adventure games Category:Video games developed in Sweden Category:Embracer Group franchises Category:DreamCatcher Interactive games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Windows games Category:Daydream Software games
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Liu Zhen (劉稹; died September 27, 844Academia Sinica Chinese-Western Calendar Converter. The modern Chinese historian Bo Yang, in his Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, dated Liu Zhen's death to be the 12th day of the eighth lunar month of 844 (i.e., September 27) based on the sequence of events, although it is not completely clear that that was in fact the date of Liu Zhen's death. See Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 60 [844].) was a Chinese rebel during the Tang dynasty. He was an adopted son (biological nephew) of the Tang dynasty general Liu Congjian. After his adoptive father's death, Liu Zhen tried to take over Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), which Liu Congjian had governed as military governor (jiedushi), without approval from Emperor Wuzong. When Emperor Wuzong declared a general campaign against him, he was defeated, and he was subsequently killed, along with his clan members, by his own officer Guo Yi (郭誼). == Background == It is not known when Liu Zhen was born. His grandfather Liu Wu had been an officer under the brothers Li Shigu and Li Shidao, who were successive warlords who ruled Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong). During an imperial campaign against Li Shidao, Liu killed Li Shidao and surrendered to the imperial army. Liu Wu was subsequently made the military governor (jiedushi) of Zhaoyi Circuit. Liu Wu and Liu Zhen's uncle Liu Congjian subsequently successively ruled Zhaoyi.Old Book of Tang, vol. 161. Liu Zhen's biological father Liu Congsu (劉從素) served as a general of the imperial guards. At some point, for reasons lost to history, Liu Congjian adopted Liu Zhen to be his son. (According to Liu Congjian's biography in the New Book of Tang, Liu Congjian had some 20 sons, but they were all still children at the time of his death.)New Book of Tang, vol. 214. In 843, Liu Congjian, whose relationship with the nearby circuit military governors and relationship with the imperial government had not been good (because of his rivalry with the powerful eunuch Qiu Shiliang, with whose support then-reigning Emperor Wuzong had been able to become emperorZizhi Tongjian, vol. 246.), was gravely ill.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 247. Liu Congjian was fearful that if someone other than a family member succeeded him, his family would be slaughtered, and therefore planned to have Liu Zhen succeed him. He put Liu Zhen, another nephew Liu Kuangzhou (劉匡周), the household servant Li Shigui (李士貴), as well as officers Wang Xie (王協), Liu Shouyi (劉守義), Liu Chenzhong (劉襯忠), Dong Kewu (董可武), and Cui Xuandu (崔玄度) in charge of various key posts at the circuit headquarters. He soon died, but Liu Zhen did not announce his death, but, at Wang's suggestion, sent the officer Jiang Yin (姜崟) to the imperial government stating that Liu Congjian was merely ill, and further forced the imperial eunuch monitor of the army, Cui Shikang (崔士康), to submit a petition recommending that Liu Zhen be named acting military governor due to Liu Congjian's illness. Emperor Wuzong believed that Liu Congjian was dead, and asked the chancellors and advisory officials for their opinions. Most of them believed that, given that Tang was facing incursions from remnants of the Huigu Khanate (which had recently broken apart after attacks by the Xiajiasi), a reconciliatory stance should be taken toward Zhaoyi and that Liu Zhen should be allowed to take over. Lead chancellor Li Deyu disagreed, pointing out that Zhaoyi was isolated, and that as long as three circuits traditionally in de facto independence from the imperial government—Weibo (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan, Hebei), then ruled by He Hongjing; Chengde (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei), then ruled by Wang Yuankui; and Lulong (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing), then ruled by Zhang Zhongwu—did not support Liu Zhen, Liu Zhen could not stand against imperial forces. He advocated sending the official Li Hui to those circuits to urge them to support the imperial side by pointing out that Zhaoyi was not in the same situation as they were, implicitly guaranteeing imperial noninterference with them if they assisted against Zhaoyi. Emperor Wuzong agreed and sent the eunuchs Jie Chaozheng (解朝政) and Xue Shigan (薛士幹) to Zhaoyi to demand to see Liu Congjian, to force the issue. When Jie arrived at Zhaoyi, Liu Zhen continued to maintain that Liu Congjian was ill and not seeing any guests. Liu Zhen sent another officer, Liang Shuwen (梁叔文) to the capital Chang'an to again seek to allow his succession, while a number of other officers, led by Guo Yi, pressured Cui Shikang to go along with the proposal. Eventually, Liu Zhen announced Liu Congjian's death. Emperor Wuzong reacted by suspending the imperial gatherings to mourn Liu Congjian's death and granting him posthumous honours, while ordering Liu Zhen to escort Liu Congjian's casket to the eastern capital Luoyang. He also met Liu Congsu and ordered Liu Congsu to write Liu Zhen to persuade him to accept the imperial orders. Liu Zhen refused. In response, on June 14, 843, Emperor Wuzong stripped Liu Zhen and Liu Congjian of all of their titles and ordered a general campaign against Liu Zhen, mobilizing five circuits around Zhaoyi—Weibo; Chengde; Hedong (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), then governed by Liu Mian (劉沔); Hezhong (河中, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), then governed by Chen Yixing; and Heyang (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan), then governed by Wang Maoyuan (王茂元). Subsequently, Emperor Wuzong put Li Yanzuo (李彥佐) the military governor of Wuning Circuit (武寧, headquartered in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) in command of the Hezhong troops. It was said that this move caught Zhaoyi by surprise, as in the past it had been expected that the imperial government would make further attempts at reconciliation before ordering a general campaign. == Campaign against imperial forces == The imperial battle plan had the various military governors target the five prefectures of Zhaoyi Circuit—having Wang Yuankui targeting Xing Prefecture (邢州, in modern Xingtai, Hebei); He Hongjing targeting Ming Prefecture (洺州, in modern Handan); Wang Maoyuan targeting Ze Prefecture (澤州, in modern Jincheng, Shanxi); and Li Yanzuo and Liu Mian targeting Zhaoyi's capital Lu Prefecture. However, while Wang Yuankui launched his troops immediately, Li Yanzuo was said to have reported slowly to the front, causing Emperor Wuzong to, at Li Deyu's suggestion, reprimand him, and commissioning Shi Xiong as his deputy and eventually have Shi take over the command of the Hezhong army altogether. Meanwhile, Liu Zhen submitted a petition defending himself, proclaiming his faithfulness to the imperial government and claiming that he was only resisting because of his fear of Qiu Shiliang. He Hongjing also tried to speak on his behalf, but Emperor Wuzong rejected these pleas. With He Hongjing delaying the launch of his troops, Emperor Wuzong, at Li Deyu's suggestion, pressured He Hongjing by ordering Wang Zai the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern Xuchang, Henan) to join the campaign, targeting Ci Prefecture (磁州, in modern Handan)—and, in doing so, cutting through Weibo territory. This order surprised He Hongjing, who was fearful of Wang Zai's entry into his territory, and therefore he tried to head off imperial pressure by launching his troops thereafter. Meanwhile, a substantial part of Wang Maoyuan's troops, under his officer Ma Ji (馬繼), were stationed at Kedou Camp (科斗寨, in modern Jincheng). The Zhaoyi officer Xue Maoqing (薛茂卿) quickly attacked and captured Kedou Camp, taking Ma and other officers captive, and advancing toward Heyang's Huai Prefecture (懷州, in modern Jiaozuo, Henan)—but Xue halted because he did not have orders from Liu Zhen to advance further. The imperial government quickly diverted Wang Zai's troops to try to aid Heyang instead. At the same time, Zhaoyi troops under Zhang Ju (張巨) put Wang Maoyuan, who had become ill by this time, under siege at Wanshan (萬善, in modern Jiaozuo). The siege failed when Yicheng Circuit (義成, headquartered in modern Anyang, Henan) troops arrived to aid Wang Maoyuan, however. After Wang Maoyuan died soon thereafter, Wang Zai was also put in charge of Heyang forces, even though the military governorship of Heyang went to Jing Xin (敬昕). Meanwhile, Shi had taken over the Hezhong troops and was quickly capturing several Zhaoyi outposts. Also, Emperor Wuzong, with Liu Mian and Zhang Zhongwu having a poor relationship due to their conflicts stemming from the earlier campaign against Huigu remnants, Emperor Wuzong moved Liu Mian to Yicheng Circuit and made the former chancellor Li Shi the new military governor of Hedong. With his victory at Kedou Camp, Xue expected that Liu Zhen would reward him, but Liu Zhen, believing the words of some that it was Xue's victory that aggravated the imperial government, did not do so. In anger, Xue secretly contacted Wang Zai to offer to surrender. When Xue subsequently withdrew to Ze Prefecture and further secretly suggested Wang Zai to advance quickly toward Ze Prefecture, though, Wang Zai did not do so, believing that it was a trap. Xue's contacts with Wang Zai were then discovered, and Liu Zhen summoned him back to Lu Prefecture and killed him, along with his family. He had Liu Gongzhi replace Xue at the Ze Prefecture front. He also had Li Shi's cousin Li Tian (李恬), who was then the prefect of Ming Prefecture, write a letter to Li Shi, stating that Liu Zhen was willing to surrender to Li Shi. He then had his officer Jia Qun (賈群) deliver the letter to Hedong. Li Shi put Jia under arrest and relayed the letter to the imperial government. At Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong ordered Li Shi to respond that surrender would only be accepted if Liu Zhen and his family bound themselves at the border. Liu Zhen did not respond to this, and the campaign continued. Liu Zhen's hopes were raised, when, on Chinese New Year 844 (January 24), soldiers that Li Shi was ordered to send to the front to reinforce the Hedong soldiers already attacking Zhaoyi, angry that they were forced to do so at New Year time and that they had not received what they felt were adequate rewards to do so, rebelled at Hedong's capital Taiyuan Municipality (太原) under the leadership of the officer Yang Bian (楊弁), forcing Li Shi to flee. Yang released Jia from captivity and had him return to Zhaoyi, pledging to be sworn brothers with Liu Zhen. In the aftermaths of Yang's rebellion, there were much discussion among imperial officials that the imperial government should end the campaign against Liu Zhen. Wang Zai, in particular, sent messengers to Zhaoyi to see if Liu Zhen would be willing to surrender. (Li Deyu later suggested to Emperor Wuzong that this was because of two reasons—that Wang Zai's father Wang Zhixing had previously falsely accused Shi of crimes and Wang was therefore fearful that Shi would gain great honors by capturing Liu Zhen; and that Wang Zai's biological son Wang Yanshi (王晏實), whom Wang Zhixing adopted as a son, was then the prefect of Ci Prefecture and was being held hostage by Liu Zhen.) At Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong refused Wang Zai's suggestion of accepting Liu Zhen's surrender, and ordered the Hedong soldiers under the officer Wang Feng (王逢), as well as soldiers sent by Yiwu (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding, Hebei), Xuanwu (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan), and Yanhai (兗海, headquartered in modern Jining, Shandong) Circuits to attack Yang, followed up by troops from Wang Yuankui's Chengde Circuit. The Hedong soldiers under Wang Feng, worried that if the other circuits' soldiers captured Taiyuan first that their own family members would be killed, volunteered to attack quickly under the command of the eunuch monitor Lü Yizhong (呂義中), and on February 20, the Hedong soldiers recaptured Taiyuan, capturing Yang and killing many of his coconspirators. With Wang Zai still not advancing, at Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong sent him an edict to urge him and pressured him by transferring Liu Mian to Heyang Circuit and having Liu Mian take the Yicheng troops to Wanshan, close to Wang Zai's camp. After one of Liu Zhen's officers, Gao Wenduan (高文端), defected to the imperial forces, he offered several key tactics on attacking Zhaoyi, based on its geography, and further suggested trying to persuade another major Zhaoyi officer, Wang Zhao (王釗), who was then helping the defense of Min Prefecture, to defect as well.Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 248. Meanwhile, it was said that Liu Zhen was young and weak in his personality, and, in effect, Wang Xie and Li Shigui were in control of the headquarters. They collected much wealth but were not willing to distribute it to the soldiers, causing morale to suffer. Liu Congjian's wife Lady Pei became concerned about the situation and wanted to recall her brother Pei Wen (裴問), who was then defending the three prefectures east of the Taihang Mountains (Xing, Min, and Ci), to the headquarters. Li Shigui, concerned that if Pei Wen returned, Pei Wen would discover his illegal acts and strip his power, and therefore advised against it, arguing that recalling Pei would lead to the fall of the three prefectures. Liu Zhen agreed and did not recall Pei Wen. Meanwhile, though, the officer Liu Xi (劉溪), whom Wang Xie had sent to Xing Prefecture to collect taxes, angered the soldiers by arresting even their fathers and brothers, many of whom were merchants, to force them to pay taxes. When Pei Wen interceded on the soldiers' behalf and requested leniency, Liu Xi refused and was rude to him. In anger, Pei Wen and the prefect of Xing, Cui Gu (崔嘏), killed Liu Xi and surrendered Xing Prefecture to Wang Yuankui, on September 11. Wang Zhao and An Yu (安玉), hearing this, also surrendered Min and Ci Prefectures, respectively, to He Hongjing. == Death == On September 26, news of the three prefectures' surrender reached the imperial capital Chang'an, and the news also reached Lu Prefecture (probably on September 26 as well), shocking the troops there. Thereafter, Guo Yi and Wang Xie began to plot to kill Liu Zhen to save their own lives. Guo, worried that Liu Kuangzhou, who served as the guard commander at headquarters, would stop any plot, convinced Liu Zhen that it was Liu Kuangzhou's presence that caused the officers to be unable to give their suggestions freely; as a result, Liu Zhen had Liu Kuangzhou leave headquarters. Guo then had Dong Kewu, whom Liu Zhen trusted, suggest that Liu transfer the control of the headquarters to Guo, while Liu Zhen himself head to the imperial territory to surrender. Liu Zhen agreed and did so under the name of Lady Pei, who had her misgivings. Li Shigui, hearing this, made an attempt to attack Guo; Guo counterattacked, and Li Shigui was killed. The next day (probably September 27), Guo had Dong invite Liu Zhen to a feast. During the middle of the feast, Dong stated that, in order to protect the Liu clan, Liu Zhen must die. Liu Zhen agreed—and Cui Xuandu thereafter cut off his head. After Liu Zhen died, however, contrary to these words, Guo slaughtered the Liu clan, and 11 additional clans of officials that Liu Congjian had treated well. (Subsequently, after Shi Xiong arrived at Lu Prefecture, Guo and his coconspirators were arrested and delivered to Chang'an, where they were executed.) == Notes and references == * Old Book of Tang, vol. 161. * New Book of Tang, vol. 214. * Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 247, 248. Category:9th-century births Category:844 deaths Category:Executed Tang dynasty people Category:People executed by the Tang dynasty by decapitation Category:Tang dynasty rebels
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The Council of Troubles (usual English translation of , or , or ) was the special tribunal instituted on 9 September 1567 by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, governor-general of the Habsburg Netherlands on the orders of Philip II of Spain to punish the ringleaders of the recent political and religious troubles in the Netherlands. Due to the many death sentences pronounced by the tribunal, it also became known as the Council of Blood (Bloedraad in Dutch and Conseil de Sang in French). The tribunal would be abolished by Alba's successor Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens on 7 June 1574 in exchange for a subsidy from the States-General of the Netherlands, but in practice it remained in session until the popular revolution in Brussels of the summer of 1576. ==Background== During the final two years of the regency of Margaret of Parma over the Habsburg Netherlands, circumstances—political (disaffection of the high nobility with its diminished role in the councils of state), religious (disaffection over the persecution of heretics and the reform of the organisation of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands, especially the creation of new dioceses), and economic (a famine in 1565)—conspired to bring about a number of political and social events that shook the regime to its foundations. A League of Nobles (mostly members of the lower nobility) protested the severity of the persecution of heretics with a petition to the Regent, who conceded the demands temporarily. This may have encouraged the Calvinists in the country to follow the iconoclastic depredations on Catholic churches that also burst out in France in the summer of 1566. Although this iconoclastic fury was soon suppressed by the authorities, and the concessions to the Calvinists retracted, these "troubles" sufficiently disturbed the Court in Madrid to motivate Philip to send his trusted commander, the Duke of Alba, with an army of Spanish troops to restore order in the Netherlands. When he arrived there, his first measures so offended the Regent that she resigned in protest in early September 1567.Motley ==History== ===Patent instituting the Council=== One of these measures was the institution (9 September 1567) of a council to investigate and punish the events described above. This council was only later to become known as the "Council of Troubles," as for the moment it was presented as just an advisory council, next to the three collateral Habsburg councils (Council of State, Privy Council, and Council of Finances), and the High Court at Mechelen. The fact, however, that it superseded these preexisting councils for this express purpose, and that the new tribunal (as it turned out to be) ignored the judicial privileges enshrined in such constitutional documents as the Joyeuse entrée of the ancient Duchy of Brabant (which Philip had affirmed on his accession to the ducal throne in 1556), shocked the constitutional conscience of the Regent, and the Dutch politicians. Initially, the council was composed of the Duke himself (as president), assisted by two high Netherlandish nobles, Charles de Berlaymont (the alleged author of the epithet Geuzen)http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/personen/b/berlaymont.htm and Philippe de Noircarmes (as vice-presidents). Members were a number of prominent jurists, recruited from the Councils of the provinces, such as Adrianus Nicolai (chancellor of Guelders), Jacob Meertens (president of the council of Artois), Pieter Asset, Jacob Hessels (councillor of Ghent), and his colleague Johan de la Porte (advocaat-fiscaal of Flanders). Jean du Bois, procureur-generaal at the High Court became chief prosecutor. The most influential members were reportedly two Spaniards, who came with Alba from Spain: Juan de Vargashttp://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/personen/v/vargas.htm and Luis del Río.http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/personen/d/delriolouis.htm Jacques de la Torre (a secretary of the Privy Council) became the principal secretary of the new council. Only these Spanish members apparently had the right to vote on verdicts.Gachard, pp. 53, 55 ===Organization and procedure=== At first, the council acted as an advisory council of the Duke, who decided on all verdicts himself. As the number of cases grew into the thousands in the years following the early sensational trials, this was not practicable. Alba therefore instituted two criminal and two civil Chambers for the Council in 1569, and expanded the number of councillors appreciably, at the same time replacing a few councillors (like the Burgundian Claude Belin), who had shown an undesirable degree of independence. The most important of the new members was the new secretary Jeronimo de Roda,http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/personen/r/roda.htm who received the same powers as Vargas and Del Rio.Gachard, pp. 63-66 The criminal cases were apportioned to the two criminal chambers on a regional basis. The civil chambers were charged with the many appeals against confiscations of the material goods that were usually part of the death sentences or sentences of perpetual banishment. The management of these forfeited possessions was also an important task of the civil chambers. The case load was nevertheless so overwhelming, that at the time of the formal abolition of the council a staggering 14,000 cases were still undecided. Aside from judicial functions, the council also had an important advisory role in the attempts at codification of criminal law, that the government of Alba made in the early 1570s. Because of the development of the Revolt, these attempts came to nothing, however. After the initial, rather chaotic period, the procedure followed in trials was that all criminal courts had to report cases within the remit of the council (heresy and treason) to the council. Depending on the importance of the case, the council would then either leave the case to the lower court for settlement, or take it up itself. In case the matter was called up from the lower court, it would either be settled by the council itself, or the lower court would receive instructions about the sentence it would have to pronounce.Gachard, p. 67 The government did not leave the prosecutions to chance in the lower courts, however. From the beginning, commissioners were sent out to the provinces to actively pursue heretics and political undesirables. Those commissioners were an important source of cases, and they also functioned as provincial annexes of the central council in Brussels. The trials were conducted completely in writing. Written indictments were produced that had to be answered in writing by the defendants. The verdicts were in writing also. The verdicts generally had little basis in law as it was understood at the time. The accusation was usually crimen laesae majestatis or high treason. This, of course, was a crime well-founded in Roman law (which was still followed in the Netherlands at the time). The content was nebulous. The councillors (and Alba himself) made it up as they went according to the exigencies of the situation. No wonder many contemporaries viewed the proceedings as purely arbitrary. The fact that the proceedings seem to have been guided only by verbal instructions of Alba, did little to ameliorate this impression.Gachard, pp. 67-68 ===Notorious cases=== The most notorious cases were those of the political elite of the Netherlands. Alba indicted most members of the former Council of State in late 1567. Most indictees (like William the Silent) had gone abroad for their health, but two prominent members Lamoral, Count of Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn were apprehended in September 1567.Lamoral Graaf von Egmont, Spencer C. Tucker, 500 Great Military Leaders, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2015), 219. Despite the fact that they were members of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and claimed the privilege to be tried by their peers, Philip denied this claim, and they were tried and convicted by the Council of Troubles. Both were sentenced to death and executed on 5 June 1568. But these were only the most eminent victims. According to historical writer Jonathan Israel, almost nine thousand people, from all levels of society, were convicted of heresy or treason. As most of these were tried in absentia, however, only about 1,000 of these sentences were carried out. The other convicts had to live in exile, their possessions confiscated. (1995), The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806, Oxford University Press; (hardback); (paperback), pp. 156-157 As regards the first objective: four days before the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Horne there was the wholesale execution of eighteen lesser nobles (among whom the three brothers Bronckhorst van Batenburg) in Brussels. Many other nobles, especially from Holland, where a large part of the ridderschap had been implicated in the League of Nobles, fled abroad (still forfeiting their lands). Among those were Willem Bloys van Treslong (who in 1572 captured Den Briel), Gijsbrecht van Duivenvoorde (who would be a prominent defender in the siege of Haarlem in 1573), Jacob van Duivenvoorde (later a prominent defender of Leiden in 1574) and Willem van Zuylen van Nijevelt (a Utrecht iconoclast). But members of the urban patriciate were also persecuted. The Advocate of the States of Holland, Jacob van den Eynde was arrested, but died in captivity before his trial ended. In Haarlem Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert was arrested, but he managed to escape, Lenaert Jansz de Graeff from Amsterdam fled to Bruges and later became captain of the Sea Beggars in the Capture of Brielle. Others, including Jan van Casembroot (from Bruges) and Anthony van Stralen, Lord of Merksem (Mayor of Antwerp) were less fortunate.Israel, op. cit., pp. 157-159 Many more lesser-known people were engulfed in the wholesale condemnations that the Council issued like clockwork. The first were 84 inhabitants of Valenciennes (then still part of the Netherlands) on 4 January 1568; followed on 20 February by 95 people from several places in Flanders; 21 February: 25 inhabitants of Thielt and 46 of Mechelen, etc.Gachard, p. 62. Thousands somehow related to Calvinism fled to more hospitable places, including such Amsterdam families as De Graeff, Bicker, Laurens Reael, Huydecoper van Maarsseveen, , Hooft, and Middelburg (Boreel, Van der Perre and Van Vosbergen) who would later become prominent Regent families in those cities. The exodus proceeded in two main waves: in the spring of 1567 (those who did not await Alba's arrival), and again after a round of wholesale arrests, in the winter of 1567/68. The total number of people involved has been estimated at 60,000.Israel, op. cit., pp. 159-160 Alba hoped the confiscations that accompanied the condemnations would be an important source of income for the Crown. However, Philip directed him to pay new pensions from the proceeds to people who had served the Crown well in previous years. Also, the council's civil chambers were swamped with claims concerning the legality of the confiscations. Nevertheless, the proceeds reached half a million ducats annually according to a letter from the Spanish ambassador in France to Philip in 1572.Gachard, p. 69 and fn. 3 ===Abolition=== After Alba's replacement with Requesens as governor-general the Council continued its work but it became increasingly clear that its proceedings were counterproductive in combatting the Rebellion. Philip therefore authorized Requesens to abolish the Council in 1574, if the States General were prepared to make adequate political concessions. After the promise of a large subsidy by the States General the council was formally abolished by Requesens on 7 June 1574, contingent upon payment of the subsidy.Gachard, pp. 71-74 ==Aftermath== As the subsidy remained unpaid, the Council remained in being during the remainder of Requesens' tenure. No further death sentences were pronounced. After Requesens' death in March 1576 a power vacuum ensued. The Council of State now demanded to see the instructions and records of the tribunal. However, the secretary, De Roda, replied that there were no written instructions. When asked how the council had managed to try and condemn so many people, he said that the council had condemned nobody: all sentences were pronounced by the governors-general themselves; the council had technically only prepared the drafts.Gachard, p.75 On 4 September 1576, revolutionary bands, led by Jacques de Glymes, bailli of Brabant, arrested the members of the Council of State (the acting Brussels government). This ended at the same time the Council of Troubles (which the Council of State had not dared to disperse). A large part of the archives of the council were lost shortly after this action but many duplicates are still extant in Spanish archives. Prominent members of the council were arrested by the Rebels: Del Río was sent to the headquarters of the Prince of Orange, where he was subjected to rigorous examination concerning the doings of the late council, but was later released in exchange for another prisoner. The notorious Hessels, accused in popular lore of sleeping through many trials and exclaiming Ad patibulum ("To the gallows!") whenever he startled awake, was summarily hanged by the revolutionary Ghent government. Vargas and De Roda managed to escape.Gachard, pp. 76-78 ==Literature== * Charles-Albert de Behault, Le Compromis des nobles et le Conseil des troubles, Bulletin de l'Association de la Noblesse du Royaume de Belgique, avril 2023, n° 314, pp. 11–56 * ==Sources== * (1849) "Notice sur le Conseil des Troubles, institué par le duc d'Albe", in: Bulletins de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux arts de Belgique. Tome XVI-Deuxieme Partie, pp. 50–78 Category:Eighty Years' War (1566–1609) Category:1567 establishments in the Habsburg Netherlands Category:1574 disestablishments Tr
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Multi-junction (MJ) solar cells are solar cells with multiple p–n junctions made of different semiconductor materials. Each material's p-n junction will produce electric current in response to different wavelengths of light. The use of multiple semiconducting materials allows the absorbance of a broader range of wavelengths, improving the cell's sunlight to electrical energy conversion efficiency. Traditional single-junction cells have a maximum theoretical efficiency of 33.16%. Theoretically, an infinite number of junctions would have a limiting efficiency of 86.8% under highly concentrated sunlight. As of 2023 the best lab examples of traditional crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells had efficiencies up to 26.81%, while lab examples of multi- junction cells have demonstrated performance over 46% under concentrated sunlight."Solar Junction Breaks Concentrated Solar World Record with 43.5% Efficiency". Cnet.com. Commercial examples of tandem cells are widely available at 30% under one-sun illumination,"ZTJ Space Solar Cell" , emcore and improve to around 40% under concentrated sunlight. However, this efficiency is gained at the cost of increased complexity and manufacturing price. To date, their higher price and higher price-to-performance ratio have limited their use to special roles, notably in aerospace where their high power-to-weight ratio is desirable. In terrestrial applications, these solar cells are emerging in concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), but can not compete with single junction solar panels unless a higher power density is required."Concentrating Photovoltaic Technology" , NREL Tandem fabrication techniques have been used to improve the performance of existing designs. In particular, the technique can be applied to lower cost thin-film solar cells using amorphous silicon, as opposed to conventional crystalline silicon, to produce a cell with about 10% efficiency that is lightweight and flexible. This approach has been used by several commercial vendors,"Uni-Solar Energy Production", Uni-Solar but these products are currently limited to certain niche roles, like roofing materials. == Description == === Basics of solar cells === Traditional photovoltaic cells are commonly composed of doped silicon with metallic contacts deposited on the top and bottom. The doping is normally applied to a thin layer on the top of the cell, producing a p-n junction with a particular bandgap energy, Eg. Photons that hit the top of the solar cell are either reflected or transmitted into the cell. Transmitted photons have the potential to give their energy, hν, to an electron if hν ≥ Eg, generating an electron-hole pair."Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods", Technical Information Office, Solar Energy Research Institute (1982) In the depletion region, the drift electric field Edrift accelerates both electrons and holes towards their respective n-doped and p-doped regions (up and down, respectively). The resulting current Ig is called the generated photocurrent. In the quasi-neutral region, the scattering electric field Escatt accelerates holes (electrons) towards the p-doped (n-doped) region, which gives a scattering photocurrent Ipscatt (Inscatt). Consequently, due to the accumulation of charges, a potential V and a photocurrent Iph appear. The expression for this photocurrent is obtained by adding generation and scattering photocurrents: Iph = Ig \+ Inscatt \+ Ipscatt. The J-V characteristics (J is current density, i.e. current per unit area) of a solar cell under illumination are obtained by shifting the J-V characteristics of a diode in the dark downward by Iph. Since solar cells are designed to supply power and not absorb it, the power P = VIph must be negative. Hence, the operating point (Vm, Jm) is located in the region where and , and chosen to maximize the absolute value of the power |P|. === Loss mechanisms === The theoretical performance of a solar cell was first studied in depth in the 1960s, and is today known as the Shockley–Queisser limit. The limit describes several loss mechanisms that are inherent to any solar cell design. The first are the losses due to blackbody radiation, a loss mechanism that affects any material object above absolute zero. In the case of solar cells at standard temperature and pressure, this loss accounts for about 7% of the power. The second is an effect known as "recombination", where the electrons created by the photoelectric effect meet the electron holes left behind by previous excitations. In silicon, this accounts for another 10% of the power. However, the dominant loss mechanism is the inability of a solar cell to extract all of the power in the light, and the associated problem that it cannot extract any power at all from certain photons. This is due to the fact that the photons must have enough energy to overcome the bandgap of the material. If the photon has less energy than the bandgap, it is not collected at all. This is a major consideration for conventional solar cells, which are not sensitive to most of the infrared spectrum, although that represents almost half of the power coming from the sun. Conversely, photons with more energy than the bandgap, say blue light, initially eject an electron to a state high above the bandgap, but this extra energy is lost through collisions in a process known as "relaxation". This lost energy turns into heat in the cell, which has the side-effect of further increasing blackbody losses. Combining all of these factors, the maximum efficiency for a single-bandgap material, like conventional silicon cells, is about 34%. That is, 66% of the energy in the sunlight hitting the cell will be lost. Practical concerns further reduce this, notably reflection off the front surface or the metal terminals, with modern high-quality cells at about 22%. Lower, also called narrower, bandgap materials will convert longer wavelength, lower energy photons. Higher, or wider bandgap materials will convert shorter wavelength, higher energy light. An analysis of the AM1.5 spectrum, shows the best balance is reached at about 1.1 eV (about 1100 nm, in the near infrared), which happens to be very close to the natural bandgap in silicon and a number of other useful semiconductors. === Multi-junction cells === Cells made from multiple materials layers can have multiple bandgaps and will therefore respond to multiple light wavelengths, capturing and converting some of the energy that would otherwise be lost to relaxation as described above. For instance, if one had a cell with two bandgaps in it, one tuned to red light and the other to green, then the extra energy in green, cyan and blue light would be lost only to the bandgap of the green-sensitive material, while the energy of the red, yellow and orange would be lost only to the bandgap of the red-sensitive material. Following analysis similar to those performed for single-bandgap devices, it can be demonstrated that the perfect bandgaps for a two-gap device are at 0.77eV and 1.70eV. Conveniently, light of a particular wavelength does not interact strongly with materials that are of bigger bandgap. This means that you can make a multi-junction cell by layering the different materials on top of each other, shortest wavelengths (biggest bandgap) on the "top" and increasing through the body of the cell. As the photons have to pass through the cell to reach the proper layer to be absorbed, transparent conductors need to be used to collect the electrons being generated at each layer. Producing a tandem cell is not an easy task, largely due to the thinness of the materials and the difficulties extracting the current between the layers. The easy solution is to use two mechanically separate thin film solar cells and then wire them together separately outside the cell. This technique is widely used by amorphous silicon solar cells, Uni-Solar's products use three such layers to reach efficiencies around 9%. Lab examples using more exotic thin-film materials have demonstrated efficiencies over 30%. The more difficult solution is the "monolithically integrated" cell, where the cell consists of a number of layers that are mechanically and electrically connected. These cells are much more difficult to produce because the electrical characteristics of each layer have to be carefully matched. In particular, the photocurrent generated in each layer needs to be matched, otherwise electrons will be absorbed between layers. This limits their construction to certain materials, best met by the III–V semiconductors. ==== Material choice ==== The choice of materials for each sub-cell is determined by the requirements for lattice-matching, current-matching, and high performance opto-electronic properties. For optimal growth and resulting crystal quality, the crystal lattice constant a of each material must be closely matched, resulting in lattice-matched devices. This constraint has been relaxed somewhat in recently developed metamorphic solar cells which contain a small degree of lattice mismatch. However, a greater degree of mismatch or other growth imperfections can lead to crystal defects causing a degradation in electronic properties. Since each sub-cell is connected electrically in series, the same current flows through each junction. The materials are ordered with decreasing bandgaps, Eg, allowing sub-bandgap light (hc/λ < eEg) to transmit to the lower sub-cells. Therefore, suitable bandgaps must be chosen such that the design spectrum will balance the current generation in each of the sub-cells, achieving current matching. Figure C(b) plots spectral irradiance E(λ), which is the source power density at a given wavelength λ. It is plotted together with the maximum conversion efficiency for every junction as a function of the wavelength, which is directly related to the number of photons available for conversion into photocurrent. Finally, the layers must be electrically optimal for high performance. This necessitates usage of materials with strong absorption coefficients α(λ), high minority carrier lifetimes τminority, and high mobilities µ. The favorable values in the table below justify the choice of materials typically used for multi-junction solar cells: InGaP for the top sub-cell (Eg = 1.8–1.9eV), InGaAs for the middle sub-cell (Eg = 1.4eV), and Germanium for the bottom sub-cell (Eg = 0.67eV). The use of Ge is mainly due to its lattice constant, robustness, low cost, abundance, and ease of production. Because the different layers are closely lattice-matched, the fabrication of the device typically employs metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). This technique is preferable to the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) because it ensures high crystal quality and large scale production. Material Eg (eV) a (nm) Absorption, at (1/µm) µn (cm2/V·s) τp (µs) Hardness (Mohs) α (µm/K) S (m/s) c-Si 1.12 0.5431 0.102 1400 1 7 2.6 0.1–60 InGaP 1.86 0.5451 2 500 – 5 5.3 50 GaAs 1.4 0.5653 0.9 8500 3 4–5 6 50 Ge 0.65 0.5657 3 3900 1000 6 7 1000 InGaAs 1.2 0.5868 30 1200 – – 5.66 100–1000 === Structural elements === ==== Metallic contacts ==== The metallic contacts are low-resistivity electrodes that make contact with the semiconductor layers. They are often aluminum. This provides an electrical connection to a load or other parts of a solar cell array. They are usually on two sides of the cell. And are important to be on the back face so that shadowing on the lighting surface is reduced. ==== Anti- reflective coating ==== Anti-reflective (AR) coating is generally composed of several layers in the case of MJ solar cells. The top AR layer has usually a NaOH surface texturation with several pyramids in order to increase the transmission coefficient T, the trapping of the light in the material (because photons cannot easily get out the MJ structure due to pyramids) and therefore, the path length of photons in the material. On the one hand, the thickness of each AR layer is chosen to get destructive interferences. Therefore, the reflection coefficient R decreases to 1%. In the case of two AR layers L1 (the top layer, usually ) and L2 (usually ), there must be n_\text{L2} = n_\text{AlInP}^\frac{1}{2} n_\text{L1} to have the same amplitudes for reflected fields and nL1dL1 = 4λmin, nL2dL2 = λmin/4 to have opposite phase for reflected fields. On the other hand, the thickness of each AR layer is also chosen to minimize the reflectance at wavelengths for which the photocurrent is the lowest. Consequently, this maximizes JSC by matching currents of the three subcells. As example, because the current generated by the bottom cell is greater than the currents generated by the other cells, the thickness of AR layers is adjusted so that the infrared (IR) transmission (which corresponds to the bottom cell) is degraded while the ultraviolet transmission (which corresponds to the top cell) is upgraded. Particularly, an AR coating is very important at low wavelengths because, without it, T would be strongly reduced to 70%. ==== Tunnel junctions ==== The main goal of tunnel junctions is to provide a low electrical resistance and optically low-loss connection between two subcells. Without it, the p-doped region of the top cell would be directly connected with the n-doped region of the middle cell. Hence, a pn junction with opposite direction to the others would appear between the top cell and the middle cell. Consequently, the photovoltage would be lower than if there would be no parasitic diode. In order to decrease this effect, a tunnel junction is used.J.F.Klem, S.Park, J.C.Zolper, Semiconductor tunnel junction with enhancement layer, (1997) It is simply a wide band gap, highly doped diode. The high doping reduces the length of the depletion region because : l_\text{depl} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \epsilon (\phi_0 - V)}{q} \frac{N_\text{A} + N_\text{D}}{N_\text{A} N_\text{D}}} Hence, electrons can easily tunnel through the depletion region. The J-V characteristic of the tunnel junction is very important because it explains why tunnel junctions can be used to have a low electrical resistance connection between two pn junctions. Figure D shows three different regions: the tunneling region, the negative differential resistance region and the thermal diffusion region. The region where electrons can tunnel through the barrier is called the tunneling region. There, the voltage must be low enough so that energy of some electrons who are tunneling is equal to energy states available on the other side of the barrier. Consequently, current density through the tunnel junction is high (with maximum value of J_P, the peak current density) and the slope near the origin is therefore steep. Then, the resistance is extremely low and consequently, the voltage too. This is why tunnel junctions are ideal for connecting two pn junctions without having a voltage drop. When voltage is higher, electrons cannot cross the barrier because energy states are no longer available for electrons. Therefore, the current density decreases and the differential resistance is negative. The last region, called thermal diffusion region, corresponds to the J-V characteristic of the usual diode: : J = J_S \left(\exp\left(\frac{qV}{kT}\right) - 1\right) In order to avoid the reduction of the MJ solar cell performances, tunnel junctions must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next photovoltaic cell, the middle cell, i.e. EgTunnel > EgMiddleCell. ==== Window layer and back-surface field ==== A window layer is used in order to reduce the surface recombination velocity S. Similarly, a back-surface field (BSF) layer reduces the scattering of carriers towards the tunnel junction. The structure of these two layers is the same: it is a heterojunction which catches electrons (holes). Indeed, despite the electric field Ed, these cannot jump above the barrier formed by the heterojunction because they don't have enough energy, as illustrated in figure E. Hence, electrons (holes) cannot recombine with holes (electrons) and cannot diffuse through the barrier. By the way, window and BSF layers must be transparent to wavelengths absorbed by the next pn junction; i.e., EgWindow > EgEmitter and EgBSF > EgEmitter. Furthermore, the lattice constant must be close to the one of InGaP and the layer must be highly doped (n ≥ 1018cm−3). === J-V characteristic === In a stack of two cells, where radiative coupling does not occur, and where each of the cells has a JV-characteristic given by the diode equation, the JV-characteristic of the stack is given by : J = \frac{1}{2}\left(J_\text{SC,1} + J_\text{SC,2}\right) - \sqrt{\frac{1}{4}{\Delta J_\text{SC}}^2 + J_0^2\mathrm{e}^{\frac{qV}{kT}}}, where J_\text{SC,1} and J_\text{SC,2} are the short circuit currents of the individual cells in the stack, \Delta J_\text{SC} is the difference between these short circuit currents, and J_0^2 = J_\mathrm{0,1} J_\mathrm{0,2} is the product of the thermal recombination currents of the two cells. Note that the values inserted for both short circuit currents and thermal recombination currents are those measured or calculated for the cells when they are placed in a multijunction stack (not the values measured for single junction cells of the respective cell types.) The JV-characteristic for two ideal (operating at the radiative limit) cells that are allowed to exchange luminesence, and thus are radiatively coupled, is given by :J = \frac{1}{2}\left(J_\text{SC,1} + J_\text{SC,2}\right) + \frac{1}{2}T^-\Delta J_\text{SC} - \left(1 - T^+\right)\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}{\Delta J_\text{SC}}^2 + \tilde{J}_0^2\mathrm{e}^{\frac{qV}{kT}}}. Here, the parameters T^- and T^+ are transfer coefficients that describes the exchange of photons between the cells. The transfer coefficients depend on the refractive index of the cells. \tilde{J}_0^2 also depend on the refractive index of the cells. If the cells have the same refractive index n_\text{r}, then \tilde{J}_0^2 = \left(1 + 2n_\text{r}^2\right)\left(J_{0,2} + 2n_\text{r}^2 J_{0,1}\right) J_{0,1}. For maximum efficiency, each subcell should be operated at its optimal J-V parameters, which are not necessarily equal for each subcell. If they are different, the total current through the solar cell is the lowest of the three. By approximation, it results in the same relationship for the short- circuit current of the MJ solar cell: JSC = min(JSC1, JSC2, JSC3) where JSCi(λ) is the short-circuit current density at a given wavelength λ for the subcell i. Because of the impossibility to obtain JSC1, JSC2, JSC3 directly from the total J-V characteristic, the quantum efficiency QE(λ) is utilized. It measures the ratio between the amount of electron-hole pairs created and the incident photons at a given wavelength λ. Let φi(λ) be the photon flux of corresponding incident light in subcell i and QEi(λ) be the quantum efficiency of the subcell i. By definition, this equates to: : QE_i(\lambda) = \frac{J_{\text{SC}i}(\lambda)}{q \phi_i(\lambda)} \Rightarrow J_{\text{SC}i} = \int_{0}^{\lambda 2} q \phi_i(\lambda) QE_i(\lambda) \, d \lambda The value of QE_i(\lambda) is obtained by linking it with the absorption coefficient \alpha(\lambda), i.e. the number of photons absorbed per unit of length by a material. If it is assumed that each photon absorbed by a subcell creates an electron/hole pair (which is a good approximation), this leads to: : QE_i(\lambda) = 1 - e^{-\alpha(\lambda) d_i} where di is the thickness of the subcell i and e^{-\alpha(\lambda) d_i} is the percentage of incident light which is not absorbed by the subcell i. Similarly, because : V = \sum_{i=1}^3 V_i, the following approximation can be used: V_\text{OC} = \sum_{i=1}^3 V_{\text{OC}i}. The values of V_{\text{OC}i} are then given by the J-V diode equation: :J_i = J_{0i} \left(e^{\frac{qV_i}{kT}} - 1\right) - J_{\text{SC}i} \Rightarrow V_{\text{OC}i} \approx \frac{kT}{q} \ln\left(\frac{J_{\text{SC}i}}{J_{0i}}\right) === Theoretical limiting efficiency === We can estimate the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells using the graphical quantum-efficiency (QE) analysis invented by C. H. Henry. To fully take advantage of Henry's method, the unit of the AM1.5 spectral irradiance should be converted to that of photon flux (i.e., number of photons/m2·s). To do that, it is necessary to carry out an intermediate unit conversion from the power of electromagnetic radiation incident per unit area per photon energy to the photon flux per photon energy (i.e., from [W/m2·eV] to [number of photons/m2·s·eV]). For this intermediate unit conversion, the following points have to be considered: A photon has a distinct energy which is defined as follows. : (1): Eph = hf = h(c/λ) where Eph is photon energy, h is Planck's constant (h = 6.626×10−34 [J∙s]), c is speed of light (c = 2.998×108 [m/s]), f is frequency [1/s], and λ is wavelength [nm]. Then the photon flux per photon energy, dnph/dhν, with respect to certain irradiance E [W/m2·eV] can be calculated as follows. : (2): \frac{dn_\text{ph}}{dhv} = \frac{E}{E_\text{ph}} = \frac{E}{\frac{hc}{\lambda}} \, = E [W/m2∙eV] × λ [nm]/(1.998×10−25 [J∙s∙m/s]) = Eλ × 5.03×1015 [(no. of photons)/m2∙s∙eV] As a result of this intermediate unit conversion, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux per photon energy, [no. of photons/m2·s·eV], as shown in Figure 1. Fig._1_Photon_flux_per_photon_energy_vs._photon_energy.tif|Figure 1. Photon flux per photon energy from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5). Based on the above result from the intermediate unit conversion, we can derive the photon flux by numerically integrating the photon flux per photon energy with respect to photon energy. The numerically integrated photon flux is calculated using the Trapezoidal rule, as follows. : (3): n_\text{ph}(E_g) = \int_{E_\text{g}}^{\infty} \frac{dn_\text{ph}}{dhv} \, dhv = \sum_{i=E_\text{g}}^{\infty}(hv_{i+1} - hv_i) \frac{1}{2} \left[\frac{dn_\text{ph}}{dhv} (hv_{i+1}) + \frac{dn_\text{ph}}{dhv} (hv_i)\right] \, As a result of this numerical integration, the AM1.5 spectral irradiance is given in unit of the photon flux, [number of photons/m2/s], as shown in Figure 2. Fig. 2 Photon flux vs. photon energy.tif|Figure 2. Photon flux from standard solar energy spectrum (AM of 1.5). There are no photon flux data in the small photon energy ranges 0–0.3096eV because the standard (AM1.5) solar energy spectrum for hν < 0.31eV are not available. Regardless of this data unavailability, however, the graphical QE analysis can be done using the only available data with a reasonable assumption that semiconductors are opaque for photon energies greater than their bandgap energy, but transparent for photon energies less than their bandgap energy. This assumption accounts for the first intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, which is caused by the inability of single-junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. However, the current graphical QE analysis still cannot reflect the second intrinsic loss in the efficiency of solar cells, radiative recombination. To take the radiative recombination into account, we need to evaluate the radiative current density, Jrad, first. According to Shockley and Queisser method, Jrad can be approximated as follows. : (4): J_\text{rad} = A \exp\left(\frac{eV - E_\text{g}}{kT}\right) \, : (5): A = \frac{2\pi\,\exp\left(n^2 + 1\right)E_\text{g}^2 kT}{h^3 c^2} \, where Eg is in electron volts and n is evaluated to be 3.6, the value for GaAs. The incident absorbed thermal radiation Jth is given by Jrad with V = 0. : (6): J_{th} = A \exp\left(\frac{-E_\text{g}}{kT}\right) \, The current density delivered to the load is the difference of the current densities due to absorbed solar and thermal radiation and the current density of radiation emitted from the top surface or absorbed in the substrate. Defining Jph = enph, we have : (7): J = Jph \+ Jth − Jrad The second term, Jth, is negligible compared to Jph for all semiconductors with Eg ≥ 0.3eV, as can be shown by evaluation of the above Jth equation. Thus, we will neglect this term to simplify the following discussion. Then we can express J as follows. : (8): J = en_\text{ph} - A \exp\left(\frac{eV - E_\text{g}}{kT}\right) \, The open- circuit voltage is found by setting J = 0. : (9): eV_\text{OC} = E_\text{g} - kT\ln\left(\frac{A}{en_\text{ph}}\right) \, The maximum power point (Jm, Vm) is found by setting the derivative \frac{dJV}{dV} \, = 0. The familiar result of this calculation is : (10): eV_\text{m} = eV_\text{OC} - kT \ln\left(1 + \frac{eV_\text{m}}{kT}\right) \, : (11): J_\text{m} = \frac{en_\text{ph}}{1 + kT/eV_\text{m}} \, Finally, the maximum work (Wm) done per absorbed photon, Wm is given by : (12): W_\text{m} = \frac{J_\text{m} V_\text{m}}{n_\text{ph}} \, = \frac{eV_\text{m}}{1 + kT/eV_\text{m}} \, = eV_\text{m} - kT Combining the last three equations, we have : (13): W_\text{m} = E_\text{g} - kT\left[\ln\left(\frac{A}{en_\text{ph}}\right) + \ln\left(1 + \frac{eV_\text{m}}{kT}\right) + 1\right] \, Using the above equation, Wm (red line) is plotted in Figure 3 for different values of Eg (or nph). Fig. 3 Maximum Work by Multi-Junction Solar Cells.tif|Figure 3. Maximum work by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells under standard AM1.5 spectral irradiance. Now, we can fully use Henry's graphical QE analysis, taking into account the two major intrinsic losses in the efficiency of solar cells. The two main intrinsic losses are radiative recombination, and the inability of single junction solar cells to properly match the broad solar energy spectrum. The shaded area under the red line represents the maximum work done by ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells. Hence, the limiting efficiency of ideal infinite multi-junction solar cells is evaluated to be 68.8% by comparing the shaded area defined by the red line with the total photon-flux area determined by the black line. (This is why this method is called "graphical" QE analysis.) Although this limiting efficiency value is consistent with the values published by Parrott and Vos in 1979: 64% and 68.2% respectively, there is a small gap between the estimated value in this report and literature values. This minor difference is most likely due to the different ways how to approximate the photon flux over 0–0.3096eV. Here, we approximated the photon flux as 0–0.3096eV as the same as the photon flux at 0.31eV. == Materials == The majority of multi-junction cells that have been produced to date use three layers (although many tandem a-Si:H/mc-Si modules have been produced and are widely available). However, the triple junction cells require the use of semiconductors that can be tuned to specific frequencies, which has led to most of them being made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) compounds, often germanium for the bottom-, GaAs for the middle-, and GaInP2 for the top-cell. === Gallium arsenide substrate === Dual junction cells can be made on Gallium arsenide wafers. Alloys of Indium gallium phosphide in the range In.5Ga.5P through In.53Ga.47P serve as the high band gap alloy. This alloy range provides for the ability to have band gaps in the range 1.92–1.87eV. The lower GaAs junction has a band gap of 1.42eV. === Germanium substrate === Triple junction cells consisting of indium gallium phosphide (InGaP), gallium arsenide (GaAs) or indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) and germanium (Ge) can be fabricated on germanium wafers. Early cells used straight gallium arsenide in the middle junction. Later cells have utilized In0.015Ga0.985As, due to the better lattice match to Ge, resulting in a lower defect density. Due to the huge band gap difference between GaAs (1.42eV), and Ge (0.66eV), the current match is very poor, with the Ge junction operated significantly current limited. Current efficiencies for commercial InGaP/GaAs/Ge cells approach 40% under concentrated sunlight. Lab cells (partly using additional junctions between the GaAs and Ge junction) have demonstrated efficiencies above 40%. === Indium phosphide substrate === Indium phosphide may be used as a substrate to fabricate cells with band gaps between 1.35eV and 0.74eV. Indium Phosphide has a band gap of 1.35eV. Indium gallium arsenide (In0.53Ga0.47As) is lattice matched to Indium Phosphide with a band gap of 0.74eV. A quaternary alloy of indium gallium arsenide phosphide can be lattice matched for any band gap in between the two. Indium phosphide-based cells have the potential to work in tandem with gallium arsenide cells. The two cells can be optically connected in series (with the InP cell below the GaAs cell), or in parallel through the use of spectra splitting using a dichroic filter. === Indium gallium nitride substrate === Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) is a semiconductor material made of a mix of gallium nitride (GaN) and indium nitride (InN). It is a ternary group III–V direct bandgap semiconductor. Its bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of indium in the alloy from 0.7 eV to 3.4 eV, thus making it an ideal material for solar cells. However, its conversion efficiencies because of technological factors unrelated to bandgap are still not high enough to be competitive in the market. == Performance improvements == === Structure === Many MJ photovoltaic cells use III–V semiconductor materials. GaAsSb-based heterojunction tunnel diodes, instead of conventional InGaP highly doped tunnel diodes described above, have a lower tunneling distance. Indeed, in the heterostructure formed by GaAsSb and InGaAs, the valence band of GaAsSb is higher than the valence band of the adjoining p-doped layer. Consequently, the tunneling distance dtunnel is reduced and so the tunneling current, which exponentially depends on dtunnel, is increased. Hence, the voltage is lower than that of the InGaP tunnel junction. GaAsSb heterojunction tunnel diodes offer other advantages. The same current can be achieved by using a lower doping. Secondly, because the lattice constant is larger for GaAsSb than Ge, one can use a wider range of materials for the bottom cell because more materials are lattice-matched to GaAsSb than to Ge. Chemical components can be added to some layers. Adding about one percent of Indium in each layer better matches lattice constants of the different layers. Without it, there is about 0.08 percent of mismatching between layers, which inhibits performance. Adding aluminium to the top cell increases its band gap to 1.96eV, covering a larger part of the solar spectrum and obtain a higher open-circuit voltage VOC. The theoretical efficiency of MJ solar cells is 86.8% for an infinite number of pn junctions, implying that more junctions increase efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency is 37, 50, 56, 72% for 1, 2, 3, 36 additional pn junctions, respectively, with the number of junctions increasing exponentially to achieve equal efficiency increments. The exponential relationship implies that as the cell approaches the limit of efficiency, the increase cost and complexity grow rapidly. Decreasing the thickness of the top cell increases the transmission coefficient T. An InGaP hetero-layer between the p-Ge layer and the InGaAs layer can be added in order to create automatically the n-Ge layer by scattering during MOCVD growth and increase significantly the quantum efficiency QE(λ) of the bottom cell. InGaP is advantageous because of its high scattering coefficient and low solubility in Ge. Currently, there are several commercial (nonperovskite) multi-junction technologies including tandems and triple- and quadruple-junction modules that typically use III–V semiconductors, with promising power conversion efficiency that rival and even outperform the benchmark silicon solar cells. === Spectral variations === Solar spectrum at the Earth surface changes constantly depending on the weather and sun position. This results in the variation of φ(λ), QE(λ), α(λ) and thus the short-circuit currents JSCi. As a result, the current densities Ji are not necessarily matched and the total current becomes lower. These variations can be quantified using the average photon energy (APE) which is the ratio between the spectral irradiance G(λ) (the power density of the light source in a specific wavelength λ) and the total photon flux density. It can be shown that a high (low) value for APE means low (high) wavelengths spectral conditions and higher (lower) efficiencies. Thus APE is a good indicator for quantifying the effects of the solar spectrum variations on performances and has the added advantage of being independent of the device structure and the absorption profile of the device. === Use of light concentrators === Light concentrators increase efficiencies and reduce the cost/efficiency ratio. The three types of light concentrators in use are refractive lenses like Fresnel lenses, reflective dishes (parabolic or cassegraine), and light guide optics. Thanks to these devices, light arriving on a large surface can be concentrated on a smaller cell. The intensity concentration ratio (or "suns") is the average intensity of the focused light divided by 1 kW/m2 (reasonable value related to solar constant). If its value is X then the MJ current becomes X higher under concentrated illumination. Using concentrations on the order of 500 to 1000, meaning that a 1 cm2 cell can use the light collected from 0.1m2 (as 1m2 equal 10000 cm2), produces the highest efficiencies seen to date. Three-layer cells are fundamentally limited to 63%, but existing commercial prototypes have already demonstrated over 40%.Michael Kanellos, "Solar cell breaks efficiency record", CNET News, 6 December 2006"NREL Solar Cell Sets World Efficiency Record at 40.8 Percent" , National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 13 August 2008 These cells capture about 2/3 of their theoretical maximum performance, so assuming the same is true for a non-concentrated version of the same design, one might expect a three-layer cell of 30% efficiency. This is not enough of an advantage over traditional silicon designs to make up for their extra production costs. For this reason, almost all multi-junction cell research for terrestrial use is dedicated to concentrator systems, normally using mirrors or fresnel lenses. Using a concentrator also has the added benefit that the number of cells needed to cover a given amount of ground area is greatly reduced. A conventional system covering 1m2 would require 625 16 cm2 cells, but for a concentrator system only a single cell is needed, along with a concentrator. The argument for concentrated Multi-junction cells has been that the high cost of the cells themselves would be more than offset by the reduction in total number of cells. However, the downside of the concentrator approach is that efficiency drops off very quickly under lower lighting conditions. In order to maximize its advantage over traditional cells and thus be cost competitive, the concentrator system has to track the sun as it moves to keep the light focused on the cell and maintain maximum efficiency as long as possible. This requires a solar tracker system, which increases yield, but also cost. == Fabrication == As of 2014 multi-junction cells were expensive to produce, using techniques similar to semiconductor device fabrication, usually metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy but on "chip" sizes on the order of centimeters. A new technique was announced that year that allowed such cells to use a substrate of glass or steel, lower-cost vapors in reduced quantities that was claimed to offer costs competitive with conventional silicon cells. == Comparison with other technologies == There are four main categories of photovoltaic cells: conventional mono- and poly-crystalline silicon (c-Si) cells, thin film solar cells (a-Si, CIGS and CdTe), and multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. The fourth category, emerging photovoltaics, contains technologies that are still in the research or development phase and are not listed in the table below. Categories Technology η (%) VOC (V) ISC (A) W/m2 t (µm) Ref's Crystalline silicon cells Monocrystalline 24.7 0.5 0.8 63 100 Crystalline silicon cells Polysilicon 20.3 0.615 8.35 211 200 Thin film solar cells Amorphous silicon 11.1 0.63 0.089 33 1 Thin film solar cells CdTe 16.5 0.86 0.029 – 5 Thin film solar cells CIGS 19.5 – – – 1 Multi-junction cells MJ 40.7 2.6 1.81 476 140 MJ solar cells and other photovoltaic devices have significant differences (see the table above). Physically, the main property of a MJ solar cell is having more than one pn junction in order to catch a larger photon energy spectrum while the main property of the thin film solar cell is to use thin films instead of thick layers in order to decrease the cost efficiency ratio. , MJ solar panels are more expensive than others. These differences imply different applications: MJ solar cells are preferred in space and c-Si solar cells for terrestrial applications. The efficiencies of solar cells and Si solar technology are relatively stable, while the efficiencies of solar modules and multi-junction technology are progressing. Measurements on MJ solar cells are usually made in the laboratory, using light concentrators (this is often not the case for the other cells) and under standard test conditions (STCs). STCs prescribe, for terrestrial applications, the AM1.5 spectrum as the reference. This air mass (AM) corresponds to a fixed position of the sun in the sky of 48° and a fixed power of 833W/m2. Therefore, spectral variations of incident light and environmental parameters are not taken into account under STC. Consequently, the performance of MJ solar cells in outdoor environments is inferior to that achieved in the laboratory. Moreover, MJ solar cells are designed such that currents are matched under STC, but not necessarily under field conditions. One can use QE(λ) to compare performances of different technologies, but QE(λ) contains no information on the matching of currents of subcells. An important alternative comparison point is the output power per unit area generated with the same incident light. == Applications == As of 2010, the cost of MJ solar cells was too high to allow use outside of specialized applications. The high cost is mainly due to the complex structure and the high price of materials. Nevertheless, with light concentrators under illumination of at least 400 suns, MJ solar panels become practical. As less expensive multi-junction materials become available other applications involve bandgap engineering for microclimates with varied atmospheric conditions.C. Zhang, J. Gwamuri, R. Andrews, and J. M. Pearce, (2014). Design of Multi- Junction Photovoltaic Cells Optimized for Varied Atmospheric Conditions, International Journal of Photoenergy,514962, pp. 1-7.open access MJ cells are currently being utilized in the Mars rover missions. The environment in space is quite different. Because there is no atmosphere, the solar spectrum is different (AM0). The cells have a poor current match due to a greater photon flux of photons above 1.87eV vs those between 1.87eV and 1.42eV. This results in too little current in the GaAs junction, and hampers the overall efficiency since the InGaP junction operates below MPP current and the GaAs junction operates above MPP current. To improve current match, the InGaP layer is intentionally thinned to allow additional photons to penetrate to the lower GaAs layer. In terrestrial concentrating applications, the scatter of blue light by the atmosphere reduces the photon flux above 1.87eV, better balancing the junction currents. Radiation particles that are no longer filtered can damage the cell. There are two kinds of damage: ionisation and atomic displacement. Still, MJ cells offer higher radiation resistance, higher efficiency and a lower temperature coefficient. == See also == * List of semiconductor materials * Concentrator photovoltaics (CVP) * Organic photovoltaic cell * PIN diode * Micromorph (a-Si/μc-Si tandem-cell) == References == == Further reading == * * (reprinted in R&D; Magazine) Category:Solar cells Category:Energy conversion Category:Semiconductor devices
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Contemporary Islamic philosophy revives some of the trends of medieval Islamic philosophy, notably the tension between Mutazilite and Asharite views of ethics in science and law, and the duty of Muslims and role of Islam in the sociology of knowledge and in forming ethical codes and legal codes, especially the fiqh (or "jurisprudence") and rules of jihad (or "just war"). See list of Islamic terms in Arabic for a glossary of key terms used in Islam. ==Key figures of modern Islamic philosophy== Key figures from different regions, representing important trends include: ===South Asia=== *Muhammad Iqbal sought an Islamic revival based on social justice ideals and emphasized traditional rules, e.g. against usury. He argued strongly that dogma, territorial nationalism and outright racism, all of which were profoundly rejected in early Islam and especially by Muhammad himself, were splitting Muslims into warring factions, encouraging materialism and nihilism. His thought was influential in the emergence of a movement for independence of Pakistan, where he was revered as the national poet. Indirectly this strain of Islam also influenced Malcolm X and other figures who sought a global ethic through the Five Pillars of Islam. Iqbal can be credited with at least trying to reconstruct Islamic thought from the base, though some of his philosophical and scientific ideas would appear dated to us now. His basic ideas concentrated on free-will, which would allow Muslims to become active agents in their own history. His interest in Nietzsche (who he called 'the Wise Man of Europe') has led later Muslim scholars to criticise him for advocating dangerous ideals that, according to them, have eventually formed in certain strains of pan-Islamism. Some claim that the Four Pillars of the Green Party honor Iqbal and Islamic traditions. *Fazlur Rahman was professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago and McGill University, and an expert in Islamic philosophy. Not as widely known as his scholar-activist contemporary Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, he is nonetheless considered an important figure for Islam in the 20th century. He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism and his magnum opus, Islam). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation. Rahman was driven to exile from his homeland, Pakistan, where he was part of a committee which sought to interpret Islam for the fledgling modern sovereign state. Some of his ideas from English (which he claimed were from the Islamic tradition) were reprinted in Urdu and caused outrage among conservative Muslim scholars in Pakistan. These were quickly exploited by opponents of his political paymaster, General Ayyub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. *Muhammad Hamidullah belonged to a family of scholars, jurists, writers and sufis. He was a world-renowned scholar of Islam and international law from India, who was known for contributions to the research of the history of Hadith, translations of the Qur'an, the advancement of Islamic learning, and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the Western world. *Syed Zafarul Hasan was a prominent twentieth-century Muslim philosopher. From 1924 to 1945 he was professor of philosophy at the Muslim University, Aligarh – where he also served as chairman of the Department of Philosophy and dean of the Faculty of Arts. There, in 1939, he put forward the 'Aligarh Scheme'. From 1945 until the partition of the sub-continent, Dr Hasan was emeritus professor at Aligarh. Dr. Zafarul Hasan was born on 14 February 1885. He died on 19 June 1949. *M. A. Muqtedar Khan is a professor of Islam and International Relations at the University of Delaware. He is a prominent Muslim intellectual and philosopher and commentator on Islamic Thought and Global Politics. He organized the first contemporary Islamic Philosophers conference at Georgetown University in 1998. His work is on the subject of the philosophy of identity and rationality, Ijtihad, Islam and democracy and Islamic reform. *Akbar S. Ahmed is an anthropologist, filmmaker and an outstanding scholar on Islam, international relations/politics and contemporary Islamic philosophy from Pakistan. He is Ibn Khaldun chairman of Islamic Studies at the American University in Washington DC and was the High Commissioner of Pakistan to UK. He has advised Prince Charles and met with President George W. Bush on Islam. His numerous books, films and documentaries have won awards. His books have been translated into many languages including Chinese and Indonesian. Ahmed is "the world's leading authority on contemporary Islam" according to the BBC. *Javed Ahmad Ghamidi is a well-known Pakistani Islamic scholar, exegete, and educator. A former member of the Jamaat-e-Islami, he has extended the work of his tutor, Amin Ahsan Islahi. He is frequently labeled a modernist for his insistence on the historical contextualization of Muhammad's revelation in order to grasp its true moral import. *Feisal Abdul Rauf is a well-known proponent of cultural reconciliation between the Muslim World and the West, basing his views on Classical Islamic governance's similarity to Western governance models in terms of religious freedoms and democratic inclination. Abdul Rauf is a highly visible American-Egyptian Imam at New York's Masjid al-Farah in addition to being Founder and Chairman of Cordoba Initiative, a non-profit organization seeking to bridge the divide between the Muslim world and the West. ===South Asia=== *Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is a Malaysian philosopher. *Syed Abul A'la Maududi He was a Pakistani philosopher. * ===Europe=== *Shabbir Akhtar is a British Muslim philosopher, poet, researcher, writer and multilingual scholar. He is currently on the Faculty of Theology and Religions at University of Oxford. This Cambridge-trained thinker is trying to revive the tradition of Sunni Islamic philosophy, defunct since Ibn Khaldun, against the background of western analytical philosophical method. His major treatise is The Quran and the Secular Mind (2007). Akhtar argues that, unlike Christianity, Islam as a juridical monotheism, has no interest in theology, the speculative inquiry into God's nature and essence. Muslims need to know only the moral and legal will of God. Moreover, Akhtar claims that the exegesis of the scripture should be classified as part of the analytical philosophy of Islam. ===Shia World=== *Morteza Motahhari was a lecturer at Tehran University. Motahhari is considered important for developing the ideologies of the Islamic Republic. He wrote on exegesis of the Qur'an, philosophy, ethics, sociology, history and many other subjects. In all his writings the real object he had in view was to give replies to the objections raised by others against Islam, to prove the shortcomings of other schools of thought and to manifest the greatness of Islam. He believed that in order to prove the falsity of Marxism and other ideologies like it, it was necessary not only to comment on them in a scholarly manner but also to present the real image of Islam. *Ali Shariati was a sociologist and a professor of Mashhad University. He was one of the most influential figures in the Islamic world in the 20th century. He attempted to explain and provide solutions for the problems faced by Muslim societies through traditional Islamic principles interwoven with and understood from the point of view of modern sociology and philosophy. Shariati was also deeply influenced by Mowlana and Muhammad Iqbal. *Musa al-Sadr was a prominent Shi'a Muslim intellectual and one of the most influential Muslim philosophers of 20th century. He is most famous for his political role, but he was also a philosopher who had been trained by Allameh Tabatabaei. As Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr said: "his great political influence and fame was enough for people to not consider his philosophical attitude, although he was a well- trained follower of long living intellectual tradition of Islamic Philosophy". One of his famous writings is a long introduction for the Arabic translation of Henry Corbin's History of Islamic Philosophy. *Seyyed Hossein Nasr is a major perennialist thinker. His works defend Islamic and perennialist doctrines and principles while challenging the theoretical underpinnings of modern science. He argues that knowledge has been desacralized in the modern period, that is, separated from its divine source—God—and calls for its resacralization through sacred traditions and sacred science. His environmental philosophy is expressed in terms of Islamic environmentalism and the resacralization of nature. *Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was an Iraqi Shi'a cleric, a philosopher, and ideological founder of Islamic Dawa Party born in al-Kazimiya, Iraq. Mohammad Baqir Al-Sadr's political philosophy, known as Wilayat Al-Umma (Governance of the people), set out his view of a modern-day Islamic state. His most famous philosophical works include: Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy), in which he refutes modern Western philosophical schools and asserts an Islamic view, Iqtisaduna (Our Economy), consisting of an exegesis of Islamic economics coupled with a critique of Western political economy as manifested in the Soviet Union on one hand and the United States on the other, and Al-Usus al-Mantiqiyyah lil-Istiqra' (The Logical Basis of Induction) in which he develops a theory which allows one to reach certainty through inductive methods. ===Arab world=== *Ismail al-Faruqi looked more closely at the ethics and sociology of knowledge, concluding that no scientific method or philosophy could exist that was wholly ignorant of a theory of conduct or the consequences a given path of inquiry and technology. His "Islamization of knowledge" program sought to converge early Muslim philosophy with modern sciences, resulting in, for example, Islamic economics and Islamic sociology. *Nader El-Bizri a British–Lebanese philosopher, historian of science, and architectural theorist. He is a professor of philosophy and the chair of the Civilization Studies Program at the American University of Beirut. He previously taught at the University of Cambridge, the University of Nottingham, the University of Lincoln, and Harvard University. He is affiliated with the French CNRS in Paris, and with the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London. He published and lectured widely on Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, Ikhwan al-Safa', and also on Heidegger and on phenomenology as well as architectural theory. He served on various editorial boards with academic publishers like Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, Springer, Brill, I.B. Tauris. He acted as consultant to the Aga Khan Trust for Culture in Geneva, the Science Museum in London, and the Guggenheim Museum in New York. He contributed also to various BBC radio and TV programs on Islamic philosophy and the history of the exact sciences in Islam. He is also a recipient of the prestigious Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences Prize in 2014, and he recently joined the Oxford and Durham research team on medieval science in Britain. . Nader El-Bizri's approach to Islamic philosophy is historical and at the same time informed at the interpretive levels by readings from contemporary Continental Thought and Anglo-American Analytic Philosophy, with a special emphasis on ontology and epistemology. El-Bizri's philosophical writings aim at renewing the impetus of philosophy in the contemporary Islamicate milieu. He is partly impacted in this by Heidegger and the reception of Heideggerian thought in the Islamicate world. *Abu Abd al- Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri is a retired Saudi Arabian polymath and member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo. His work has primarily dealt with the reconciliation of reason and revelation, especially in regard to issues surrounding the existence of God and theodicy. He has published bibliographies, anthologies and journal articles and lectured at conferences regarding logic in Islamic philosophy, showing especially strong interest in the work of Ibn Hazm and Ibn Rushd.Maribel Fierro, "Heresy in al-Andalus." Taken from The Legacy of Muslim Spain, pg. 905. Ed. Salma Jayyusi. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1994.Majid Fakhry, "Celebrating Ibn Rushd's Eight-Hundredth Anniversary," pg. 168. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol. 15, iss. 2, pgs. 167–169. Conference report. Various academic endeavors on his part have received UNESCO support in the past. * Taha Abdurrahman is a Moroccan philosopher known for his formulation of an Islamic form of modernity. * Hassan Hanafi, leading modern Islamic thinker, a philosopher and chair of the philosophy department at the University of Cairo. ==Citations== ==External links== *Leaman, Oliver; Islamic Philosophy *Leaman, Oliver; Modern Islamic Philosophy *Marranci, Gabriele (ed); Contemporary Islam Dynamics of Muslim Life, (an academic journal). *Mohammad Azadpur; Department of Philosophy – Mohammad Azadpur
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The Congress of Cúcuta was a constituent assembly where the Republic of Colombia (historiographically called Gran Colombia because it covered the territories of the previous viceroyalty of Nueva Granada and Venezuela, which are several nations today) was created. The Congress elected Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander president and vice-president, respectively. The fundamental creation of the Congress was the Constitution of Cúcuta. ==Creation and achievements of the Congress== Cúcuta was the birthplace of Simón Bolívar's dream of uniting South America in one single federal state, and of the principles upon which the political institutions of South America would replace those inherited from the 300 years of Spanish colonial history. Prior to 1819, Simón Bolívar, as well as others who facilitated the revolutionary establishment of the Venezuelan Republic, referred to all of South America as Colombia. Since then, Bolívar had proposed the union of what is today Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador in a nation by the same name. Since Bolívar based the borders of the proposed nation on the principle of uti possidetis, Panama and Ecuador were included, despite having no representation at this Congress or the one in Angostura, since they had been part of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada. At the Congress of Angostura in 1819 the word "Colombia" was, therefore, used to describe this new country, when it was proposed. The cities of Bogotá, Caracas, and Quito were designated regional capitals within the new nation. Most of the territory of this Gran Colombia, with the exceptions of southern Colombia and Ecuador, was largely independent from Spain at the time the Congress of Cúcuta began holding sessions. Places that were related to the Congress of Cúcuta, together with the House of Santander (Casa de Santander), are now protected due to historic significance, and form part of the Park of the Great Colombia. ===Bolívar's appearance before the Congress=== thumb|right|200px|Commemoration of the Constitution of Cúcuta, which was the result of the Congress of Cúcuta. The culminating event of the Congress of Cúcuta took place on August 30, 1821, in the city of Cúcuta. A constitution had been written which established the law of the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia), and determined the country's capital and political boundaries. The convention, organized by Antonio Nariño and led by Simón Bolívar. At 11 o'clock on the morning of October 3, 1821 Simón Bolívar entered the debating chamber of the Congress of Cúcuta, located at the time in the sacristy of the parish church of the town of Villa del Rosario de Cúcuta (the old name for the town). He was accompanied by a commission of deputies and the members of the joint chiefs of staff of his armed forces. He sat beside the speaker of the assembly and, whilst the entire assembly stood, was sworn in as the President of the nascent Republic of Colombia, composed of Venezuela and Cundinamarca, the republican name by which New Granada was by then known. After a speech, and the naming of Santander as Vice-President, the text of the Constitution of the new republic was read out. ==Documents== === Bolivar's speech === > Sir: The oath I have just taken in my capacity as President of Colombia > represents for me an act of conscience, which further places me under the > obligation to submit to the laws of my country. Only a profound sense of > respect for the will of the people could compel me to submit to the onerous > position of Supreme Magistrate. The gratitude for so doing which I feel > emanates from the representatives of the people, moreover, imposes upon me > the pleasant duty, to continue in the service of my country, to defend, with > my possessions, my blood and my honour, this Constitution, which cements the > Rights of Man, joining them in the cause of freedom, the public good, and > glory. The Constitution of Colombia, together with her independence, will > constitute the Holy Altar on which I shall make the necessary sacrifices. > For her I will march to the very edge of Colombia to break the chains which > bind the sons of Ecuador, and, making them free, invite them to join her. > Sir, I hope that you will authorize me to join together, in beneficence, > those peoples which nature and Heaven have made our brothers. Once this > work, born of our wisdom and my zeal, is done, nothing will remain for us to > achieve but peace, so that we may give to Colombia its rest and its glory. > Therefore, Sir, I preach you ardently, do not show yourself deaf to the call > of my conscience and my honour, which bid me loudly to remain solely a > citizen. I feel the necessity of quitting the Presidency of the Republic, > which the people hold as the Master of their Hearts. I am the son of war; a > man brought to power only by dint of combat; fortune has kept for me this > rank and victory has confirmed me in it. But these are not the titles > consecrated by justice, good fortune, and the will of the people. The sword > which has governed Colombia is not the scales of justice, but the whip of > misfortune which, sometimes, Heaven lets fall to Earth to punish tyrants and > boastful nations. That sword serves no purpose when there is peace, and this > should be the last time I am permitted to wield it; so I have sworn to > myself, because I have promised it to Colombia, and because there can be no > Republic where the people cannot wield power. A man such as myself, is a > dangerous thing in a popular government; my existence is a clear and present > danger to the sovereignty of the nation. I would wish to be a citizen, a > free man, so that all may be free men. I prefer the name of Citizen to that > of Liberator, for the latter being born of war, the former is born of law. I > beseech thee, Sir, I should give up all my titles, if in exchange I could > procure but one: that of The Good Citizen. ===Fundamental law establishing Gran Colombia (Congress of Angostura)=== "The Sovereign Congress of Venezuela, to which authority the people of the Republic of the New Granada have voluntarily stood by. "Considering: #"That united in a single Republic, the provinces of Venezuela and the New Granada have all proportions and ways to elevate themselves to a higher grade of power and prosperity. #"That constituted in separate republics, for more stronger the ties that these have united them, so far from taking advantages of so many advantages, they would hardly consolidate and make respect their sovereignty. #"That these truths, highly penetrated by superior talented men and of an enlightened patriotism, had moved the governments of both republics to convene in a reunion that the vicissitudes of wars decreed and decree the following fundamental Law of the Republic of Colombia: "ARTICLE 1. The Republics of Venezuela and New Granada are from this day on united in a single one under the glorious title of Republic of Colombia. "ARTICLE 2. Their territory will be the one that the Former General Capitancies of Venezuela and the Viceroyalty of New Granada covering a total area of 115 thousand square leagues, which in better circumstances will be defined precisely. "ARTICLE 3. Debts acquired by both republics will be recognized in solidum by this law as a National debt of Colombia to which payment will be attached all goods and properties of the nation, and the most productive branches of the public rent will also be destined to pay these. "ARTICLE 4. The Executive Power of the Republic will be vested on the President and in case of his defect a Vice President and his replacement will be appointed interimly by the acting Congress. "ARTICLE 5. The Republic of Colombia will be divided into three great departments, Venezuela, Quito and Cundinamarca, that will contain the Provinces of New Granada which name will be suppressed from now on. The capitals of these departments will be the cities of Caracas, Quito and Bogotá, this last one without the name addition of Santa Fe. "ARTICLE 6. Each department will have a superior administration and a chief, appointed, for now by this congress, with the title of Vice President. "ARTICLE 7. A new city which will be named after El Libertador Simon Bolivar will be the capital of the Republic of Colombia. Its plan and situation will be determined by the First General Congress under the principle of proportioning it with the necessities of the three departments, and the greatness of these large country is destined by nature. "ARTICLE 8. The General Congress of Colombia will meet on January 1, 1821 in Villa del Rosario de Cúcuta which is central to the country and will facilitate the reunion. its convocation will be done by the President on January 1, 1820 in accordance with a previously regulated memos that will be formulated by a Special Commission and under the approval of the current Congress. "ARTICLE 9. The constitution of the Republic of Colombia will be formulated by its General Congress, which will be presented as a draft project, and its laws will later be tested in execution. "ARTICLE 10. The Arms and the Colombian flag will be decreed by the General Congress and will use the Arms and Flag of Venezuela because it is more known. "ARTICLE 11. The current Congress will go on recess on January 15, 1820 due to new elections for the General Congress of Colombia. "ARTICLE 12. A commission of six members and a President will temporarily replace Congress and with special attributions that will be determined by a decree. ARTICLE 13. The Republic of Colombia will be solemnly proclaimed in towns and armies, with parties and public demonstrations, which will be verified in this capital on the 25th day of this present December in celebration of the birthday of the World's saviour, that under his sponsoring we have achieved this wished reunion and in which the state has regenerated. "ARTICLE 14. The anniversary of this political regeneration will be celebrated perpetually with a national feast in which there will be awarded, just like in Olympia, the virtuous and the enlightened. "The present fundamental law of the Republic of Colombia is solemnly proclaimed only in towns and armies, registered in all public registries and saved in every municipal cabildos and corporations, ecclesiastic or secular. "Given in the sovereign Palace of the Congress of Venezuela in the City of Santo Tomás de Angostura, ten days before the month of December, in the lords' year of eighteen nineteen. Ninth of the Independence. "The President of Congress, Francisco Antonio Zea; Juan Germán Roscio; Manuel Sedeño; Juan Martínez; José España; Luis Tomás Peraza; Antonio M. Briceño; Eusebio Afanador; Francisco Conde; Diego Bautista Urbaneja; Juan Vicente Cardozo; Ignacio Muñoz; Ramón García Cádiz. The Deputy Secretary, Diego de Vallenilla. "Palace of the Sovereign Congress of Venezuela in Angostura, December 17, 1819 -9th [year of independence]. "The sovereign Congress decrees that this fundamental law of the Republic of Colombia must be informed to the Executive Supreme Power by means of a delegation for its approval and then published and accomplished. "The President of Congress, Francisco Antonio Zea. The deputy secretary, Diego de Vallenilla. Palace of the Sovereign Congress of Venezuela in Angostura, December 17, 1819 -9th. Print it, Publish it, execute and Authorize with the Seal of the State. "Simón Bolívar "For his Excellency the President of the Republic, the minister of Interior and Justice, "Diego B. Urbaneja." == See also == * House of Santander * Historic church of Cúcuta * Park of Gran Colombia * Cúcuta * Villa del Rosario * 1875 Cúcuta earthquake ==Bibliography== *Bushnell, David (1970). The Santander Regime in Gran Colombia. Westport: Greenwood Press. *Gibson, William Marion (1948). The Constitutions of Colombia. Durham: Duke University Press. Category:Gran Colombia Category:Independence of Colombia Category:Independence of Venezuela Category:Constituent assemblies Category:Cúcuta Category:Simón Bolívar Category:Francisco de Paula Santander Category:1821 in Gran Colombia Category:1821 in Colombia Category:1821 in Venezuela
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right|thumb|Bottles of wine aging in an underground cellar The aging of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods. While wine is perishable and capable of deteriorating, complex chemical reactions involving a wine's sugars, acids and phenolic compounds (such as tannins) can alter the aroma, color, mouthfeel and taste of the wine in a way that may be more pleasing to the taster. The ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment.R. Jackson "Wine Science: Principles and Applications" Third Edition, pp. 431–489, 643–671. Academic Press 2008 .R. Boulton, V. Singleton, L. Bisson, R. Kunkee Principles and Practices of Winemaking, pp. 382–424. Springer 1996 New York . The quality of an aged wine varies significantly bottle-by-bottle, depending on the conditions under which it was stored, and the condition of the bottle and cork, and thus it is said that rather than good old vintages, there are good old bottles. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, and old wines are often sold for extraordinary prices. However, the vast majority of wine is not aged, and even wine that is aged is rarely aged for long; it is estimated that 90% of wine is meant to be consumed within a year of production, and 99% of wine within 5 years.Windows on the World Wine School: Frequently Asked Questions , Kevin Zraly: Q. Are all wines meant to be aged? KZ: No. It's a common misconception that all wines improve with age. In fact, more than 90 percent of all the wines made in the world are meant to be consumed within one year, and less than 1 percent of the world's wines are meant to be aged for more than 5 years. ==History== left|thumb|During antiquity, amphorae like these were used to store wine and sealing wax made it possible to age the wine. The Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried "straw wines" were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents. These wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines – Falernian and Surrentine – were prized for their ability to age for decades. In the Book of Luke, it is noted that "old wine" was valued over "new wine" (). The Greek physician Galen wrote that the "taste" of aged wine was desirable and that this could be accomplished by heating or smoking the wine, though, in Galen's opinion, these artificially aged wines were not as healthy to consume as naturally aged wines.J. Robinson (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Wine, Third Edition, pp. 5–7. Oxford University Press, 2006. . left|thumb|Bottles with cork closure reinvented the process of wine aging. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent. Most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar. The older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines (like Malmsey and Sack) were being made in the Mediterranean and gaining attention for their aging ability. Similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that radically changed the wine industry's view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which again allowed producers to package and store wine in a virtually air-tight environment. The second was the growing popularity of fortified wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas and the East Indies. The English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had a pronounced effect on the wine trade. For producers, the cost and space of storing barrels or bottles of wine was prohibitive so a merchant class evolved with warehouses and the finances to facilitate aging wines for a longer period of time. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this situation dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes. ==Aging potential== There is a widespread misconception that wine always improves with age, or that wine improves with extended aging, or that aging potential is an indicator of good wine. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young.J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pp. 39–41. Abbeville Press 2003 . Aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitiness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months in the bottle. Due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 5–10% of wine improves after 1 year, and only 1% improves after 5–10 years. In general, wines with a low pH (such as pinot noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age. Wines with high levels of phenols include Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo and Syrah. The white wines with the longest aging potential tend to be those with a high amount of extract and acidity (such as Riesling). The acidity in white wines, acting as a preservative, has a role similar to that of tannins in red wines. The process of making white wines, which includes little to no skin contact, means that white wines have a significantly lower amount of phenolic compounds, though barrel fermentation and oak aging can impart some phenols. Similarly, the minimal skin contact with rosé wine limits their aging potential. After aging at the winery most wood-aged ports, sherries, vins doux naturels, vins de liqueur, basic level ice wines, and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage ports and other bottled-aged ports and sherries will benefit from some additional aging. Champagne and other sparkling wines are infrequently aged, and frequently have no vintage year (no vintage, NV), but vintage champagne may be aged. Aged champagne has traditionally been a peculiarly British affectation, and thus has been referred to as "the English taste",Vintage Champagne, Giles Fallowfield, Square Meal Magazine Spring 2006. though this term also refers to a level of champagne sweetness. In principle champagne has aging potential, due to the acidity, and aged champagne has increased in popularity in the United States since the 1996 vintage. A few French winemakers have advocated aging champagne, most notably René Collard (1921–2009). In 2009, a 184-year- old bottle of Perrier-Jouët was opened and tasted, still drinkable, with notes of "truffles and caramel", according to the experts. ===Little to no aging potential=== A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson * German QBAs (Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete) * Asti and Moscato Spumante * Rosé and blush wines like White Zinfandel * Branded wines like Yellow Tail, Mouton Cadet, etc. * European table wine * American jug & box wine * Inexpensive varietals (with the possible exception of Cabernet Sauvignon) * The majority of Vin de pays * All Nouveau wines * Vermouth * Basic Sherry * Tawny Ports * Kit wines made from mostly concentrated grape juice ===Good aging potential=== Master of Wine Jancis Robinson provides the following general guidelines on aging wines. Note that vintage, wine region and winemaking style can influence a wine's aging potential, so Robinson's guidelines are general estimates for the most common examples of these wines. * Botrytized wines (5–25 yrs) * Chardonnay (2–6 yrs) * Riesling (2–30 yrs) * Hungarian Furmint (3–25 yrs) * Loire Valley Chenin blanc (4–30 yrs) * Hunter Valley Semillon (6–15 yrs) * Cabernet Sauvignon (4–20 yrs) * Merlot (2–10 yrs) * Nebbiolo (4–20 yrs) * Pinot noir (2–8 yrs) * Sangiovese (2–8 yrs) * Syrah (4–16 yrs) * Zinfandel (2–6 yrs) * Classified Bordeaux (8–25 yrs) * Grand Cru Burgundy (8–25 yrs) * Aglianico from Taurasi (4–15 yrs) * Baga from Bairrada (4–8 yrs) * Hungarian Kadarka (3–7 yrs) * Bulgarian Melnik (3–7 yrs) * Croatian Plavac Mali (4–8 yrs) * Georgian Saperavi (3–10 yrs) * Madiran Tannat (4–12 yrs) * Spanish Tempranillo (2–8 yrs) * Greek Xynomavro (4–10 yrs) * Vintage Ports (20–50 yrs) ==Factors and influences== ===Wine constituents=== The ratio of sugars, acids and phenolics to water is a key determination of how well a wine can age. The less water in the grapes prior to harvest, the more likely the resulting wine will have some aging potential. Grape variety, climate, vintage and viticultural practice come into play here. Grape varieties with thicker skins, from a dry growing season where little irrigation was used and yields were kept low will have less water and a higher ratio of sugar, acids and phenolics. The process of making Eisweins, where water is removed from the grape during pressing as frozen ice crystals, has a similar effect of decreasing the amount of water and increasing aging potential. In winemaking, the duration of maceration or skin contact will influence how much phenolic compounds are leached from skins into the wine. Pigmented tannins, anthocyanins, colloids, tannin-polysaccharides and tannin- proteins not only influence a wine's resulting color but also act as preservatives. During fermentation adjustment to a wine's acid levels can be made with wines with lower pH having more aging potential. Exposure to oak either during fermentation or after (during barrel aging) will introduce more phenolic compounds to the wines. Prior to bottling, excessive fining or filtering of the wine could strip the wine of some phenolic solids and may lessen a wine's ability to age. thumb|Storage conditions can influence a wine's aging ability. ===Storage factors=== The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (10 °C) increase in temperature. Wine expert Karen MacNeil recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55 °F (13 °C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69 °F (20 °C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120 °F (49 °C) for a few hours and not be damaged. However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring of a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The ultra-violet rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the free radicals that can develop in the wine and result in premature oxidation.K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pp. 79–82. Workman Publishing 2001 . Wines packaged in large format bottles, such as magnums and 3 liter Jeroboams, seem to age more slowly than wines packaged in regular 750 ml bottles or half bottles. This may be because of the greater proportion of oxygen exposed to the wine during the bottle process. The advent of alternative wine closures to cork, such as screw caps and synthetic corks have opened up recent discussions on the aging potential of wines sealed with these alternative closures. Currently there are no conclusive results and the topic is the subject of ongoing research. ===Bottling factors=== ====Bottle shock==== One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered "sick" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling the wine is exposed to some oxygen which causes a domino effect of chemical reactions with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of "bottle shock". During this time the wine could taste drastically different from how it did prior to bottling or how it will taste after the wine has settled. While many modern bottling lines try to treat the wine as gently as possible and utilize inert gases to minimize the amount of oxygen exposure, all wine goes through some period of bottle shock. The length of this period will vary with each individual wine. ====Cork taint==== The transfer of off-flavours in the cork used to bottle a wine during prolonged aging can be detrimental to the quality of the bottle. The formation of cork taint is a complex process which may result from a wide range of factors ranging from the growing conditions of the cork oak, the processing of the cork into stoppers, or the molds growing on the cork itself. ===Dumb phase=== During the course of aging, a wine may slip into a "dumb phase" where its aromas and flavors are very muted. In Bordeaux this phase is called the age ingrat or "difficult age" and is likened to a teenager going through adolescence. The cause or length of time that this "dumb phase" will last is not yet fully understood and seems to vary from bottle to bottle. ==Effects on wine== right|thumb|As vintage Port matures, sediments develop in the wine that are often left in the bottle when the wine is decanted. As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually lose its depth of color and begin to appear orange at the edges, and eventually turn brown. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processes that begin during fermentation and continue after bottling, these compounds bind together and aggregate. Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting. During the aging process, the perception of a wine's acidity may change even though the total measurable amount of acidity is more or less constant throughout a wine's life. This is due to the esterification of the acids, combining with alcohols in complex array to form esters. In addition to making a wine taste less acidic, these esters introduce a range of possible aromas. Eventually the wine may age to a point where other components of the wine (such as a tannins and fruit) are less noticeable themselves, which will then bring back a heightened perception of wine acidity. Other chemical processes that occur during aging include the hydrolysis of flavor precursors which detach themselves from glucose molecules and introduce new flavor notes in the older wine and aldehydes become oxidized. The interaction of certain phenolics develops what is known as tertiary aromas which are different from the primary aromas that are derived from the grape and during fermentation. As a wine starts to mature, its bouquet will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen. Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its "peak". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant. The natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate – the ester of ethanol and acetic acid – is the most abundant ester in wines. Other combinations of organic alcohols (such as phenol-containing compounds) and organic acids lead to a variety of different esters in wines, contributing to their different flavours, smells and tastes. Of course, when compared to sulfuric acid conditions, the acid conditions in a wine are mild, so yield is low (often in tenths or hundredths of a percentage point by volume) and take years for ester to accumulate. ==Coates’ Law of Maturity== Coates’ Law of Maturity is a principle used in wine tasting relating to the aging ability of wine. Developed by the British Master of Wine, Clive Coates, the principle states that a wine will remain at its peak (or optimal) drinking quality for a duration of time that is equal to the time of maturation required to reach its optimal quality. During the aging of a wine certain flavors, aromas and textures appear and fade. Rather than developing and fading in unison, these traits each operate on a unique path and time line. The principle allows for the subjectivity of individual tastes because it follows the logic that positive traits that appeal to one particular wine taster will continue to persist along the principle's guideline while for another taster these traits might not be positive and therefore not applicable to the guideline. Wine expert Tom Stevenson has noted that there is logic in Coates' principle and that he has yet to encounter an anomaly or wine that debunks it.T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" p. 631. Dorling Kindersley 2005 . ===Example=== An example of the principle in practice would be a wine that someone acquires when it is 9 years of age, but finds dull. A year later the drinker finds this wine very pleasing in texture, aroma and mouthfeel. Under the Coates Law of Maturity the wine will continue to be drunk at an optimal maturation for that drinker until it has reached 20 years of age at which time those positive traits that the drinker perceives will start to fade. ==Artificial aging== There is a long history of using artificial means to try to accelerate the natural aging process. In Ancient Rome a smoke chamber known as a fumarium was used to enhance the flavor of wine through artificial aging. Amphorae were placed in the chamber, which was built on top of a heated hearth, in order to impart a smoky flavor in the wine that also seemed to sharpen the acidity. The wine would sometimes come out of the fumarium with a paler color just like aged wine. Modern winemaking techniques like micro- oxygenation can have the side effect of artificially aging the wine. In the production of Madeira and rancio wines, the wines are deliberately exposed to excessive temperatures to accelerate the maturation of the wine. Other techniques used to artificially age wine (with inconclusive results on their effectiveness) include shaking the wine, exposing it to radiation, magnetism or ultra-sonic waves. More recently, experiments with artificial aging through high-voltage electricity have produced results above the remaining techniques, as assessed by a panel of wine tasters. Some artificial wine-aging gadgets include the "Clef du Vin", which is a metallic object that is dipped into wine and purportedly ages the wine one year for every second of dipping. The product has received mixed reviews from wine commentators. Several wineries have begun aging finished wine bottles undersea; ocean aging is thought to accelerate natural aging reactions as a function of depth (pressure). ==See also== * Ullage ==References== ==Further reading== * Suriano, Matthew, "A Fresh Reading for 'Aged Wine' in the Samaria Ostraca," Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 139,1 (2007), 27–33. ==External links== * * * Category:Wine Category:Wine chemistry
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The Lords of Discipline is a 1980 novel by Pat Conroy that was later adapted in a 1983 film of the same name. The story centers on Will McLean, who is in his fourth year at the fictional Carolina Military Institute in Charleston, South Carolina. Will's experiences are heavily based on Pat Conroy’s own experiences at The Citadel, a real military college in Charleston. The story is narrated in first person by Will, who attends the Institute between 1963 and 1967. Will recounts his years at the Institute, especially focusing on the school's brutal culture of hazing and abuse. After discovering a secret society that drives cadets deemed unworthy of graduating from the Institute to drop out by any means necessary, Will learns that graduation and lives are on the line. == Background == Although Conroy drew on his experiences as a cadet at The Citadel, and also references traditions and locations of both Norwich University and VMI, he has said that the story is fiction and not based on his life or that of any other graduate of a military academy. Citadel alumni were critical of the novel, considering it a thinly-veiled and unflattering account of the school, and Conroy was ostracized by his alma mater and effectively banned from campus for over 20 years after its publication. In 2000, The Citadel invited Conroy back to campus to receive an honorary doctorate, and again the next year as commencement speaker. ==Plot== Will McLean, returning to the Carolina Military Institute in Charleston, South Carolina, an unknown number of years after his graduation, tells the story of his life at the Institute. In 1966, Will was an English major on a basketball scholarship, in his fourth and final year at the Institute. Will is not interested in a military career, and had only attended on account of his father, also an alumnus, to whom he made a deathbed promise years ago to attend and eventually wear the Institute's graduate ring. He is generally well-liked and his professors and peers recognize him for his integrity and fairness, although he is also sarcastic and independent. Will struggles to fit into the strict military environment, but finds solace in his three roommates, who have become his closest friends: Tradd St. Croix, the son of an upper-class Charlestonian family, and two brawny Italian-American boys from the North, Dante "Pig" Pignetti and Mark Santoro. They all look forward to graduation, although Will's friends will head off to fight in the Vietnam War, which Will is personally against. However, Will does have some pride in the Institute, representing it in basketball. Though anti-war, he also despises the discrimination the Institute faces from civilian students of other colleges due to its military association, which he sees at away games. For example, when Will plays a game against the Virginia Military Institute, which is considered their biggest rival game, he notes that VMI was the only team all season that did not harass him and his teammates. Colonel Berrineau, the Commandant of Cadets who is commonly known as The Bear, asks Will to look out for the Institute's first black cadet, Tom Pearce, knowing that Will is the only liberal in the student body. Will also begins a secret relationship with Annie Kate Gervais, a girl from an upper-class Charlestonian family who has become pregnant from a boy who refused to marry her, though their relationship is doomed because Will is Irish-American, Catholic, and not wealthy. Will attempts to help a freshman, Poteete, who is struggling with the plebe system, which is the brutal hazing and abuse experienced by freshmen at the Institute. However, Poteete kills himself. In an extended flashback, Will then describes his own plebe year three years earlier. Will learns that the only way to survive is to bond closely with the other members of his class against the cadre. Having entered the college on a basketball scholarship, Will is also protected by other members of the basketball team who don't want to see Will physically harmed and, at one point, rescue him from a particularly brutal hazing incident. Many of Will's classmates are not so lucky, and resign from the school due to the unrelenting hazing. However, a recruit named Bobby Bentley who has a problem with urinating on himself due to the stress of hazing but in excellent shape, refuses to quit and can handle all physical hardships. Conventional hazing methods fail to break Bentley, causing Will's freshman class to come together, and making Will's cadre the subject of ridicule of the entire cadet corps. Near the end of the year, Will's freshman class is recognized as cadets, and the hazing ends. Some time before this, Bobby Bentley is taken off campus by an unknown group and withdraws from the Institute the following day for unknown reasons. Back in Will's senior year, he hears rumors of The Ten, a mysterious Institute secret society that ensures certain cadets, deemed unacceptable to "wear the ring" (that is, to be a graduate of the Institute, denoted by wearing of a class ring), are run out by any means necessary. Will discovers that the Ten are real and are trying to run Pearce out to keep the Institute all white. Meanwhile, Will and the other seniors are given their Institute rings in preparation for graduation, and Will wins the final basketball game of his career. Annie Kate's baby is stillborn and she rejects Will, wanting to forget all about the time she spent pregnant. Will looks further into the Ten and reunites with Bobby Bentley, who reveals that, during their plebe year, he was spirited away to a house, and was threatened and tortured to the point that he agreed to quit. Bentley says his ultimate decision to quit was not due to the torture, but the realization he no longer wished to be associated with any organization that would have a group like The Ten. Bentley recalls one member of The Ten, whom they piece together as a high-ranking cadet from their plebe year. Will, Mark, and Pig, discovering this Ten member is now a student at a nearby law school, abduct him, then interrogate him on a secluded railroad track until he reveals the location of the house, which is a plantation house owned by General Bentley Durrell, the superintendent of the Institute. When Pearce is kidnapped by the Ten, Will goes to the house but is discovered. He is rescued by Mark and Pig, but their identities are now known by the Ten. Pearce is intimidated into silence, and the Ten attempt to have Mark, Pig and Will thrown out of the school. Pig is caught on an honor code violation due to the Ten and loses the honor court case, despite the help of his roommates. After he is expelled and drummed out of school, he throws himself in front of a train, killing himself. The Ten then attempt to get Will and Mark kicked out of school for excess demerits. Just as they are about to be thrown out, Will discovers that Tradd's father was a member of the Ten. He and Mark read his journals and discover the names of all current and former members. They also discover that Tradd is a member of the Ten and had been feeding the Ten information the whole time, and that Tradd is the father of Annie Kate's baby. Will confronts Tradd and ends their friendship. Will then attempts to blackmail the General into letting him and Mark graduate, using the information learned about the Ten, but Durrell refuses, claiming their substandard performance and that the graduate they kidnapped wants to press charges against them as justifications for dismissal. The Bear then enters the General's office, informing him that multiple cadets who were run out of the Institute are now considering lawsuits of their own. General Durrell relents when also faced with the threat of exposure to the press, as evidenced by Mark seen outside with letters containing the information ready to be mailed. Will and Mark are allowed to graduate, but the board of governors removes Colonel Berrineau (The Bear) from his position as commandant. Shortly before graduation, Will receives a letter from Annie Kate, thanking him for standing by her and saying he will make a good husband to whatever woman he finds. Reflecting on his graduation, Will notes that eight of his fellow cadets will eventually be killed in action in the Vietnam War, Mark among them. Will also reveals that The Ten member and class "golden boy" John Alexander would fade into obscurity, last seen working as a ROTC instructor at a small university, while Mark Santoro tops the entire class in awards for valor. As Will receives his diploma from the Institute, he is coldly told by General Durrell not to disgrace the ring, but Will simply replies with "Dante Pignetti", honoring his former roommate and showing his contempt for the general by breaking the school's taboo of ever speaking the name of a drummed-out cadet. The Bear appears at their graduation to congratulate Will. Disgusted at seeing General Durrell's signature on his diploma, Will asks Colonel Berrineau to sign it as Will wants the name of a man he can respect on the diploma. The Bear does not sign, remarking, "there already is, Bubba", pointing to Will's name. == Characters == *Will McLean – The protagonist and narrator, who is heavily based on Pat Conroy in his college years. Will is independent and sarcastic, and, unlike the rest of his classmates, does not wish to join the military after graduation. He is, however, generally well-liked on campus for being fair and kind. The story is told retrospectively some time after his graduation. *Tradd St. Croix – Will's roommate and friend, from a very rich and respected old Charlestonian family. Will was close to him and his parents, Abigail and Commerce St. Croix, but their friendship ends after Will discovers he was a member of the Ten. *Dante "Pig" Pignetti – Will's roommate and friend, and a brawny Italian-American from the North. He comes from a poor family, is prone to violence and is extremely protective of his friends and his fiancée Theresa. He is run out of the Institute by the Ten after they catch him on an honor code violation, driving him to commit suicide. *Mark Santoro – Will's roommate and friend, another Italian-American from the North who is loyal to Will to the end. He dies fighting in Vietnam some time after graduation, with honors for his for valor. *Tom Pearce – The first black student to attend the Institute, whom Will is assigned to watch over and ensure he fairly makes it through his plebe year. *Annie Kate Gervais – A young pregnant woman from an upper-class Charlestonian family that has fallen on hard times whom Will befriends and later falls in love with. Annie Kate struggles with loneliness due to the fact that she must hide her pregnancy after her baby's father refuses to marry her. Annie Kate ends her relationship with Will after her baby is stillborn. She moves to California to attend college and asks Will to not to contact her, but not before confirming to Will that Tradd was the child's father. *General Bentley Durrell – A famous Second World War general and president of the Institute, who is revealed to have been a former member of the Ten and has been protecting the clandestine organization. *Bobby Bentley – Will's fellow classmate who is targeted by upperclassmen due to his wetting himself during his freshman year. His perseverance in the face the brutal hazing he experiences inspires Will's class to come together, but he is ultimately driven out by the Ten. *Colonel "The Bear" Berrineau – The Commandant of the Cadets in charge of maintaining discipline and helping students at the Institute. The character was based on Lieutenant Colonel Thomas "The Boo" Courvoisie, an iconic former Assistant Commandant at The Citadel who was also the subject of Conroy's first book, The Boo. *John "Bucky" Poteete – A freshman mentored by Will who struggles with the brutal hazing at the Institute. He commits suicide after being kidnapped and tortured by the Ten, driving Will into a depression. == Reception == The novel received generally positive reviews. ==Film adaptation== The novel was adapted for the screenplay of a 1983 film of the same name, starring David Keith as Will McLean and Robert Prosky as Colonel "The Bear" Berrineau. The film version took place entirely in McLean's senior year, when he was asked to protect Pearce. Several plot points were changed for the film: * In the novel, Poteete successfully kills himself by hanging, having earlier being unsuccessful in killing himself jumping off a roof (having been thwarted by Mark and Will). In the film, he is an outcast but not suicidal. He is seen saying he will be accepted if he performs the dangerous stunt of jumping from one rooftop to another. In his attempt to do so, Poteete misses and falls. * McLean was assigned the duty of protecting Pearce because of McLean's perceived liberalism. In the film, McLean was assigned the duty to repay The Bear for protecting him during his own plebe year. * After his "walk of shame", Pignetti commits suicide by walking into the path of a speeding train. In the film, he simply gets into a taxicab called for him and is never seen again, and as part of Will's deal with Durrell, Pignetti is to be reinstated at the Institute and allowed to complete his degree. * Tradd's motivation for joining The Ten is not as well explained in the film, and the novel's entire "Honey Prince" subplot of Tradd's effeminate nature is never depicted. In the film, Tradd admits it was his father also being a member, ensuring him legacy status, and was enthralled with membership in The Ten being the Institute's highest honor, but expresses some remorse over The Ten's activities. The film makes a brief aside to Tradd's lack of manliness, with Commerce commending how Will looks good in uniform whereas Tradd does not seem soldierly "even if he was wearing a suit of armor". * The entire plotline concerning McLean and Annie Kate Gervais, the mother of his roommate Tradd St Croix's illegitimate—and ultimately stillborn—child, is not in the film. * In the film, Pearce apologizes for turning his back on McLean, explaining that he did it because of survival, and if he did not make it, "the next nigger has my record around his neck like a rock". In the novel, McLean has no further contact with Pearce after that. * The novel speaks of the death of General Durrell's son, who Will remembered as an obscure cadet who could not escape his father's shadow. The notification of this death causes the cadets to go to General Durell's house, where his wife requests the cadets in bright anger to "kill Vietcong". In the film, the ring ceremony is interrupted with General Durrell reading a letter of his son being killed in action. Will and the others then hold a candlelight vigil before Mr. and Mrs. Durrell singing Dixie. ==References== Category:Fiction set in the 1960s Category:1980 American novels Category:American novels adapted into films Category:Books by Pat Conroy Category:Charleston, South Carolina in fiction Category:Houghton Mifflin books Category:Novels set in South Carolina Category:Roman à clef novels Category:The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina
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The Crystal Singer, or Crystal Singer in the U.S., is a young adult, science fiction novel by American writer Anne McCaffrey, first published by Severn House in 1982. It features the transition by Killashandra Ree, a young woman who has failed as an operatic soloist, to the occupation of "crystal singer" on the fictional planet Ballybran. The novel is based on short stories written in 1974 and is the first book McCaffrey set in her "Crystal universe". Alternatively, Crystal Singer is a trilogy completed in 1992 and named for its first book. (ISFDB). Retrieved 2011-11-03. Doubleday and Del Rey published U.S. book club and paperback editions within a few months of the first edition in 1982. WorldCat participating libraries report holding editions in French, Polish, and Hebrew languages, published in the 1990s. "Formats and editions of The crystal singer". WorldCat. Retrieved 2012-11-01. ==Origins== While a schoolgirl, Anne McCaffrey enjoyed one year of piano lessons purchased by her aunt. Dragonholder, p. 6. Later she studied voice for nine years, performed in the first music circus in 1949, once directed a play, and worked for a record label, Liberty Music Shop. DuPont transferred her husband temporarily to Düsseldorf, Germany, in 1962/63, where Anne resumed vocal trainingDragonholder, pp. 14–15. but suffered a crisis when she was informed that a flaw in her voice would limit her in that avocation. Regarding that experience, including some emotional trauma, her fictional character Killashandra Ree is partly autobiographical. Dragonholder, pp. 37, 41, 66. McCaffrey divorced her husband in August 1970 and emigrated to the vicinity of Dublin, Ireland, in September with her second Dragonriders of Pern book nearly finished and a contract for the third. The White Dragon would complete her "original trilogy" with Ballantine Books in 1978 but for several years that work stalled.Dragonholder, pp. 71–101 The markets for children and young adults provided crucial opportunities, as when editor Roger Elwood solicited contributions of short genre fiction to anthologies. She was able to deliver "The Smallest Dragonboy" and the four-part story of Killashandra:Dragonholder, pp. 82–83, 95.. Retrieved 2011-10-27. * "Prelude to a Crystal Song", Continuum 1 (Apr 1974) * "Killashandra – Crystal Singer", Continuum 2 (Aug 1974) * "Milekey Mountain", Continuum 3 (Dec 1974) * "Killashandra – Coda and Finale", Continuum 4 (Aug 1975) McCaffrey called the 1982 novel a "considerably expanded" version of the four-part work and acknowledged "the technical assistance of Ron Massey, Langshot Stables, Surrey" for its transformation."Author's Note". Crystal Singer. Del Rey Books. August 1982. In fact the first three sections of the novel—through Killashandra's return from her first experience cutting crystal in the field—are moderately revised and heavily revised versions of the first and third 1974 stories, "Prelude to a Crystal Song" and "Milekey Mountain". In the second and fourth original stories she is a veteran of more than 100 years in the field. Whether and how she may be able to go on as a woman on vacation (#2) and as the miner of her claim (#4) are primary themes. Killashandra is a small town in north central Ireland, about 120 km northwest of Dublin. "Milekey Mountain" was adapted in comics form (artist uncredited) in the 1979 publication Questar: Illustrated Science Fiction Classics (Golden Press, ISBN 0307111970). This adaptation also included material from the first two stories in order to provide an "origin story" for Killashandra. In Questar the story was retitled Crystal Singer. ==Plot summary (1982 novel)== Killashandra Ree has spent ten years studying music and training to be a vocal soloist, anticipating interstellar celebrity. After a final exam she learns that a flaw in her voice will prevent her from singing lead. She dreads a life limited to choral work and supporting operatic roles so she plans to exit both school and home planet discreetly. At the spaceport she meets a vital older man who uses perfect pitch, and his occupational experience as a "crystal singer" on Ballybran, to identify an incoming space shuttle on the verge of explosion. He treats her to a whirlwind romance and the experience of her home planet in ways entirely unknown to her, but sincerely warns her against the high-status, high-income occupation that makes such a vacation possible for him. Further, one of its occupational hazards leaves him in a coma, but Killashandra determines to accompany his return home under life support, and to investigate membership in the Heptite Guild of crystal singers for herself. The crystalline rock of Ballybran, when skilfully cut, is essential to advanced power and communications systems at the heart of interstellar civilization. Only the Guild "singers" can mine crystal: locate it, and cut it with voice-controlled machinery. Killashandra's ability to sing perfect pitch meets one qualification, she knows, and she passes other qualifying exams in the staging area on Ballybran's moon. Travel to Ballybran itself, however, is forbidden to all but its resident singers and supporting population, about 30,000 people. The moon-side orientation program secretly explains why: a native spore soon invades the human body and causes genetic mutations. Some newcomers will die of the initial infection and many will adapt only partly, with a mix of permanent symptoms such as vastly increased visual acuity along with complete deafness. Those who adapt fully to symbiotic life may become singers; other survivors must join the staff. The symbiont maintains its host, perhaps for hundreds of years, but only on Ballybran; only the fully adapted singers can safely depart, and only briefly. Full adaptation brings remarkable benefits, including increased sensory perception, rapid tissue regeneration and a vastly prolonged life expectancy, but it renders all hosts sterile, and eventually causes severe memory loss, paranoia and dementia. Even after full adaptation with the symbiont, mining Ballybran crystal is a dangerous occupation. Beside the risks associated with other mining operations, there are frequent storms with high winds that may cause crystal deposits to resonate: "sonic storms" that may impair the symbiont and drive the singer mad. The Guild provides life support for physically disabled or insane members, many aspects of the industry are highly centralized, and everyone begins with big debts. Yet singers in the field are solo adventurers who establish private claims, work them in secret, and sometimes amass great fortunes. Killashandra and thirty others accept the personal risks and make the commitment. The story follows her and her classmates in a general education program, awaiting infection. When her own adaptation is unusually rapid and easy, she advances alone to rapid acquaintance with the rules and customs, transport and cutting equipment, emergency procedures, commercial values, and some of the planet-bound specialists. She is especially sensitive to "black crystal", the rarest and most valuable variety. Partly for that talent, the Guild Master Lanzecki becomes her mentor (but soon her lover as well). Before any of her classmates learns to fly or to cut, she is in the field. She is first to find the unknown claim of a black crystal miner recently destroyed in a crash, and she cuts some of it adequately. Killashandra's rapid adaptation and training have isolated her from the other newcomers and her continued success has fostered jealousy, she sees even in her closest friends among the former classmates. So she accepts an assignment offered by Lanzecki, to install "her" set of crystals in a recently settled planetary system. The cost of a black crystal set is high, even on the planetary scale, which has made its acquisition politically controversial and its installation a celebrity event. Killashandra must not only complete the technical installation but also represent the Guild in a public performance not unlike her one-time aspiration. She succeeds on both counts. ==Trilogy== McCaffrey continued the biography of Killashandra Ree in two sequels, Killashandra (1986) and Crystal Line (1992). The original Continuum stories ended with Killashandra's death, while the trilogy follows her over the course of many centuries and ends on a more hopeful note as new technology and discoveries conquer many of the difficulties that made her career perilous. ===Killashandra=== The story opens with Killashandra in debt to the Heptite Guild and desperate to make enough money to escape Ballybran before the seasonal sonic storms. The Guildmaster offers her an opportunity to travel to the music-loving planet of Optheria to install a set of Crystals on their damaged Crystal-powered organ in time for their upcoming Festival, an easy task that will allow Killashandra to clear her debt and escape the storms. Optheria is a pacifist planet alleged to be so perfect that none of its citizens ever desire to travel elsewhere. Upon arrival, Killashandra discovers the organ was deliberately sabotaged. She suspects that the Optherian officials are concealing the full truth about both the organ and the happiness of the Optherian citizens. Before she can investigate further, Killashandra is kidnapped by rebels from a local chain of islands. Marooned for weeks and left to fend for herself, Killashandra uses her Crystal-enhanced resilience to swim from island to island until she finds an inhabited one, where she comes face to face with her kidnapper, Lars Dahl. Killashandra's arduous swim has so physically altered her that Lars does not recognize her, allowing her to gain his confidence in order to learn why she was kidnapped. Killashandra confirms that the Optherian leaders effectively forbid unhappy citizens from leaving the planet, in violation of Federation law, and that they use the Crystal organ to transmit highly illegal subliminal hallucinations to the population at the seasonal Festivals in order to keep them compliant. The islanders, who are less influenced by the subliminals, made a plan to destroy the organ, then kidnap the Crystal Singer sent to repair it, creating an interplanetary incident that would demand a full investigation. By this time Killashandra and Lars have fallen in love, presenting an emotional crisis for Killashandra as she cannot survive on Optheria and Lars cannot follow her to Ballybran. Killashandra reveals herself and volunteers to further the islanders' plans by having Lars return her to the mainland and present himself as her rescuer. She will locate and sabotage the organ's hidden subliminal projector under the guise of repairing the organ, then report the human rights violations to the Federation. The plan succeeds and the subliminals are disabled, but Lars is now under suspicion of the government. To protect him from reprisal, Killashandra and a fellow Singer smuggle him off the planet under the guise of arresting him for Killashandra's kidnapping. At an automated trial, Killashandra speaks in Lars' defense, but when stress monitors misread her concern for him as fear, the computerized judge believes he has threatened her and finds him guilty. Killashandra returns to Ballybran despondent, certain she will never see Lars again. However, the influential Heptite Guild appeals on Lars's behalf. He receives a new trial, is cleared, and secretly applies to the Guild as a Singer. His transition succeeds, and the lovers reunite. * Library of Congress Classification PS3563.A255 K48 1985 "Killashandra" (first U.S. edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-11-01. ===Crystal Line=== In the centuries after the events of the previous book, Killashandra and Lars have worked the Crystal Ranges together. Killashandra begins to succumb to the memory loss associated with singing Crystal, leaving her dangerously paranoid and careless. Lars tries to tempt her away from the Ranges in hopes that time away from Ballybran will forestall the inevitable, but Killashandra holds out for one good cutting to pay off their considerable debts, risking their lives in the process. Finally Guildmaster Lanzecki gives Lars and Killashandra an off-planet assignment to investigate a recently discovered entity: a giant liquid crystalline mass termed "Jewel Junk." Since Crystal facilitates communication, Killashandra feeds the Junk a few shards of Crystal, which causes it to respond. Killashandra concludes the Junk is sentient and trying to communicate. Returning to Ballybran early, Killashandra finds Lanzecki, her former lover, has gone into the Ranges during a fierce sonic storm that kills him, leaving Lars the new Guildmaster. Killashandra suspects Lanzecki had grown tired of his long life and, sensing his memory fading, chose to commit suicide. His death leaves Killashandra bitter, alienating her from Lars, which in turn accelerates her memory loss as she loses her connection to the life they shared. As the new Guildmaster, Lars discovers that the Guild's operating model has left it with a massive backlog, with much of the Guild's profits going to support the mindless husks of hundreds of former Singers. In addition there are far too few active Singers to keep the Guild viable, and the perils of Crystal Singing mean new applicants are few and far between. A new medic on Ballybran introduces a method of hypnotizing mindless Singers to recover coordinates where Crystal can be found. Killashandra finds this new method unethical, but it proves highly profitable, though there are still too few active Singers to fully take advantage of it. A delegation from the Federation makes a rare, dangerous journey to Ballybran's surface to inform the Guild that the Jewel Junk has grown larger and more active since Killshandra's interference, creating a political crisis: if the Junk proves sentient, it must be declared a citizen and given rights and protection; if not, it will be exploited as a natural resource. Killashandra is assigned an experiment to feed the Junk Crystal of all colors, including the powerful Black. As Killashandra lays the Black Crystal into the Jewel Junk, the Junk draws her arm into its mass and extracts centuries of accumulated sonic residue from her body, restoring her full memory. Her old personality returns as she remembers her love for Lars. The Junk is declared sentient, and its power insures no future Singers will risk losing their memory and offers hope that former Singers may be restored, promising a new era of prosperity for the Guild. * Library of Congress Classification PS3563.A255 C65 1992 Crystal line" (first U.S. edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-11-01. ===Omnibus editions=== The trilogy was published in omnibus editions The Crystal Singer Trilogy (US: Del Rey Books, 1996) and The Crystal Singer Omnibus (UK: Corgi Books, 1999).The Crystal Singer Trilogy. ISFDB. * Library of Congress Classification: PS3563.A255 C73 1996 "The crystal singer trilogy" (first U.S. edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-11-01. With publisher description of all three components. ==Crystal universe== Beside the Crystal Singer trilogy, the Internet Speculative Fiction Database places in the "Crystal universe" (series) both The Coelura, a 1983 novella, and Nimisha's Ship, a 1998 novel. In turn, the Crystal universe is only one of several series that share the "Federated Sentient Planets" background; they are set in a universe governed by the FSP. Federation regulations and officials appear substantially in the Crystal Singer trilogy, in sharp contrast to the Dragonriders of Pern series among others. ==Awards== The Crystal Singer placed seventh for the 1983 annual Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, voted by Locus readers. It was one of six finalists for the Balrog Award in the novel class. "Anne McCaffrey" . The Locus Index to SF Awards: Index to Literary Nominees. Locus Publications. Retrieved 2011-10-09. From any Locus Index entry, select the award name for details of the annual result; then select "About" for general information about the award. ==References== ==Sources== * Category:1982 American novels Category:1982 science fiction novels Category:American science fiction novels Category:Novels by Anne McCaffrey Category:Children's science fiction novels Category:Novels set on fictional planets
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Crochet (; ) is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials. The name is derived from the French term crochet, meaning 'hook'. Hooks can be made from a variety of materials, such as metal, wood, bamboo, or plastic. The key difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps many stitches open at a time. Some variant forms of crochet, such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace, do keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time. thumb|Demonstration of crochet technique ==Etymology== The word crochet is derived from the French crochet, a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, both meaning "hook". It was used in 17th-century French lace-making, where the term crochetage designated a stitch used to join separate pieces of lace. The word crochet subsequently came to describe both the specific type of textile, and the hooked needle used to produce it.Santina M. Levey, Lace: a History, Victoria & Albert Museum, London, 1983, , p. 92 In 1567, the tailor of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jehan de Compiegne, supplied her with silk thread for sewing and crochet, "soye à coudre et crochetz".Teulet, 'Maison de Marie-Stuart', Relations Politiques, vol. 2 (Paris, 1862), p. 273. ==Origins== Knitted textiles survive from as early as the 11th century CE, but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric emerges in Europe during the 19th century.Lis Paludan, Crochet: History & Technique, Interweave Press, Loveland CO, , p. 76 Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a different looped yarn technique. left|thumb|A crocheted purse described in 1823 in Penélopé The first known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to describe the craft in its present sense appeared in the Dutch magazine Penélopé in 1823. This includes a colour plate showing five styles of purse, of which three were intended to be crocheted with silk thread. A. B. Van Meerten, Penélopé, of, Maandwerk aan het vrouwelijk geslacht toegewijd, Amsterdam, 1824, pp. 90–94 The first is "simple open crochet" (crochet simple ajour), a mesh of chain-stitch arches. The second (illustrated here) starts in a semi-open form (demi jour), where chain- stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with "double-crochet stitches" (dubbelde hekelsteek: double-crochet in British terminology; single-crochet in US).Sarah Hazell, 200 Crochet Stitches, Search Press, Kent, 2013, The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet. The instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle (as illustrated below) and introduce a number of decorative techniques. The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—shepherd's knitting—is in The Memoirs of a Highland Lady by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its subsequently published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Elizabeth Grant, The Memoirs of a Highland Lady, John Murray, London, 1898 p. 182. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé describes and illustrates a shepherd's hook, and recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn. A. B. Van Meerten, Penélopé, of, Maandwerk aan het vrouwelijk geslacht toegewijd, Amsterdam, 1833, pp. 152 In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states: Two years later, the same author writes: An instruction book from 1846 describes Shepherd or single crochet as what in current British usage is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U.S. American terminology always using the latter (reserving single crochet for use as noted above).Nancy Nehring, Learn Slip Stitch Crochet, Annie's Attic, Berne IN, 2008, , p. 2 It similarly equates "Double" and "French crochet". Mlle. Riego de la Branchardiere, Knitting, Crochet, and Netting, London, 1846, p.57 right|thumb|Tambour embroidery in the Diderot Encyclopedia Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is solid evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery and crochet. French tambour embroidery was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderot's Encyclopedia. The tip of the needle shown there is indistinguishable from that of a present-day inline crochet hook and the chain stitch separated from a cloth support is a fundamental element of the latter technique. The 1823 Penélopé instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms tambour and crochet as synonyms. Mrs. Gaugain, The Lady's Assistant for Executing Useful and Fancy Designs in Knitting, Netting and Crotchet Work, Edinburgh, 1840 This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of that work, 1847. Jane Gaugain, The Lady's Assistant for Executing Useful and Fancy Designs in Knitting, Netting and Crochet Work, 4th ed., 1847 thumb|left|100px|Shepherd's hook, 19th-century tapered hook, modern inline hook The strong taper of the shepherd's hook eases the production of slip- stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time. Early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops. The design with a cylindrical shaft that is commonplace today was largely reserved for tambour-style steel needles. Both types gradually merged into the modern form that appeared toward the end of the 19th century, including both tapered and cylindrical segments, and the continuously tapered bone hook remained in industrial production until World War II. The early instruction books make frequent reference to the alternative use of 'ivory, bone, or wooden hooks' and 'steel needles in a handle', as appropriate to the stitch being made. Taken with the synonymous labeling of shepherd's- and single crochet, and the similar equivalence of French- and double crochet, there is a strong suggestion that crochet is rooted both in tambour embroidery and shepherd's knitting, leading to thread and yarn crochet respectively; a distinction that is still made. The locus of the fusion of all these elements—the "invention" noted above—has yet to be determined, as does the origin of shepherd's knitting. Shepherd's hooks are still being made for local slip-stitch crochet traditions. The form in the accompanying photograph is typical for contemporary production. A longer continuously tapering design intermediate between it and the 19th-century tapered hook was also in earlier production, commonly being made from the handles of forks and spoons. ==Irish crochet== thumb|Detail of a Portuguese crocheted tablecloth, about 1970 In the 19th century, as Ireland was facing the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), crochet lace work was introduced as a form of famine relief (the production of crocheted lace being an alternative way of making money for impoverished Irish workers).Irish Crochet Lace Exhibit Catalog Lacis Museum of Lace and Textiles. 2005. Men, women, children joined a co-operative in order to crochet and produce products to help with famine relief during the Great Irish Famine. Schools to teach crocheting were started. Teachers were trained and sent across Ireland to teach this craft. When the Irish immigrated to the Americas, they were able to take with them crocheting. Mademoiselle Riego de la Branchardiere is generally credited with the invention of Irish Crochet, publishing the first book of patterns in 1846. Irish lace became popular in Europe and America, and was made in quantity until the first World War.Art That Saved the Irish From Starvation by Zelda Bronstein. Berkeley Daily Planet, April 19, 2005. ==Modern practice and culture== Fashions in crochet changed with the end of the Victorian era in the 1890s. Crocheted laces in the new Edwardian era, peaking between 1910 and 1920, became even more elaborate in texture and complicated stitching. The strong Victorian colours disappeared, though, and new publications called for white or pale threads, except for fancy purses, which were often crocheted of brightly colored silk and elaborately beaded. After World War I, far fewer crochet patterns were published, and most of them were simplified versions of the early 20th-century patterns. After World War II, from the late 1940s until the early 1960s, there was a resurgence in interest in home crafts, particularly in the United States, with many new and imaginative crochet designs published for colorful doilies, potholders, and other home items, along with updates of earlier publications. These patterns called for thicker threads and yarns than in earlier patterns and included variegated colors. The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the new generation picked up on crochet and popularized granny squares, a motif worked in the round and incorporating bright colors. Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, the early 21st century has seen a revival of interest in handcrafts and DIY, as well as improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn. As well as books and classes, there are YouTube tutorials and tiktok videos to help people who may need a clearer explanation to learn how to crochet. Filet crochet, Tunisian crochet, tapestry crochet, broomstick lace, hairpin lace, cro-hooking, and Irish crochet are all variants of the basic crochet method. thumb|Crochet table decor, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Crochet has experienced a revival on the catwalk as well. Christopher Kane's Fall 2011 Ready-to-Wear collection makes intensive use of the granny square, one of the most basic of crochet motifs. In addition, crochet has been utilized many times by designers on the reality show Project Runway. Websites such as Etsy and Ravelry have made it easier for individual hobbyists to sell and distribute their patterns or projects across the internet. ==Materials== Basic materials required for crochet are a hook and some type of material that will be crocheted, most commonly yarn or thread. Yarn, one of the most commonly used materials for crocheting, has varying weights which need to be taken into consideration when following patterns. Acrylic can also be used when crocheting, as it is synthetic and an alternative for wool. Additional tools are convenient for making related accessories. Examples of such tools include cardboard cutouts, which can be used to make tassels, fringe, and many other items; a pom-pom circle, used to make pom-poms; a tape measure and a gauge measure, both used for measuring crocheted work and counting stitches; a row counter; and occasionally plastic rings, which are used for special projects. In recent years, yarn selections have moved beyond synthetic and plant and animal-based fibers to include bamboo, qiviut, hemp, and banana stalks, to name a few. Many advanced crocheters have also incorporated recycled materials into their work in an effort to "go green" and experiment with new textures by using items such as plastic bags, old t-shirts or sheets, VCR or Cassette tape, and ribbon. ===Crochet hook=== thumb|upright|Aluminium crochet hooks The crochet hook comes in many sizes and materials, such as bone, bamboo, aluminium, plastic, and steel. Because sizing is categorized by the diameter of the hook's shaft, a crafter aims to create stitches of a certain size in order to reach a particular gauge specified in a given pattern. If gauge is not reached with one hook, another is used until the stitches made are the needed size. Crafters may have a preference for one type of hook material over another due to aesthetic appeal, yarn glide, or hand disorders such as arthritis, where bamboo or wood hooks are favored over metal for the perceived warmth and flexibility during use. Hook grips and ergonomic hook handles are also available to assist crafters. Steel crochet hooks range in size from 0.4 to 3.5 millimeters, or from 00 to 16 in American sizing. These hooks are used for fine crochet work such as doilies and lace. Aluminium, bamboo, and plastic crochet hooks are available from 2.5 to 19 millimeters in size, or from B to S in American sizing. Artisan-made hooks are often made of hand-turned woods, sometimes decorated with semi-precious stones or beads. Crochet hooks used for Tunisian crochet are elongated and have a stopper at the end of the handle, while double-ended crochet hooks have a hook on both ends of the handle. There is also a double hooked apparatus called a Cro-hook that has become popular. A hairpin loom is often used to create lacy and long stitches, known as hairpin lace. While this is not in itself a hook, it is a device used in conjunction with a crochet hook to produce stitches. See : List of United States standard crochet hook and knitting needle sizes ===Yarn=== thumb|A hank of wool yarn (center) is uncoiled into its basic loop. A tie is visible at the left; after untying, the hank may be wound into a ball or balls suitable for crocheting. Crocheting from a normal hank directly is likely to tangle the yarn, producing snarls. Yarn for crochet is usually sold as balls, or skeins (hanks), although it may also be wound on spools or cones. Skeins and balls are generally sold with a yarn band, a label that describes the yarn's weight, length, dye lot, fiber content, washing instructions, suggested needle size, likely gauge, etc. It is a common practice to save the yarn band for future reference, especially if additional skeins must be purchased. Crocheters generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single dye lot. The dye lot specifies a group of skeins that were dyed together and thus have precisely the same color; skeins from different dye lots, even if very similar in color, are usually slightly different and may produce a visible stripe when added onto existing work. If insufficient yarn of a single dye lot is bought to complete a project, additional skeins of the same dye lot can sometimes be obtained from other yarn stores or online. The thickness or weight of the yarn is a significant factor in determining how many stitches and rows are required to cover a given area for a given stitch pattern. This is also termed the gauge. Thicker yarns generally require large-diameter crochet hooks, whereas thinner yarns may be crocheted with thick or thin hooks. Hence, thicker yarns generally require fewer stitches, and therefore less time, to work up a given project. The recommended gauge for a given ball of yarn can be found on the label that surrounds the skein when buying in stores. Patterns and motifs are coarser with thicker yarns and produce bold visual effects, whereas thinner yarns are best for refined or delicate pattern-work. Yarns are standardly grouped by thickness into six categories: superfine, fine, light, medium, bulky and superbulky. Quantitatively, thickness is measured by the number of wraps per inch (WPI). The related weight per unit length is usually measured in tex or denier. thumb|left|Transformation of a hank of lavender silk yarn (top) into a ball in which the yarn emerges from the center (bottom). Using the latter is better for needlework, since the yarn is much less likely to tangle. Before use, hanks are wound into balls in which the yarn emerges from the center, making crocheting easier by preventing the yarn from becoming easily tangled. The winding process may be performed by hand or done with a ball winder and swift. A yarn's usefulness is judged by several factors, such as its loft (its ability to trap air), its resilience (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its hand (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its hairiness (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and its appearance, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features. Other factors include allergenicity, speed of drying, resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew, melting point and flammability, retention of static electricity, and the propensity to accept dyes. Desirable properties may vary for different projects, so there is no one "best" yarn. thumb|upright|right|The two possible twists of yarn Although crochet may be done with ribbons, metal wire or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made by spinning fibers. In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in a Z-twist or S-twist yarn. If the fibers are first aligned by combing them and the spinner uses a worsted type drafting method such as the short forward draw, the yarn is smoother and called a worsted; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed and the spinner uses a woolen drafting method such as the long backward draw, the yarn is fuzzier and called woolen- spun. The fibers making up a yarn may be continuous filament fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be staples (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning. The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers and the thickness of the yarn. In general, yarns become stronger with more twist (also called worst), longer fibers and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twist than do thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension. The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a slub is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn. The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant and synthetic fibers. These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers, respectively. Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana trees, soy and corn. Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulose mainly derived from trees. Common synthetic fibers include acrylics, polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene. Of these types, wool is generally favored for crochet, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting; however, wool is generally less convenient to clean and some people are allergic to it. It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk. Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type. A single spun yarn may be crochet as is, or braided or plied with another. In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist. The opposing twist relieves some of the yarns' tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, balanced yarn. Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing cabled yarns or multi-stranded yarns. Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in bouclé. The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterwards to give the yarn a uniform look. The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Yarns need not be dyed; or they may be dyed one color, or a great variety of colors. Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand or even hand-painted onto the yarn. A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant. The color-scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway. Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes. ==Process== thumb|A close view of a crocheted scarf made with lace-weight mohair yarn. thumb|Crochet tablecloth, Kolkata, West Bengal, India Crocheted fabric is begun by placing a slip-knot loop on the hook (though other methods, such as a magic ring or simple folding over of the yarn may be used), pulling another loop through the first loop, and repeating this process to create a chain of a suitable length. The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined to the beginning of the row with a slip stitch and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. At any one time at the end of a stitch, there is only one loop left on the hook. Tunisian crochet, however, draws all of the loops for an entire row onto a long hook before working them off one at a time. Like knitting, crochet can be worked either flat (back and forth in rows) or in the round (in spirals, such as when making tubular pieces). ==Types of stitches== thumb|Indian Crochet white tablecloth about 1970. There are six main types of basic stitches (the following description uses US crochet terminology which differs from the terminology used in the UK and Europe). #Chain stitch – the most basic of all stitches and used to begin most projects. #Slip stitch – used to join chain stitch to form a ring. #Single crochet stitch (called double crochet stitch in the UK) – easiest stitch to master #Half-double crochet stitch (called half treble stitch in the UK) – the 'in-between' stitch, sometimes called short double crochet in vintage publications #Double crochet stitch (called treble stitch in the UK) (yarn over once) – many uses for this unlimited use stitch #Treble (or triple) crochet stitch (called double treble stitch in the UK) (yarn over twice) While the horizontal distance covered by these basic stitches is the same, they differ in height and thickness. The more advanced stitches are often combinations of these basic stitches, or are made by inserting the hook into the work in unusual locations. More advanced stitches include the shell stitch, V stitch, spike stitch, Afghan stitch, butterfly stitch, popcorn stitch, cluster stitch, and crocodile stitch. ==International crochet terms and notations== left|thumb|Some crochet symbols, abbreviations, and US/UK terms In the English-speaking crochet world, basic stitches have different names that vary by country. The differences are usually referred to as UK/US or British/American. Crochet is traditionally worked off a written pattern in which stitches and placement are communicated using textual abbreviations. To help counter confusion when reading patterns, a diagramming system using a standard international notation has come into use (illustration, left). In the United States, crochet terminology and sizing guidelines, as well as standards for yarn and hook labeling, are primarily regulated by the Craft Yarn Council. Another terminological difference is known as tension (UK) and gauge (US). Individual crocheters work yarn with a loose or a tight hold and, if unmeasured, these differences can lead to significant size changes in finished garments that have the same number of stitches. In order to control for this inconsistency, printed crochet instructions include a standard for the number of stitches across a standard swatch of fabric. An individual crocheter begins work by producing a test swatch and compensating for any discrepancy by changing to a smaller or larger hook. North Americans call this gauge, referring to the result of these adjustments; British crocheters speak of tension, which refers to the crafter's grip on the yarn while producing stitches. ==Differences from and similarities to knitting== One of the more obvious differences is that crochet uses one hook while much knitting uses two needles. In most crochet, the artisan usually has only one live stitch on the hook (with the exception being Tunisian crochet), while a knitter keeps an entire row of stitches active simultaneously. Dropped stitches, which can unravel a knitted fabric, rarely interfere with crochet work, due to a second structural difference between knitting and crochet. In knitting, each stitch is supported by the corresponding stitch in the row above and it supports the corresponding stitch in the row below, whereas crochet stitches are only supported by and support the stitches on either side of it. If a stitch in a finished crocheted item breaks, the stitches above and below remain intact, and because of the complex looping of each stitch, the stitches on either side are unlikely to come loose unless heavily stressed. Round or cylindrical patterns are simple to produce with a regular crochet hook, but cylindrical knitting requires either a set of circular needles or three to five special double-ended needles. Many crocheted items are composed of individual motifs which are then joined, either by sewing or crocheting, whereas knitting is usually composed of one fabric, such as entrelac. Freeform crochet is a technique that can create interesting shapes in three dimensions because new stitches can be made independently of previous stitches almost anywhere in the crocheted piece. It is generally accomplished by building shapes or structural elements onto existing crocheted fabric at any place the crafter desires. Knitting can be accomplished by machine, while many crochet stitches can only be crafted by hand. The height of knitted and crocheted stitches is also different: a single crochet stitch is twice the height of a knit stitch in the same yarn size and comparable diameter tools, and a double crochet stitch is about four times the height of a knit stitch. While most crochet is made with a hook, there is also a method of crocheting with a knitting loom. This is called loomchet. Slip stitch crochet is very similar to knitting. Each stitch in slip stitch crochet is formed the same way as a knit or purl stitch which is then bound off. A person working in slip stitch crochet can follow a knitted pattern with knits, purls, and cables, and get a similar result. It is a common perception that crochet produces a thicker fabric than knitting, tends to have less "give" than knitted fabric, and uses approximately a third more yarn for a comparable project than knitted items. Although this is true when comparing a single crochet swatch with a stockinette swatch, both made with the same size yarn and needle/hook, it is not necessarily true for crochet in general. Most crochet uses far less than 1/3 more yarn than knitting for comparable pieces, and a crocheter can get similar feel and drape to knitting by using a larger hook or thinner yarn. Tunisian crochet and slip stitch crochet can in some cases use less yarn than knitting for comparable pieces. According to sources claiming to have tested the 1/3 more yarn assertion, a single crochet stitch (sc) uses approximately the same amount of yarn as knit garter stitch, but more yarn than stockinette stitch. Any stitch using yarnovers uses less yarn than single crochet to produce the same amount of fabric. Cluster stitches, which are in fact multiple stitches worked together, will use the most length. Standard crochet stitches like sc and dc also produce a thicker fabric, more like knit garter stitch. This is part of why they use more yarn. Slip stitch can produce a fabric much like stockinette that is thinner and therefore uses less yarn. Any yarn can be either knitted or crocheted, provided needles or hooks of the correct size are used, but the cord's properties should be taken into account. For example, lofty, thick woolen yarns tend to function better when knitted, which does not crush their airy structure, while thin and tightly spun yarn helps to achieve the firm texture required for Amigurumi crochet. File:Crochet-round.jpg|Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here. File:Pink knitting in front of pink sweatshirt.JPG|Knitting uses two or more straight needles that carry multiple stitches. File:Doublepoints2.JPG|Unlike crochet, knitting requires specialized needles to create circular rounds. ==Charity and activism== It has been very common for people and groups to crochet clothing and other garments and then donate them to soldiers during war. People have also crocheted clothing and then donated it to hospitals, for sick patients and also for newborn babies. Sometimes groups will crochet for a specific charity purpose, such as crocheting for homeless shelters, nursing homes, etc. It is becoming increasingly popular to crochet hats (commonly referred to as "chemo caps") and donate them to cancer treatment centers, for those undergoing chemotherapy and therefore losing hair. During October pink hats and scarves are made and proceeds are donated to breast cancer funds. Organizations dedicated to using crochet as a way to help others include Knots of Love, Crochet for Cancer, and Soldiers' Angels. These organizations offer warm useful items for people in need. In 2020, people around the world banded together to help save the wildlife affected by the Australian bushfires by crocheting kangaroo pouches, koala mittens and wildlife nests. This was an international effort to help during the particularly bad bushfire season which devastated local ecological systems. A group started in 2005 to create crochet versions of coral reefs grew by 2022 to over 20,000 contributors in what became the Crochet Coral Reef Project. To promote awareness of the effects of global warming, their creations have been displayed in galleries and museums by an estimated 2 million people. Many creations apply hyperbolic (curved) geometric shapes—distinguished from Euclidean (flat) geometry—to emulate natural structures. ==Mathematics and hyperbolic crochet== Crochet has been used to illustrate shapes in hyperbolic space that are difficult to reproduce using other media or are difficult to understand when viewed two- dimensionally. Mathematician Daina Taimiņa first used crochet in 1997 to create strong, durable models of hyperbolic space after finding paper models were delicate and hard to create. These models enable one to turn, fold, and otherwise manipulate space to more fully grasp ideas such as how a line can appear curved in hyperbolic space yet actually be straight. Her work received an exhibition by the Institute For Figuring.thumb|A collection of crocheted hyperbolic planes, in imitation of a coral reef. Examples in nature of organisms that show hyperbolic structures include lettuces, sea slugs, flatworms and coral. Margaret Wertheim and Christine Wertheim of the Institute For Figuring created a travelling art installation of a coral reef using Taimina's method. Local artists are encouraged to create their own "satellite reefs" to be included alongside the original display. As hyperbolic and mathematics-based crochet has become more popular, there have been several events highlighting work from various fiber artists. Two shows were Sant Ocean Hall at the Smithsonian in Washington D.C. and Sticks, Hooks, and the Mobius: Knit and Crochet Go Cerebral at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania. ==Architecture== In Style in the technical arts, Gottfried Semper looks at the textile with great promise and historical precedent. In Section 53, he writes of the "loop stitch, or Noeud Coulant: a knot that, if untied, causes the whole system to unravel." In the same section, Semper confesses his ignorance of the subject of crochet but believes strongly that it is a technique of great value as a textile technique and possibly something more. There are a small number of architects currently interested in the subject of crochet as it relates to architecture. The following publications, explorations and thesis projects can be used as a resource to see how crochet is being used within the capacity of architecture. * Emergent Explorations: Analog and Digital Scripting - Alexander Worden * Research and Design: The Architecture of variation - Lars Spuybroek * YurtAlert - Kate Pokorny ===Yarn bombing=== In the past few years, a practice called yarn bombing, or the use of knitted or crocheted cloth to modify and beautify one's (usually outdoor) surroundings, emerged in the US and spread worldwide. Yarn bombers sometimes target existing pieces of graffiti for beautification. In 2010, an entity dubbed "the Midnight Knitter" hit West Cape May. Residents awoke to find knit cozies hugging tree branches and sign poles. In September 2015, Grace Brett was named "The World's Oldest Yarn Bomber". She is part of a group of yarn graffiti-artists called the Souter Stormers, who beautify their local town in Scotland. === Styles in Crochet === * Mosaic Crochet * Granny square * Freeform Crochet * Motifs * Crocheted lace * Tunisian Crochet * Tapestry Crochet * Amigurumi * Filet Crochet * Corner to Corner (C2C) Crochet ==See also== * Crochet Guild of America * The Tempestry Project * Fiber art * Macramé * Knitting ==References== ==Further reading== * * Hadley, Sara. "Irish Crochet Lace", The Lace Maker, Vol. 4 3, New York: D.S. Bennet, 1911. * Kooler, Donna Donna Kooler's Encyclopedia of Crochet, Leisure Arts, Inc., Little Rock, Arkansas * Lambert, Miss [Frances]. My Crochet Sampler, London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1844. * Potter, Annie Louise. A living mystery: the international art & history of crochet * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book 4th Series, London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1848. * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book 6th Series, containing D'Oyleys and Anti-Macassars, London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1877. This is the 20th printing of this book; the original publishing date is probably about 1850. * Riego de la Branchardiere, Eléanor. Crochet Book, 9th Series or Third Winter Book, London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1850. * Warren, The Court Crochet Doyley Book, London: Ackermann & Co, 1847. * Wildman, Emily. Step-By-Step Crochet, 1972 ==External links== * The Antique Pattern Library Category:Crafts Category:Figured fabrics Category:Needlework Category:Articles containing video clips
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Capitol Records, Inc. v. MP3tunes, LLC is a 2011 case from the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York concerning copyright infringement and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). In the case, EMI Music Group and fourteen other record companies (including Capitol Records) claimed copyright infringement against MP3tunes, which provides online music storage lockers, and MP3tunes's founder, Michael Robertson. In a decision that has ramifications for the future of online locker services, the court held that MP3tunes qualifies for safe harbor protection under the DMCA. However, the court found MP3tunes to still be liable for contributory copyright infringement in this case due to its failure to remove infringing songs after receiving takedown notices. The court also held that Robertson is liable for songs he personally copied from unauthorized websites. and ==Background== In 2005, Michael Robertson founded MP3tunes, which operates two websites. The first, mp3tunes.com, offers personal online storage lockers for music. Users could upload music to their lockers from their computer hard drives, or from third party websites by providing an URL. The second website, sideload.com, is a search engine that finds and links to free music files on the internet. Sideload.com uses an index of websites known to host free music files, and the index is grown from the third party websites that mp3tunes.com users copy music from. When users find free music using sideload.com, they are given the option to "sideload" those files into their lockers at mp3tunes.com. Robertson and other MP3tunes executives have personal accounts with the website and actively sideload songs into their lockers. Additionally, MP3tunes retrieves and displays album cover art from Amazon.com under a license agreement. In September 2007, MP3tunes received a takedown notice from EMI Music Group that identified 350 infringing songs and unauthorized websites. EMI demanded that in addition to the list items, MP3tunes must "remove all of EMI's copyrighted works, even those not specifically identified." In response to the notice, MP3tunes removed the unauthorized websites from its link index, but did not remove the infringing songs from users' lockers. MP3tunes took no action regarding works not specified in the notice except to ask EMI for further identification, which EMI declined to give. In November 2007, EMI filed suit for copyright infringement against MP3tunes and Robertson. ==Decision of the court== Both parties moved for summary judgment, which the court in this decision granted in part and denied in part. ===DMCA safe harbor=== MP3tunes claimed protection under the DMCA safe harbor provisions, which conditionally shield online service providers (OSPs) from liability for copyright infringement. To qualify for protection, the OSP must, among other requirements, implement a policy of terminating users who are repeat infringers, comply with takedown notices, not have actual or "red flag" knowledge of infringement, and not directly benefit from infringement when the OSP has control over the infringing activities. EMI argued that MP3tunes fails these four requirements; the court mostly disagreed, holding that MP3tunes is generally eligible for safe harbor protection. However, MP3tunes is not protected for the infringing songs identified in EMI's takedown notice that it failed to remove from its users' lockers. The court's analysis is detailed below. ====Repeat infringer policy==== EMI alleged that because MP3tunes did not terminate users who had sideloaded infringing music from unauthorized websites, MP3tunes was not executing an adequate repeat infringer policy. The court disagreed, holding that because users could not know whether the source of their music files is infringing or not, the users who sideloaded music for personal use do not constitute repeat infringers. Furthermore, the court found MP3tunes' existing repeat infringer policy, under which MP3tunes terminated 153 users who illegally shared music, to be adequate for safe harbor requirements. ====Compliance with takedown notices==== EMI claimed that MP3tunes failed to comply with the takedown notices by not removing infringing songs from users' lockers, and by not removing infringing links to other EMI works not on the list. MP3tunes claimed that per the decision in Viacom v. YouTube, it was only obligated to remove the infringing links specified by EMI. The court agreed with MP3tunes that a takedown notice must list specific instances of infringement. However, the court also held that MP3tunes was obligated to remove the infringing songs from users' lockers, since MP3tunes tracked the source of each sideloaded file and could easily find files that were copied from the specified infringing links. In contrast, it would be impossible for EMI to externally identify the infringing songs in users' lockers in order to list them in a takedown notice. ====Actual or "red flag" knowledge==== EMI claimed that MP3tunes had actual and "red flag" knowledge of infringement because it listed songs from unauthorized websites, with its own executives sideloading songs from these websites. EMI asserted that the sites were obviously dedicated to copyright infringement, as shown by the association of these sites with words like "free", "MP3" and "file-sharing". Because the sites in question were general-purpose, non-pirate-themed file- sharing and cyberlocker sites like RapidShare, the court disagreed, holding that there was no direct implication of infringing intent by their name or URL alone; that it would undermine the purpose of the DMCA to equate "free", "MP3", and "file-sharing" with piracy; and that MP3tunes was not obligated to go to these websites or otherwise investigate them further in order to determine their legitimacy. ====Benefit and control of infringement==== EMI claimed that MP3tunes directly benefited from its users' infringement and had the ability to control the infringing activities; the court again disagreed. The court found no direct benefit since MP3tunes' infringing and non- infringing users paid the same fee and because MP3Tunes doesn't promote infringement or reward users for it, and in fact punishes users for it. Furthermore, the court held that MP3tunes' ability to monitor use or terminate accounts is merely an ability to control its own system, and not an ability to control infringement arising from users' activities and decisions. It further held that as a safe harbor, MP3tunes is not required to monitor use or prevent infringement; mere linking to infringing content, regardless of whether the links are user-supplied, doesn't create liability, at least not for what is otherwise a safe harbor: "If enabling a party to download infringing material was sufficient to create liability, then even search engines like Google or Yahoo! would be without DMCA protection. In that case, the DMCA's purpose—innovation and growth of internet services—would be undermined." ===Copyright infringement=== To bring a case of infringement, EMI had to present evidence of infringement, and that EMI owned copyrights for the disputed songs. ====Evidence of infringement==== MP3tunes asserted that EMI had no evidence of the actual acts of copying, only the existence of copies sideloaded from allegedly unauthorized distributors. The court rejected this view, holding that EMI's testimony and documents were sufficient to establish that copying had occurred, since they showed that MP3tunes lockers contained EMI-owned songs sideloaded from unauthorized distributors. ====Copyright ownership and implicit authorization to distribute==== MP3tunes asked the court to dismiss EMI's claims of ownership to songs registered as works-for- hire, alleging that the artists who created them were not EMI employees. MP3tunes further alleged that copyright was implicitly surrendered for songs that were made available for free download as part of EMI's "viral" marketing campaigns—campaigns which encouraged and authorized distribution from non-EMI- controlled sites, such as those where the songs were sideloaded from. In support of the latter claim, MP3tunes cited EMI executives' statements that it was difficult or impossible for users to know whether such content was infringing. The court disagreed on all points. It held that EMI's claims for copyright registration declarations sufficiently establish ownership of copyright; if MP3Tunes suspects some of the work-for-hire registrations are bogus, the burden is on MP3Tunes to present evidence to support that claim. And it held that when making songs available as part of viral marketing campaigns, EMI placed certain restrictions on their use and distribution, so there was no implicit surrender of copyright nor an implicit authorization of any site not meeting those restrictions, such as the sites from which the songs were sideloaded—therefore, such sideloading was infringement, and the takedown notices for those files from those sites are valid. The inability of Internet users to distinguish between authorized and unauthorized distributors was considered irrelevant. ====Secondary liability==== Since MP3tunes failed to qualify for DMCA safe harbor protection for the EMI-identified infringing songs in its users' lockers, MP3tunes became liable for them. Accordingly, EMI's motion for summary judgement on its claim for contributory copyright infringement with respect to the songs listed in EMI's takedown notice was granted. The court rejected MP3tunes' claim that removing "personal property" from users' lockers would result in lawsuits against the company; the court held that under the DMCA, such suits would have no standing. ====Direct infringement==== EMI claimed direct copyright infringement from Robertson and other MP3tunes employees sideloading infringing songs. The court stated that since there was no clear evidence that the MP3tunes employees infringed during their employment, summary judgement on this claim with respect to the employees was denied. On the other hand, because Robertson is a defendant in the case, he is directly liable, so summary judgement on this claim with respect to Robertson was granted. EMI claimed that MP3tunes stored a "master copy" of a song on behalf of all users who had that song in their lockers. EMI alleged that the rebroadcasting of this master copy constituted an unauthorized public performance, asserting Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc. as guiding case law. The court rejected the applicability of that case because it did not involve an Internet service provider, and the court held that MP3tunes' utilization of "a standard data compression algorithm to eliminate redundant digital data" does not constitute the creation of a master copy. Thus, summary judgment on this claim was denied. EMI further claimed infringement by unauthorized performance because MP3tunes made the sideloaded content "playable" via its website. The court vehemently disagreed, holding that such user access to content is no different than that provided by YouTube, exactly the kind of safe harbor the DMCA is designed to protect. EMI claimed Amazon's license to MP3tunes does not permit cover art to be used in the way MP3tunes uses it, and is thus infringing. EMI asked the court to dismiss the claim. The court acknowledged both sides have conflicting claims requiring further adjudication, so no summary judgment was issued on this matter. ===Unfair competition=== EMI claimed that MP3tunes engaged in unfair competition by allowing EMI's works to be downloaded or otherwise experienced by users. MP3tunes asked for the court to dismiss the claim. The court stated that because MP3tunes has contributory liability, and because both it and EMI traffic in EMI-owned works to Internet users, EMI's claim of unfair competition for the identified works cannot be dismissed, and further adjudication is warranted, so no summary judgment was issued on this matter. ==Impact== This was a closely watched case by companies such as Google, Amazon, and Apple who are launching cloud music services, and in Google and Amazon's cases, without license agreements with the music industry. The decision in this case was viewed as "a victory for cloud music" and a first step in "[putting] music locker services on a solid legal foundation" for two main reasons. First, it established DMCA safe harbor protection for online locker services, potentially granting them "broad immunity from copyright liability". Second, it endorsed data deduplication, which allows cloud music services to more efficiently allocate storage and reduce the amount of space needed per user. This interpretation was welcomed by cloud music advocates after a previous ruling in Cartoon Network v. CSC Holdings had indicated that deduplication would make online lockers services liable for copyright infringement. The case is also notable for being one of the first to suggest that the DMCA's notice-and-takedown provisions apply to sound recordings fixed prior to 1972, which are protected under common law copyright rather than the federal scheme encompassing the DMCA. Originally confined to a small footnote in the Court's initial decision, it was expanded to over two pages when plaintiff Capitol petitioned the court to reassess its conclusion on the issue. In an amended opinion, Judge Pauley held that while prior case law construing § 301(c) of the Copyright Act held that federal copyright protections do not preempt or limit common law rights in pre-1972 works, they also did not suggest that § 301(c) limits Congress's ability to grant immunity to qualified Internet service providers for the infringement of works fixed before 1972. More particularly, Pauley ruled that EMI's interpretation of § 301(c) as excluding pre-1972 recordings from the DMCA would eviscerate the purpose of the DMCA, and "[w]here an examination of the statute as a whole demonstrates that a party's interpretation would lead to 'absurd or futile results ... plainly at variance with the policy of the legislation as a whole,' that interpretation should be rejected." == See also == * Capitol Records v. Deborah Foster * Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc. ==References== == External links == * mp3tunes.com * sideload.com * Timothy B Lee (July 9, 2011). Are Google Music and Amazon Cloud Player Illegal?, Wired. Category:2011 in United States case law Category:United States copyright case law Category:Capitol Records litigation Category:United States District Court for the Southern District of New York cases
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In United States colleges, top-tier basketball is governed by collegiate athletic bodies including National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), the United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA), the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA), and the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA). Each of these various organizations is subdivided into one to three divisions, based on the number and level of scholarships that may be provided to the athletes. Teams with more experience tend to win over teams with more talent and less experience. Each organization has different conferences to divide up the teams into groups. Teams are selected into these conferences depending on the location of the schools. These conferences are put in due to the regional play of the teams and to have a structural schedule for each team to play for the upcoming year. During conference play the teams are ranked not only through the entire NCAA, but the conference as well in which they have tournament play leading into the NCAA tournament. ==History== The history of basketball can be traced back to a YMCA International Training School, known today as Springfield College, located in Springfield, Massachusetts. The sport was created by a physical education teacher named James Naismith, who in the winter of 1891 was given the task of creating a game that would keep track athletes in shape and that would prevent them from getting hurt. The date of the first formal basketball game played at the Springfield YMCA Training School under Naismith's rules is generally given as December 21, 1891. Basketball began to be played at some college campuses by 1893. ===Collegiate firsts=== The first known college to field a basketball team against an outside opponent was Vanderbilt University, which played against the local YMCA in Nashville, Tennessee, on February 7, 1893, where Vanderbilt won 9–6. The second recorded instance of an organized college basketball game was Geneva College's game against New Brighton YMCA on April 8, 1893, in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, which Geneva won 3–0. The first recorded game between two college teams occurred on November 22, 1894, when the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry (now known as Drexel University) faced Temple College (now known as Temple University). Drexel won the game, which was played under rules allowing nine players per side, among many other variations from modern basketball, 26–1. The first intercollegiate match using the modern rule of five players per side is often credited as a game between the University of Chicago and the University of Iowa, in Iowa City, Iowa, on January 18, 1896. The Chicago team won the game 15-12, under the coaching of Amos Alonzo Stagg, who had learned the game from James Naismith at Springfield YMCA. However, some sources state the first "true" five-on-five intercollegiate match was a game in 1897 between Yale and Penn, because although the Iowa team that played Chicago in 1896 was composed of University of Iowa students, it reportedly did not officially represent the university, rather it was organized through a YMCA. By 1900, the game of basketball had spread to colleges across the country. ===Tournaments=== The Amateur Athletic Union's annual U.S. national championship tournament (first played in 1898) often featured collegiate teams playing against non-college teams. Four colleges won the AAU tournament championship: Utah (1916), NYU (1920), Butler (1924) and Washburn (1925). College teams were also runners-up in 1915, 1917, 1920, 1921, 1932 and 1934. The first known tournament featuring exclusively college teams was the 1904 Summer Olympics, where basketball was a demonstration sport, and a collegiate championship tournament was held. The Olympic title was won by Hiram College. In March 1908, a two-game "championship series" was organized between the University of Chicago and Penn, with games played in Philadelphia and Bartlett, Illinois. Chicago swept both games to win the series. In March 1922, the 1922 National Intercollegiate Basketball Tournament was held in Indianapolis – the first stand-alone post-season tournament exclusively for college teams. The champions of six major conferences participated: Pacific Coast Conference, Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association, Western Pennsylvania League, Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association and Indiana Intercollegiate Athletic Association. The Western Conference and Eastern Intercollegiate League declined invitations to participate. Wabash College won the 1922 tournament. The first organization to tout a regularly occurring national collegiate championship was the NAIA in 1937, although it was quickly surpassed in prestige by the National Invitation Tournament, or NIT, which brought six teams to New York's Madison Square Garden in the spring of 1938. Temple defeated Colorado in the first NIT tournament championship game, 60–36. ====NCAA tournament==== In 1939, another national tournament was implemented by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The location of the NCAA tournament varied from year to year, and it soon used multiple locations each year, so more fans could see games without traveling to New York. Although the NIT was created earlier and was more prestigious than the NCAA for many years, it ultimately lost popularity and status to the NCAA Tournament. In 1950, following a double win by the 1949–50 CCNY Beavers men's basketball team (when the NIT comprised 12 and the NCAA 8 teams), the NCAA ruled that no team could compete in both tournaments, and effectively indicated that a team eligible for the NCAA tournament should play in it. Not long afterward, assisted by the 1951 scandals based in New York City, the NCAA tournament had become more prestigious than before, with conference champions and the majority of top-ranked teams competing there. The NCAA tournament eventually overtook the NIT by 1960. Through the 1960s and 1970s, with UCLA leading the way as winner of ten NCAA Tournament championships, a shift in power to teams from the west amplified the shift of attention away from the New York City-based NIT. When the NCAA tournament expanded its field of teams from 25 to 32 in 1975, to 48 in 1980, to 64 in 1985, and to 68 teams in 2011, interest in the NCAA tournament increased again and again, as it comprised more and more teams, soon including all of the strongest ones. (Expansion also improved the distribution of playing locations, which number roughly one-third the number of teams in the field.) In 2011, the NCAA field expanded to 68 teams and the last 8 teams playing for four spots making the field into 64, which is called the first round and so on. The former first round is called the second round, the second round is called the third round, and the Sweet Sixteen is the same, but it is technically the fourth round in the current format, etc.December 7, 2012, http://www.livestrong.com/article/378124-the- history-of-college-basketball/ In 2016, the field did not expand, but the round numbers changed again. The first four games containing the last 8 teams is now referred to as the first four. Consequently, the first round does not start until the first four games are out of the way and the field is narrowed to 64 teams. So after the first four games the first round starts instead of that being the second round. The Second is now when there are 32 teams left, the sweet sixteen is the third round, and so on. In 2020, for the first time in the NCAA's history, the tournament had to be canceled due to fears of the COVID-19 pandemic. This move was done largely out of fear of the virus spreading to players and watchers, with prior attempts to limit the spread without canceling by first choosing to limit attendees, and then canceling the tournament in its entirety. The cancellation of the tournament, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, led to a lot of uncertainty for the coaches, players, and NCAA as a whole. Many people were very disappointed and had wished it was just delayed, rather than completely being cancelled. Unfortunately, this pandemic really effected the seniors on the teams, considering their last season just got abruptly taken from them. The NCAA did consider granting waivers to the student athletes who participated in winter sports (including basketball) so that they could regain eligibility for the 2021 season. However, many of the seniors were projected to be picked in the NBA draft, so this led to the difficult decision of playing one more year with their college teammates or moving on to the big stage. In 2021, the tournament was able to take place, and the teams were so ready to be back. Baylor was the Men's 2021 NCAA Champions. In 2022, Kansas won the tournament, defeating North Carolina in the championship. For the women's league, the 2021 champions were Stanford, who defeated Arizona in a very close game. In 2022, the women's NCAA champions was South Carolina, defeating UConn in the championship. LSU's women and UConn's men were the 2023 national champions, defeating Iowa and San Diego State, respectively, in the championship games. ====National Invitation Tournament (NIT)==== ===Racial integration=== Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams was high on the regional agenda in the 1950s and 1960s. These issues included inequality, racism, and the alumni demand for the top players needed to win high-profile games. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) took the lead. "College basketball data allow for direct comparisons of the racial differences in the marginal revenues generated by players" (Brown and Jewell 1995). First they started to schedule integrated teams from the North. The wake-up call came in 1966 when Don Haskins's Texas Western College team with five black starters defeated the all-white University of Kentucky team to win the NCAA national basketball championship.Don Haskins and Dan Wetzel, My Story of the 1966 NCAA Basketball Championship and How One Team Triumphed Against the Odds and Changed America Forever (2006). This happened at a time when there weren't any black varsity basketball players in either the Southeastern Conference or the Southwest Conference. Finally ACC schools—typically under pressure from boosters and civil rights groups—integrated their teams.Charles H. Martin, "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow in Southern College Sports: The Case of the Atlantic Coast Conference." North Carolina Historical Review 76.3 (1999): 253-284. onlineRichard Pennington, Breaking the Ice: The Racial Integration of Southwest Conference Football (McFarland , 1987). With an alumni base that dominated local and state politics, society and business, the ACC flagship schools were successful in their endeavor—as Pamela Grundy argues, they had learned how to win: : The widespread admiration that athletic ability inspired would help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where a wide range of citizens could publicly and at times effectively challenge the assumptions that cast them as unworthy of full participation in U.S. society. While athletic successes would not rid society of prejudice or stereotype—black athletes would continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrated] the discipline, intelligence, and poise to contend for position or influence in every arena of national life.Pamela Grundy, Learning to win: Sports, education, and social change in twentieth-century North Carolina (U of North Carolina Press, 2003) p 297 online. ===Suspension of Yale University=== In 1969, for the first time, the NCAA Council did not permit participation by American college basketball players in the Maccabiah Games. The Maccabiah Games are an international multi-sport event held in Israel, open to all Jewish athletes from around the world, and to all Israeli citizens regardless of their religion. In 1961 the Games were declared a "Regional Sports Event" by, and under the auspices and supervision of, the International Olympic Committee. The NCAA failed to permit such participation by American college basketball players despite the fact that it had permitted such participation in the past and continued to permit participation by American college athletes in other Maccabiah Games sports, such as swimming, track, fencing, and soccer. Basketball was different, however. In that the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) – with which the NCAA was locked in a bitter power struggle – was for the first time organizing the Team USA basketball team for the Maccabiah Games, a role that had formerly been held by the NCAA. "Protection of College Athletes. Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Education of the Committee on Education and Labor. House of Representatives, Ninety-Third Congress; First Session on H.R. 5623 and H.R. 5624", March and April 1973. NCAA executive director Walter Byers, whom the Harvard Crimson described as "power-mad" and others described as a "petty tyrant," headed the NCAA and was involved in the decision."AAU News," Volumes 43-46, p. 7, Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, 1972."Remarks of AAU President John B. Kelly, Jr.," November 1, 1972, Philadelphia, PA."Yale Junior Caught In NCAA Feud, After Playing In Maccabiah Games," Rhode Island Herald, February 6, 1970. The Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), an affiliate of the NCAA, followed the NCAA's orders on sanctions. The New York Times reported that the failure of the NCAA to permit such participation in Maccabiah basketball was believed "to stem from the N.C.A.A.'s feud with the Amateur Athletic Union over control of [amateur] athletes." Author Leonard Shecter called the NCAA decision a "classic example of NCAA stupidity."Leonard Shecter (1969). The Jocks, Bobbs-Merrill. In 1969 -- against the wishes of the NCAA -- Yale University Jewish center Jack Langer played for Team United States at the 1969 Maccabiah Games in Israel. He did so with the approval of Yale President Kingman Brewster, the university said it would not stop Langer from "what we feel is a matter of religious freedom," and all Ivy League presidents fully endorsed Yale's stand. Thereafter, Yale played Langer in basketball games the following season."Ivies Back Yale On ECAC Ruling," Cornell Chronicle, January 8, 1970. A special assistant to the President of Yale, Henry Chauncey, Jr., said: "There is no question that Jack Langer will continue to play basketball. We don't care what they do - Jack Langer will play when the coach wants to use him." On January 15, 1970, the NCAA Council placed Yale University on two‐year "full athletic probation" in all sports. It thereby restricted Yale teams and athletes (not just basketball players) for two years from competing in NCAA tournaments, championships and other postseason competitions, and from receiving any monies for televised events.President's Commission on Olympic Sports (1977). The Final Report of the President's Commission on Olympic Sports, U.S. Government Printing Office. The decision impacted 300 Yale students, every Yale student on its sports teams, over the next two years.“Rationale for the Student-Athletes Bill of Rights”, June 25, 2002. The Presidents of the other seven Ivy League schools issued a statement condemning the NCAA's actions in regard to the "Langer Case." The Harvard Crimson called the probation "not only unjust, but intolerable," and urged the Ivy League to withdraw from the NCAA. Harvard track and field captain Ed Nosal and two other Harvard athletes, sympathetic to Langer and Yale and disdainful of the absurdity of the NCAA rule, protested at the 1970 NCAA Indoor Track and Field Championships by standing on the awards stand wearing blue Yale jerseys."Did you Know?", Harvard Varsity Club, News & Views of Harvard Sports, Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 6, October 30, 2003. In February 1970 Representative Robert N. Giaimo (D-Connecticut) said in the U.S. Congress: > The Yale case, involving basketball player Jack Langer, is tragic. It shows > that the NCAA is willing to use any weapon in its continuing power struggle > with the Amateur Athletic Union. It shows that the NCAA does not care if it > hurts member institutions or individual athletes in the process. It shows > once again that the NCAA is ... under the control of a stubborn, dictatorial > hierarchy that does not hesitate to use athletes and schools alike as mere > pawns in a game of power politics.HON. ROBERT N. GIAIMO OF CONNECTICUT IN > THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (February 2, 1970). "THE NCAA AGAINST YALE- > TRAGIOCOMEDY," Extension of Remarks. ===Original rules=== The original rules for basketball were very different from today's modern rules of the sport, including the use of eight players per side. James Naismith established 13 original rules: #The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands. #The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist. #A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, with allowance to be made for a man who catches the ball when running at a good speed. #The ball must be held by the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it. #No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking, or tripping in any way of an opponent is allowed. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed. #A foul will be called when a player is seen striking at the ball with the fist, or when violations of rules 3 and 4 and such as described in rule 5 have been made. #If either side makes three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents ("consecutive" means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul). #A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the grounds into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edges, and the opponent moves the basket, it shall count as a goal. #When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them. #The umpire shall be the judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have power to disqualify men according to rule 5. #The referee shall be judge of the ball and shall decide when the ball is in play, in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals, with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee. #The time shall be two fifteen-minute halves, with five minutes rest between. #The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner. ===History of NCAA basketball rule changes=== The following is a list of some of the major NCAA Basketball rule changes with the year they went into effect. Season Rule Change 1891–92 The first set of rules is created. 1900–01 A dribbler may not shoot for a field goal and may dribble only once, and then with two hands. 1908–09 A dribbler is permitted to shoot. The dribble is defined as the "continuous passage of the ball," making the double dribble illegal. Players are disqualified upon committing their fourth personal foul (women). 1910–11 Players are disqualified upon committing their fourth personal foul (men). No coaching is allowed during the progress of the game by anybody connected with either team. A warning is given for the first violation and a free throw is awarded after that. 1917–18 Players are disqualified upon committing their fifth personal foul (women only). 1920–21 The basket is moved to two feet from the baseline. Previously the players could climb the padded wall to get closer to the basket (with the new rule the wall is out of bounds). A player can re-enter a game once. Before this rule, if a player left the game, he could not re-enter for the rest of the game. 1921–22 Running with the ball was changed from a foul to a violation. 1923–24 The player fouled must shoot his own free throws. Before this rule, one person usually shot all the free throws for a team. 1928–29 The charging foul by the dribbler is introduced. 1930–31 A held ball may be called when a closely guarded player is withholding the ball from play for 5 seconds. 1932–33 The 10-second (mid- court) line is introduced to reduce stalling (men only). No player with the ball may stand in the free throw lane for more than 3 seconds. 1933–34 A player may re-enter a game twice. 1935–36 No offensive player (with or without the ball) may stand in the free throw lane for more than 3 seconds. 1937–38 The center jump after every made basket is eliminated. 1938–39 The ball will be thrown in from out of bounds at mid-court by the team shooting a free throw after a technical foul. Previously, the ball was put into play by a center jump after the technical free throw. 1939–40 Teams have the option of taking a free throw or taking the ball at midcourt. 1942–43 Any player who has yet to foul out, will be allowed to receive a fifth foul in overtime. 1944–45 Defensive goaltending is banned. Five personal fouls disqualifies a player; no extra foul is permitted in overtime (men). Unlimited substitution is allowed. Offensive players cannot stand in the free throw lane for more than 3 seconds. 1948–49 Coaches are allowed to speak to players during a timeout. 1951–52 Games are to be played in four 10-minute quarters. Previously it was two 20-minute halves. 1952–53 Teams can no longer waive free throws and take the ball at midcourt. 1954–55 The one-and-one free throw is introduced allowing a player to take a second free throw if the first one is made. Games return to two 20-minute halves. 1955–56 The two-shot penalty in existence for the last 3 minutes of each half is eliminated; the one-and-one free throw exists for the whole game. 1956–57 The free-throw lane is increased from 6 feet to 12 feet in width. On the lineup for a free throw, the two spaces adjacent to the end line must be occupied by opponents of the shooter. In the past, one space was marked 'H' for the home team, and one 'V' for the visitors. Grasping the rim is ruled unsportsmanlike conduct. 1957–58 Offensive goaltending is now banned. One free throw for each common foul for the first six personal fouls in a half, and the one-and-one is used thereafter. 1967–68 The dunk is made illegal during the game and during warmups. 1969–70 Women's basketball introduces the five-player full-court game on an experimental basis. 1971–72 The five-player full-court game becomes mandatory for women's basketball. The 30-second shot clock is introduced (women only). 1972–73 The free throw on the common foul for the first six personal fouls in a half is eliminated. An official can charge a technical foul on a player for unsportsmanlike conduct if the official deems the player 'flopped' to get a charging call. Freshmen are now eligible to play varsity basketball. 1973–74 Officials can now penalize players away from the ball for fouls for acts such as holding, grabbing and illegal screens. 1976–77 The dunk is made legal again. 1981–82 The jump ball is eliminated except for the start of the game and overtime if necessary. An alternating arrow will indicate possession of the ball in jump- ball situations in a game (men only). 1982–83 When a closely guarded player is guarded for 5 seconds, a jump ball is no longer required. Instead a turnover is created and the ball goes to the other team. 1983–84 Two free throws are issued if a foul occurs in the last two minutes of a half or in overtime (men only). This rule was rescinded a month into the season, before the start of conference play. 1984–85 A new, smaller ball ("size 6"; 28.5 inches circumference, 18 ounces) is introduced for women's play. 1985–86 The 45-second shot clock is introduced for men's play. If a shooter is intentionally fouled and the basket is missed, the shooter will get two free throws and the team will get possession of the ball. 1986–87 A three-point shot was introduced, with the line a uniform from the center of the basket. Mandatory for men's basketball; experimental for women's. The men's alternating possession rule is extended to the women's game. 1987–88 The men's three-point line was made mandatory for women's basketball. Each intentional personal foul gives the non-fouling team two free throws and possession of the ball (men only). The NCAA adopts a single rule book for men's and women's basketball for the first time, although some rules differ between the sexes to this day. 1988–89 The men's rule regarding intentional fouls is extended to the women's game. 1990–91 Beginning with a team's 10th foul in a half, two free throws (the so- called "double bonus") are to be awarded for each non-shooting personal foul on the defense, and each loose-ball foul (men only). Three free throws are awarded when a shooter is fouled from three-point range and misses the shot (both men and women). 1993–94 The men's shot clock is reduced from 45 seconds to 35 seconds. The game clock will be stopped with successful baskets in the last minute of each half and in the last minute of overtime, with no substitution permitted.The 5-second rule regarding closely guarded players is eliminated. 1994–95 Scoring is restricted to a tap-in when 0.3 seconds or less remains on the game clock (men and women). 1997–98 The 5-second rule regarding closely guarded players is reinstated. Timeouts can be made by players on the court or the head coach. The "double bonus" introduced to the men's game in 1990 is extended to the women's game. 1998–99 In a held ball situation initiated by the defense, the defense shall gain possession of the ball regardless of the possession arrow. 1999–2000 The held ball rule from 1998 to 1999 was rescinded. Maximum of five players occupying lane spaces during free throws in women's play (two from the shooting team, three from the defending team). 2000–01 In women's play only, if the defending team commits a foul during a throw-in after a made basket or free throw, the team putting the ball in play retains the right to run the end line during the subsequent throw-in. 2001–02 In women's play, six players now allowed in lane spaces (four defenders, two offensive players). Additionally, the defensive players nearest the basket are now required to line up in the second space from the basket. 2005–06 Kicked balls will no longer reset the shot clock. If the violation occurs with less than 15 seconds, the clock will be reset to 15 seconds. 2006–07 A timeout called by an airborne player falling out of bounds will not be recognized. 2007–08 The women's rule regarding lane alignment during free throws (maximum of four defenders and two offensive players, with the nearest defenders on the second space from the basket) is extended to the men's game. 2008–09 Three- point arc extended to from the center of the basket for men's play only. Referees may use instant replay to determine if a flagrant foul has been committed and who started the incident. When the entire ball is over the level of the basket during a shot and touches the backboard, it is a goaltending violation if the ball is subsequently touched, even if still moving upward. 2011–12 Women's three-point arc extended to match men's arc. Restricted area arc created 3 feet from the center of the basket (men and women). When an offensive player makes contact with a defender who establishes position within this area, the resulting foul is blocking on the defender. 2013–14 10-second backcourt rule introduced (women only). Any timeout called within the 30 seconds preceding a scheduled media timeout break replaces the media timeout (women only). 2015–16 The men's shot clock changed to 30 seconds, making it identical to the women's shot clock. Coaches prohibited from calling timeouts from the bench in live-ball situations; players remain free to do so. Restricted area arc extended from 3 feet to 4 feet from the center of the basket (men only). Dunks are permitted during warm-ups. Number of timeouts for each team reduced from 5 to 4. Women's basketball changed from 20-minute halves to 10-minute quarters. In women's basketball, bonus free throws come into effect on the fifth team foul in a quarter; all bonus free throw situations result in two free throws. The women's rule regarding timeouts within 30 seconds of a scheduled media timeout was extended to the men's game. 2016–17 Coaches allowed to call timeouts from the bench during inbounds plays before the pass is released. 2017–18 Men only: The shot clock will be reset to 20 seconds, or the amount remaining on the shot clock if greater, when the ball is inbounded in the frontcourt after (1) a defensive foul or (2) a deliberate kick or fisting of the ball by the defense. Men only: If an injured player is unable to shoot free throws as the result of a flagrant foul, or if the player is bleeding, only his substitute can shoot the ensuing free throws. Men only: When the ball is legally touched inbounds and an official immediately signals a clock stoppage, a minimum of 0.3 seconds must elapse on the game clock. Men only: A player dunking the ball may hold onto the rim to prevent injury to himself or another player, even if it would result in another violation. Women only: No new 10-second backcourt count awarded if the team in possession is granted and charged a timeout. Women's basketball adopted the men's 4-foot restricted area arc. Women only: Abandoned the "flagrant-1" and "flagrant-2" foul designations in favor of the FIBA standard of "unsportsmanlike" and "disqualifying" fouls. The new "unsportsmanlike" designation now includes contact dead-ball technicals. 2019–20 Men and women: * For men's basketball, the three-point arc was extended to the FIBA distance of from the center of the basket and in the corners. This change took immediate effect in Division I, and will take effect in Divisions II and III in 2020–21. In women's basketball, the FIBA arc was planned be used as an experimental rule in postseason events apart from the NCAA championships (such as the WNIT and WBI), but none of these events were held in 2020. * After an offensive rebound in the frontcourt, the shot clock resets to 20 seconds, regardless of the amount of time remaining on the shot clock. Men only: * Coaches are once again able to call live-ball timeouts from the bench, but only in the last 2 minutes of regulation time or the last 2 minutes of any overtime. * The list of calls reviewable by instant replay expanded to include basket interference and goaltending, but only in the last 2 minutes of regulation time or the last 2 minutes of any overtime. * Technical fouls will be assessed for derogatory comments on an opponent's race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, gender, gender expression, gender identify, sexual orientation or disability. Women only: * The shot clock reset rule on defensive fouls and certain defensive violations adopted in the men's game in 2017–18 was extended to the women's game. * After any technical foul, the non-fouling team is awarded the ball at midcourt. * A player who receives one technical and one unsportsmanlike foul in the same game is automatically ejected. * If referees are at the replay monitor to review an unsportsmanlike or contact disqualifying foul, they can address any other acts of misconduct during the sequence being reviewed. For the 2022 season, there are some new rules that will be implemented. The goal of adding these rules is to make the game, overall, more offensively entertaining and to avoid some foolish behavior that is sometimes present on the court. The first change is moving the men's college basketball three-point line from twenty feet and nine inches to 22 feet 1.75 inches. The women's line stayed the same distance, meaning there will now be two different lines on the collegiate floors. Another rule that will be implemented is the clock will change to only 20 seconds on an offensive rebound. The point of this rule change is to increase the tempo of the game and to add more possessions. However, if the ball gets back to the midcourt line, the clock will reset back to 30 seconds. Another interesting rule change is getting rid of flopping. Teams will get one warning, and then the second flop will be a technical foul. This rule change will help to minimize the number of delays during games, due to players faking injuries or foul play. Also, in the 2022 season, more rules are to be implemented on the number of flagrant fouls to eventually lead to an overall cleaner game. === One-and-done rule === The One-and-done rule has been a part of college basketball since 2006, the first NBA draft it affected. The rule was created by NBA Commissioner, David Stern, which changed the draft age from 18 years old to 19 years old. This change meant players could not be drafted into the NBA straight out of high school. Instead, however, they usually went to a college to play only one season before entering the following NBA draft when they are eligible, hence the name One-and-Done. The first player to be drafted during this "one-and-done era" was Tyrus Thomas, a forward out of Louisiana State, who was drafted fourth overall in 2006. ==Conferences== ===NCAA Division I=== In 2022–2023, a total of 360 schools played men's basketball in 32 Division I basketball conferences. All of these schools also sponsor women's basketball except The Citadel and VMI, two military colleges that were all-male until the 1990s and remain overwhelmingly male today. The conferences for 2022–23 are thumb|300px|A map of all NCAA Division I basketball teams *America East Conference *American Athletic Conference *Atlantic 10 Conference *Atlantic Coast Conference *ASUN Conference *Big 12 Conference *Big East Conference *Big Sky Conference *Big South Conference *Big Ten Conference *Big West Conference *Colonial Athletic Association *Conference USA *Horizon League *Ivy League *Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference *Mid-American Conference *Mid- Eastern Athletic Conference *Missouri Valley Conference *Mountain West Conference *Northeast Conference *Ohio Valley Conference *Pac-12 Conference *Patriot League *Southeastern Conference *Southern Conference *Southland Conference *Southwestern Athletic Conference *Sun Belt Conference *Summit League *West Coast Conference *Western Athletic Conference In the early decades of college basketball, and well into the 1970s, many schools played as independents, with no conference membership. However, the rise of televised college sports in the 1980s led to the formation of many new conferences and the expansion of previously existing conferences. Currently, there are two Division I schools that play as independents: Chicago State and Hartford. Chicago State voluntarily left the Western Athletic Conference at the conclusion of the 2021-22 season, where it was a geographic outlier, while Hartford left the America East Conference to prepare for a move to Division III, and competed as an independent for one season only. Prior to this, the last Division I school to play as an independent in basketball was NJIT, which was forced to go independent in 2013 after the collapse of its former all- sports league, the Great West Conference, and later joined the ASUN Conference in 2015. ===NCAA Division II=== As of the 2022–23 college basketball season, there are 23 Division II basketball conferences: thumb|300px|A map of all NCAA Division II basketball teams *California Collegiate Athletic Association *Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference *Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association *Conference Carolinas *East Coast Conference *Great American Conference *Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference *Great Lakes Valley Conference *Great Midwest Athletic Conference *Great Northwest Athletic Conference *Gulf South Conference *Lone Star Conference *Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association *Mountain East Conference *Northeast-10 Conference *Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference *Pacific West Conference *Peach Belt Conference *Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference *Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference *South Atlantic Conference *Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference *Sunshine State Conference There are currently five independent Division II schools without conference affiliations for the 2022–23 season: Bluefield State, Salem, UPR-Rio Piedras, UPR-Mayaguez, and UPR-Bayamon; the latter three also maintain dual membership in both the Liga Atlética Interuniversitaria de Puerto Rico as well as NCAA Division II. The most recent change in the list of Division II conferences is the demise of the Heartland Conference, which disbanded at the end of the 2018–19 school year. In 2017, eight of its nine members announced a mass exodus to the Lone Star Conference (LSC) effective in 2019. The remaining member would soon announce that it would become a de facto member of the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association (MIAA), and one of the original eight schools to announce a move to the LSC later changed course and chose to become a de facto MIAA member as well. The two schools that moved to the MIAA are technically associate members because they do not sponsor football, a mandatory sport for full conference members. ===NCAA Division III=== *Allegheny Mountain Collegiate Conference *American Rivers Conference *American Southwest Conference *Atlantic East Conference *Capital Athletic Conference *Centennial Conference *City University of New York Athletic Conference *College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin *Colonial States Athletic Conference *Commonwealth Coast Conference *Empire 8 Conference *Great Northeast Athletic Conference *Great South Athletic Conference *Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference *Landmark Conference *Liberty League *Little East Conference *MAC Commonwealth *MAC Freedom *Massachusetts State Collegiate Athletic Conference *Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association *Midwest Conference *Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference *New England Collegiate Conference *New England Small College Athletic Conference *New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference *New Jersey Athletic Conference *North Atlantic Conference *North Coast Athletic Conference *North Eastern Athletic Conference *Northern Athletics Collegiate Conference *Northwest Conference *Ohio Athletic Conference *Old Dominion Athletic Conference *Presidents' Athletic Conference *St. Louis Intercollegiate Athletic Conference *Skyline Conference *Southern Athletic Association *Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference *Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference *State University of New York Athletic Conference *University Athletic Association *Upper Midwest Athletic Conference *USA South Athletic Conference *Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference Since its introduction in 1973, Division III has always had the lowest share of Black coaches. As of 2015, less than 10% of the coaches in Division III were black (compared to around 20% in Division II and 25% in Division I). ;Notes The most recent change to the roster of D-III conferences came in 2020, when the American Collegiate Athletic Association merged into the Capital Athletic Conference. ===NAIA=== From 1992 to 2020, the NAIA operated separate Division I and Division II men's and women's basketball championships; the distinction between the two divisions was that D-I schools awarded basketball scholarships while D-II schools chose not to. Basketball divisions were abolished after the 2019–20 season, and from 2020 to 2021 single men's and women's championships will be held. * American Midwest Conference (AMC) * Association of Independent Institutions (AII) * Appalachian Athletic Conference (AAC) * California Pacific Conference (CAL-PAC) * Cascade Collegiate Conference * Chicagoland Collegiate Athletic Conference (CCAC) * Crossroads League (CL) * Frontier Conference * Golden State Athletic Conference (GSAC) * Great Plains Athletic Conference (GPAC) * Gulf Coast Athletic Conference (GCAC) * Heart of America Athletic Conference (HAAC) * Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference (KCAC) * Mid-South Conference (MSC) * North Star Athletic Association (NSAA) * Red River Athletic Conference (RRAC) * River States Conference (RSC) * Sooner Athletic Conference (SAC) * Southern States Athletic Conference (SSAC) * The Sun Conference (TSC) * Wolverine–Hoosier Athletic Conference (WHAC) ===National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) Divisions I and II=== * Central Region * East Region * Mid-East Region * Mid-West Region * North Central Region * South Region * Southwest Region * West Region ===National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) Divisions I, II, and III=== * Alabama Community College Conference * Arizona Community College Athletic Conference * Arrowhead Conference * Bi-State Conference * Carolinas Junior College Conference * Colorado Community College Athletic Conference * Eastern Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference * Garden State Athletic Conference * Georgia Junior College Athletic Association * Great Rivers Athletic Conference * Illinois Skyway Conference * Iowa Community College Athletic Conference * Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference * Maryland Junior College Athletic Conference * Massachusetts Community College Athletic Association * Metro Athletic Conference * Michigan Community College Athletic Association * Mid- Florida Conference * Mid Hudson Conference * Mid-State Athletic Conference * Mid-West Athletic Conference * Minnesota College Athletic Conference * Mississippi Association of Community & Junior Colleges * MISS-LOU Junior College Conference * Missouri Community College Athletic Conference * Mon-Dak Conference * Mountain Valley Conference * NJCAA Region 9 * North Central Community College Conference * North Texas Junior College Athletic Conference * Northeast JC Football Conference * Ohio Community College Athletic Conference * Panhandle Conference * Pennsylvania Collegiate Athletic Association * Scenic West Athletic Conference * Southern Conference * Southwest Junior College Conference * Southwest Junior College Football Conference * Suncoast Conference * Tennessee Junior and Community College Athletic Association * Western Junior College Athletic Conference * Western New York Athletic Conference * Western Pennsylvania Collegiate Conference * Western States Football League * Wyoming Community College Athletic Conference ===California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA)=== * Bay Valley Conference * Big 8 Conference (California) * Central Valley Conference * Coast Conference * Foothill Athletic Conference * Golden Valley Conference * Orange Empire Conference * Pacific Coast Athletic Conference (CCCAA) * South Coast Conference * Western State Conference ===United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA)=== * Eastern Metro Athletic Conference * Hudson Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Conference * Northeastern Intercollegiate Athletics Conference * Penn State University Athletic Conference * Yankee Small College Conference ===Northwest Athletic Conference (NWAC)=== * Northern Region * Southern Region * Eastern Region * Western Region ===Association of Christian College Athletics (ACCA)=== * Midwest Christian College Conference ===Independent conferences=== * Liga Atlética Interuniversitaria de Puerto Rico * Manitoba Colleges Athletic Conference * Northern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference * Pacific Christian Athletic Conference * Wisconsin Collegiate Conference ==Relationship to professional basketball== In past decades, the NBA held to tradition and drafted players who had graduated from college. This was a mutually beneficial relationship for the NBA and colleges—the colleges held onto players who would otherwise go professional, and the NBA did not have to fund a minor league. As the college game became commercialized, though, it became increasingly difficult for "student athletes" to be students. A growing number of poor and under-educated, but highly talented, teenage basketball players found the system exploitative—they brought in funds to schools where they learned little and played without income. The American Basketball Association began to employ players who had not yet graduated from college. After a season of junior college, a season at the University of Detroit, and an Olympic gold medal, Spencer Haywood played the 1969–70 season with the ABA's Denver Rockets. He signed with the NBA's Seattle SuperSonics in 1970, before his college class graduation, defying NBA rules. Haywood pleaded that, as his family's sole wage earner, he should be allowed to earn a living in the NBA or else his family would face destitution. The ensuing legal battle went to the U.S. Supreme Court which ruled in 1971 that the NBA does not have the same antitrust exemption enjoyed by Major League Baseball. Thereafter, collegiate players demonstrating economic hardship were allowed early entry into the NBA draft. The hardship requirement was eliminated in 1976. In 1974, Moses Malone joined the Utah Stars of the American Basketball Association (which became part of the NBA after the ABA–NBA merger in 1976) straight out of high school and went on to a Hall of Fame career. The past 30 years have seen a remarkable change in the college game. The best international players routinely skip college entirely, many American stars skip college (Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, Tracy McGrady, Dwight Howard, Amar'e Stoudemire, and LeBron James) or only play one year (Carmelo Anthony, Chris Bosh, Kevin Durant, and John Wall), and only a dozen or so college graduates are now among the 60 players selected in the annual NBA draft. Fewer high schoolers have progressed directly to the NBA without at least one year of college basketball beginning in 2006; citing maturity concerns after several incidents involving young players, the labor agreement between players and owners now specifies that players must turn 19 years of age during the calendar year of the draft to be eligible. Additionally, U.S. players must be at least one year removed from their high school graduation. The pervasiveness of college basketball throughout the nation, the large population of graduates from "major conference" universities, and the NCAA's marketing of "March Madness" (officially the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship), have kept the college game alive and well. Some commentators have argued that the higher turnover of players has increased the importance of good coaches. Many teams have been highly successful, for instance, by emphasizing personality in their recruiting efforts, with the goal of creating a cohesive group that, while lacking stars, plays together for all 4 years and thus develops a higher level of sophistication than less stable teams could achieve. College basketball remains more popular than the NBA in some regions of the United States, such as in North Carolina and the Midwest (where traditionally strong programs at Louisville, Kentucky, and Indiana are found). ==Distinctions with NBA and WNBA play== The NCAA Men's Basketball Rules Committee, consisting of coaches from all three divisions of the NCAA, sets the rules for college men's basketball play. A parallel committee sets rules for college women's play. Although many of the NBA and WNBA rules apply in NCAA play, there are differences that make NCAA play unique. As of the 2021–22 season, NCAA men's games are divided into two halves, each 20 minutes long; NBA games are played in four quarters of 12 minutes each; and WNBA and NCAA women's games are played in 10-minute quarters. The NCAA shot clock gives teams of both sexes 30 seconds to shoot, while the shot clock used in both the NBA and WNBA gives teams 24 seconds. Also, NCAA teams are allowed 10 seconds to move the ball past the halfcourt line (with this rule only having been added to the women's college game in the 2013–14 season), while NBA and WNBA rules allow only 8 seconds. However, like the NBA and WNBA (and high school basketball), during the last minute of each period, the game clock keeps time remaining in the period measured in tenths of a second, rather than full seconds. Prior to the 2015–16 season, NCAA men's basketball used a 35-second shot clock, while NCAA women's basketball was played with the same 20-minute halves as the men's game. Though the height of the basket, the foul line's distance from the backboard, and the court dimensions are the same, the distance between the three-point line and the backboard is different. The NBA three-point line measures at the top of the circle, or 22 feet (6.7 m) in the corners or baseline. On the NCAA court, the three-point line had been a constant , but the NCAA Rules Committee voted in May 2007 to extend it a foot more to , which became effective beginning the 2008–09 season for men and the 2011–12 season for women. Effective in 2019–20, the NCAA adopted the current FIBA three-point arc of at the top of the circle and at the corners and baseline for Division I men's play, with Divisions II and III following in 2020–21. The previous college men's arc will remain in use for women's play for the time being, but the FIBA arc was to be used on an experimental basis in the 2020 Women's National Invitation Tournament and Women's Basketball Invitational (which ultimately were not held). The WNBA's three-point line was , which FIBA used before it extended its three-point arc to at the top of the circle and at the corners and baseline. The NCAA lane measures in width, while the NBA and WNBA lane is ; the FIBA lane is marginally wider than the NBA/WNBA lane at exactly . NCAA players are allowed five personal fouls before fouling out, as opposed to their NBA counterparts, who are allowed six. This maintains the same ratio of minutes of play per foul allowed, eight. However, the WNBA allows players six personal fouls despite playing the same number of minutes as the NCAA. The number of team fouls allotted is also different. In all three competitions, team fouls can be categorized as shooting or non-shooting. A shooting foul occurs when a player gets fouled in the act of shooting (while airborne), giving him the chance to shoot free throws. A common foul (non- shooting foul) consists of all other fouls, including making contact with the opposing player while "reaching in" to steal the ball. A team may make a certain number of non-shooting fouls per period before the opposing team is awarded free throws. In the NBA, WNBA, and (since 2015–16) NCAA women's basketball, the fifth team foul in a quarter places the team in penalty. For every foul starting with the fifth, whether shooting or non-shooting, the opposing team receives two free throws. In addition, if an NBA or WNBA team has not entered the penalty in the last two minutes of a period, its team foul count is reset; the second team foul in the last two minutes triggers the penalty. In the NCAA men's game, the penalty begins with the seventh team foul in a half. However, the fouled player must make the first free throw in order to get the second. This is called a "one-and-one" or "one and the bonus" situation. On the tenth team foul, the "double bonus" situation comes into play, meaning that every subsequent team foul results in two free throws for the opposing team. No free throws are shot at either level for a player control foul, which is an offensive foul (usually a charge). Unlike NBA/WNBA rules, the team foul count does not reset in the last two minutes of a half (men's) or quarter (women's). Overtime periods are considered an extension of the second half under NCAA men's rules and the fourth quarter under NCAA women's rules, but not under NBA/WNBA rules; in those leagues, the fourth team foul in any overtime period, or the second in the last two minutes, triggers the penalty. When a dispute over ball possession arises, the jump ball is used in the NBA and WNBA. In the NCAA, once the first possession has been established from the opening tip, no further jump balls occur except to begin an overtime period. Since 1981, a possession arrow on the scorer's table has dictated which team should possess the ball, with the arrow switching directions after each use. NCAA teams can call a timeout after they made a basket (Indiana scores a 3-point field goal and calls a timeout); in the NBA and WNBA, only the opposing team can call a timeout after a basket is made. From the 2015–16 season through 2018–19, NCAA men's coaches were banned from calling timeouts from the bench while the ball is live at any time in the game; from 2019 to 2020, they are again allowed to call such timeouts, but only during the last 2 minutes of any period (half or overtime). Players have not been subject to this restriction. In addition, the NBA limits what types of defense a team can play, primarily in an effort to prevent coaches from slowing down the pace of the game by using zone defenses. Zone defense is permitted in the NBA and WNBA; however, players cannot stand in the lane for more than three seconds if they are not guarding anyone. In NCAA basketball, no such restriction exists, and coaches are free to design a variety of defensive techniques. In college basketball, it is required by rule that the home team wears their white or light-colored jerseys while the visiting team wears their darker jersey color. The NBA, like most other professional sports leagues, lets the home team decide which uniform to wear, but with a few exceptions the home team has continued the tradition of the college game and wears white (or in the case of the Los Angeles Lakers for non-Sunday home games, gold) at home. Since the 2017–18 season, the NBA only requires that road teams wear colors that contrast sufficiently with the home team's choice, meaning that "color on color" games are now possible. This is for regular season play only; home teams always wear white during the playoffs. The WNBA, however, follows the college rule for all games. The NBA introduced a new dress code rule in 2005. Now players are required to wear business casual attire whenever they are engaged in team or league business. This includes a long or short-sleeved dress shirt (collared or turtleneck), and/or a sweater; dress slacks, khaki pants, or dress jeans, and appropriate shoes and socks, including dress shoes, dress boots, or other presentable shoes, but not including sneakers, sandals, flip-flops, or work boots. The WNBA has a similar dress code, adjusted for standard women's attire. NCAA rules have no set dress code rule, leaving it up to individual teams or conferences. The organizations also have different rules for jersey numbers. While the NBA and WNBA allow players to wear any number from 0 to 99, including 00, so long as it is available, the NCAA disallows any jersey number with a 6, 7, 8, or 9 in it. This is done to allow the referee to report fouls using hand signals with one hand, as each hand has only five fingers. High school basketball, whose rules are set by the National Federation of State High School Associations, also follows the NCAA's convention on jersey numbering. ==Other divisions== While less commercialized than Division I, Division II and Division III are both highly successful college basketball organizations. Women's Division I is often televised, but to smaller audiences than Men's Division I. Generally, small colleges join Division II, while colleges of all sizes that choose not to offer athletic scholarships join Division III. Games other than NCAA D-I are rarely televised by national media, although CBS televises the Championship Final of NCAA Division II, while CBS College Sports Network televises the semifinals as well as the Division III Final. thumb|upright=0.8|A map of all NAIA Division I basketball teams. The NAIA also sponsors men and women's college-level basketball. The NAIA Men's Basketball National Championship has been held annually since 1937 (with the exception of 1944 and 2020), when it was established by James Naismith to crown a national champion for smaller colleges and universities. Unlike the NCAA Tournament, the NAIA Tournament features only 32 teams, and the entire tournament is contested in one week instead of three weekends. Since 2002 the NAIA National Tournament has been played in Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri. (in 1994–2001 it was held in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and 1937–1999 it was held at Municipal then Kemper Arena in Kansas City). Media coverage has sporadically been provided by CBS, the Victory Sports Network, and various lesser-known media. thumb|upright=0.8|Map of NAIA Division II basketball teams. From 1992 to 2020, the NAIA sponsored a Division II championship, similar to the NCAA Division I and II. There is also an NAIA Women's Basketball Championship, which was also split into Divisions I and II through the 2019–20 season. From 2020 to 2021, the NAIA will adopt a single-division format for basketball, with the men's and women's tournaments featuring 64 teams each. In both tournaments, the first two rounds will be held at 16 regional sites, with only the winner at each site advancing to the final tournament site. The only school to have won national titles in both the NAIA and NCAA Division I is Louisville; the Cardinals have also won the NIT title. Southern Illinois has won NAIA and NIT titles. Central Missouri and Fort Hays State have won NAIA and NCAA Division II national titles. Indiana State has won an NAIA title and finished as the National Runner-Up in the NAIA (twice), in NCAA Division II (once) and NCAA Division I (once). ==Awards== *Men's college basketball awards *Women's college basketball awards *National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame *Sporting News College Basketball Athlete of the Decade (2000–09) ==Records and lists== ===Men's=== *List of teams with the most victories in NCAA Division I men's college basketball *List of college men's basketball coaches with 600 wins *NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by school *List of NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by coach *NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by school *NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament all-time team records *NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament bids by school *NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament bids by school and conference *NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament records *NAIA Men's Basketball Championships *NIT all-time team records *NIT bids by school and conference *NIT championships and semifinal appearances *NCAA Division I Men's basketball statistical leaders *List of current NCAA Division I men's basketball coaches ===Women's=== *NCAA Division I Women's Tournament bids by school *NAIA Women's Basketball Championships *AIAW Women's Basketball Champions *List of NCAA Division I women's basketball career scoring leaders ==See also== *NCAA Division I men's basketball alignment history *Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) *AIAW women's basketball tournament *National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) *NAIA Men's Basketball Championships *NAIA Women's Basketball Championships *Black participation in college basketball *Women's basketball#University *College rivalries *U Sports *Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) *College basketball in the Philippines ==References== ==External links== * NCAA men's and women's * NAIA men's and women's * NJCAA men's and women's * NCCAA men's and women's * CCCAA men's and women's * USCAA men's and women's
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Louise Howland King Cox (June 23, 1865—1945) was an American painter known for her portraits of children. She won a number of prizes throughout her career, notably a bronze medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition and a silver medal at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. == Early and personal life == Louise Howland King was born in San Francisco, California, on June 23, 1865, to Anna Stott and James King.John William Leonard. Woman's Who's who of America: A Biographical Dictionary of Contemporary Women of the United States and Canada, 1914-1915. American Commonwealth Company; 1914. p. 211. Her family moved to New York when she was a child. In 1872, Anna King had sued her husband for divorce, citing cruel and inhumane treatment.The Courts: Civil Notes. New York Herald-Tribune. August 31, 1872. James C. King was convicted for a murder related to that suit in November 1872."The Pine Street Murder: Inquest by Coroner Herrman on the Body of O'Neil. Evidence of the Murdered Man's Wife A Verdict Against King Extraneous Evidence Excluded by the Coroner." New York Times. Article about November 18, 1872 murder. Retrieved April 26, 2014."Domestic News". Sacramento Daily Union, Volume 44, Number 6749, November 19, 1872. In 1880, when she was 14, Louise attended small school of Lucy McGuire in Dover, New Jersey. When she first attended art school she lived with her mother and sister Pauline.Howard Wayne Morgan. Kenyon Cox: 1856-1919 : a Life in American Art. Kent State University Press; January 1994. . pp. 124-125. On June 30, 1892, she wed her former teacher Kenyon Cox in Belmont, Massachusetts, at the home of her aunt,Kenyon Cox. An Artist of the American Renaissance: The Letters of Kenyon Cox, 1883-1919. Kent State University Press; January 1995. . p. 16. Mrs. B.M. Jones.Howard Wayne Morgan. Kenyon Cox: 1856-1919 : a Life in American Art. Kent State University Press; January 1994. . p. 129. Kenyon, who had thought he might be a lifelong bachelor, realized that he was in love with Louise, but he did not express his feelings for some time. They wrote long letters to each other during the period that she was a teacher in Toledo, Ohio. In a letter that he wrote to her in 1887, he commended her artistic talent and expressed his belief that she would have a successful career and said: That same year he declared her to be his best student. In January 1892, after she had returned to New York, the couple became engaged and both became like "moonstruck youngsters".Kenyon Cox. An Artist of the American Renaissance: The Letters of Kenyon Cox, 1883-1919. Kent State University Press; January 1995. . pp. 14–15. Kenyon Cox wrote his mother, "Long before I felt the thrill of love, I knew that she would make the best wife in the world for me if I should love her . . . When love came to add to the friendship and confidence, I felt safe and so we mean to marry as soon as we can." They both exhibited their works at the National Academy of Design and the Society of American Artists. In April 1893, Louise suffered a miscarriage and the couple sailed for Europe about the SS Maasdam weeks before their first anniversary. The trip, partly for her emotional recuperation, included travel to Paris, Italy, and the Netherlands.Kenyon Cox. An Artist of the American Renaissance: The Letters of Kenyon Cox, 1883-1919. Kent State University Press; January 1995. . p. 85, 118. They had three children. Leonard, born in 1894 and named after Leonard Opdycke, was a war hero and had a career in city planning and architecture. Son Allyn, born two years later, became an artist, particularly noted for his mural paintings, and an interior decorator. Daughter Caroline born in 1898 was also a talented artist. The family lived in New York City on East 67th Street and in 1910 Louise's mother, Anna T. King, a writer, lived with them.Kenyon and Louise Cox. Manhattan Ward 19, New York, New York. Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910 (NARA microfilm publication T624, 1,178 rolls). Records of the Bureau of the Census, Record Group 29. National Archives, Washington, D.C. Cox enjoyed gardening. She did not support the Women's suffragette movement. Cox lived in Italy, Hawaii, and a northern suburb of New York following the death of her husband.Ann Lee Morgan Former Visiting Assistant Professor University of Illinois at Chicago. The Oxford Dictionary of American Art and Artists. Oxford University Press; 27 June 2007. . p. 102. She lived in Honolulu, Hawaii by 1930Louise Cox, born June 23, 1865 in San Francisco. Sailed on the SS Matsonia July 2 to July 8, 1930. Home address listed as Honolulu. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); Washington, D.C.; Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at Honolulu, Hawaii, compiled 02/13/1900 - 12/30/1953; National Archives Microfilm Publication: A3422; Roll: 109; Record Group Title: Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1787 - 2004; Record Group Number: RG 85. and as late as 1935. In 1940 she lived on Roaring Brook Road on New Castle, Westchester, New York. At that time she was 74 years of age and still operated and painted in a studio.Louise Cox, Artist, born in California. 1940 United States Federal Census. United States of America, Bureau of the Census. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1940. She died December 11, 1945, in Windham, Connecticut. She was cremated, as was her husband Kenyon, and their ashes were scattered together at Cornish, New Hampshire where they spent their summers. File:Louise Howland King, about 1868 jpg.jpg|Louise Howland King, about 1868 File:Louise and Kenyon, 1895 jpg.jpg|Louise and Kenyon Cox, 1896 File:Louise and Kenyon Cox and family, about 1906 jpg.jpg|Allyn, Louise, Leonard, Caroline and Kenyon Cox, about 1906 == Education == With financial help from an aunt in Boston, Louise Cox attended the National Academy of Design in New York City, and is quoted as saying, "Although I was born in 1865 in San Francisco, it was not until sixteen years later that I started to live, for in 1881 I entered the National Academy of Design." During her time at the National Academy of Design, Louise Cox learned an academic style of painting, grounded in the style of Jean-Léon Gérôme (One of her instructors, Professor Lemuel Wilmarth, was taught by Gérôme). According to Cox, the Gérôme principles "were based on study, thoroughness, and self-discipline" and her "grounding in the Gérôme tradition prevented my taking on the arty methods in vogue". She left after two years to enroll with the Art Students League,Louise Howland King Cox. National Academy Museum. Retrieved April 25, 2014. partially supported by a friend of her mother, and studied under Thomas Dewing. She received a less traditional education at the League, which was unendowed and run by students. Some classes were held collaboratively by the students alone. During a student-led sketching class she quickly learned to interpret and understand forms, which she said "helped me in my later portrait painting of young, active children" Students sometimes dressed in mythic and historic costumes, which became the subject of her paintings.Howard Wayne Morgan. Kenyon Cox: 1856-1919 : a Life in American Art. Kent State University Press; January 1994. . p. 126. It was at the Art Students League that Louise Cox met her art instructor and future husband, Kenyon Cox. Having a solid reputation at the League, Kenyon Cox was selected as the 1885 instructor for the women's life class. Her other instructors included J. Alden Weir, George de Forest Brush, and Charles Yardley Turner. She was considered an attractive, industrious student with a good sense of humor.Kenyon Cox. An Artist of the American Renaissance: The Letters of Kenyon Cox, 1883-1919. Kent State University Press; January 1995. . p. 15. == Career == Cox's first renowned painting was The Lotus Eaters, which was displayed at the National Academy of Design in 1887, the Paris Exposition in 1889, and with A Rondel at the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois.Howard Wayne Morgan. Kenyon Cox: 1856-1919 : a Life in American Art. Kent State University Press; January 1994. . p. 134. In 1893 Cox displayed the painting, Psyche at an annual exhibition for the Society of American Artists. She was elected a member in the same year. The National Academy of Design awarded her the 1896 Third Hallgarten Prize for Pomona, and the 1904 Second Hallgarten Prize for The Sisters. Beginning in 1896 Louise and Keynon Cox spent the summers with their children in the country's first major artist colony, the Cornish Art Colony in New Hampshire.Howard Wayne Morgan. Kenyon Cox: 1856-1919 : a Life in American Art. Kent State University Press; January 1994. . p. 185. At Cornish she made paintings of her children and local children, some of which were commissioned portraits.Steve Shipp. American Art Colonies, 1850-1930: A Historical Guide to America's Original Art Colonies and Their Artists. Greenwood Publishing Group; 1996. . p. 13. She was elected an Associate of the National Academy of Design in 1902. She also became a member of the Woman's Art Club of New York. She painted still life, ideal figures, and portraits but was best known for her portraiture of children. Her works are in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C., and the National Academy of Design in New York, New York. Cox also carved wood and was a photographer. She was considered among the "outstanding stained-glass artists," such as Wright Goodhue, David Maitland Armstrong and William Willet.Edward F. Bergman. The Spiritual Traveler: New York City : the Guide to Sacred Spaces and Peaceful Places. Hidden Spring; 1 January 2001. . p. 77. File:Louise Howland King Cox, A Lady, in profile to the left before an 'Arts and Crafts' background, estimate 1892 or before.jpg|A Lady, in profile to the left before an Arts and Crafts background File:Louise Howland King Cox, A Rondel, 1892, oil on canvas, High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|A Rondel, 1892, oil on canvas, High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia File:Louise Cox, The Rose, 1898.jpg|Louise Cox, The Rose, 1898 File:Louise Howland King Cox, Portrait of Leonard Cox, 1895.jpg|Portrait of Leonard Cox, 1895, Smithsonian American Art Museum File:Louise Howland King, Allyn Cox in Infancy.jpg|Allyn Cox in Infancy, 1898, National Academy of Design, New York File:Louise Cox, May Flowers, 1911.jpg|May Flowers, 1911, Smithsonian American Art Museum File:Louise Howland King Cox, Portrait of a Young Boy in a Sailor's Costume, 1912.jpg|Portrait of a Young Boy in a Sailor's Costume, 1912 == Awards == * 1896 — Third Hallgarten prize of the National Academy of Design for PamonaJohn Howard Brown. Lamb's Biographical Dictionary of the United States: Chubb- Erich. James H. Lamb Company; 1900. p. 217. * 1900 — Bronze medal at the Paris Universal Exposition * 1901 — Silver medal at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New YorkBulletin. Smithsonian Institution Press; 1916. p. 127. * 1903 — Julia Shaw Memorial prize from the Society of American Artists. * 1904 — Silver medal from the St. Louis Exposition in 1904. * 1904 — Second Hallgarten prize of the National Academy of Design. == Works == * A Rondel, 1892, oil on canvas, High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia * Allyn Cox, 1940, oil on canvas, National Academy of Design, New York, New York * Allyn Cox in Infancy, 1898, oil on canvas, National Academy of Design, New York, New York * Angiola, 1897 * May Flowers, 1911, oil on canvas, 24 1/8 × 20 1/8 in. (61.2 × 51.0 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Gift of William T. Evans * Mural Study, 1892, oil on canvas, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, District of Columbia * Pamona * Portrait of Leonard Cox, 1895, oil on canvas, 11 3/4 × 12 in. (29.8 × 30.5 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Portrait of a Young Girl, oil, Lagakos-Turak Gallery, Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaSearch: Louise Cox. SIRIS. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved April 25, 2014. * Portrait of Mrs. John Larkin, 1903Kenyon Cox. An Artist of the American Renaissance: The Letters of Kenyon Cox, 1883-1919. Kent State University Press; January 1995. . p. 141. * Portrait of the Artist's Daughter, oil on canvas, private collection * Psyche, 1893 * The Fates, 1894 * Untitled (Child with Sun Dial), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Untitled (Draped Female Figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * (Untitled-nude female figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Untitled (Seated Draped Female Allegorical Figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Untitled (Seated Draped Female Figure, Profile), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Untitled (Seated Young Girl), 1903, pencil and pastel on paper, 15 7/8 × 10 3/8 in. (40.2 × 26.5 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox * Untitled {Young Man with Lute}, , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn CoxSearch: Louise Cox". Collections. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved April 26, 2014. == References == ==Further reading== * Sarah Burns; John Davis. American art to 1900: a documentary history. University of California Press; 2009. . pp. 842–843. ==External links== Category:1865 births Category:1945 deaths Category:American women painters Category:Artists from San Francisco Category:Painters from California Category:National Academy of Design alumni Category:Art Students League of New York alumni Category:19th-century American painters Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century American women artists Category:19th-century American women artists
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James Lee Jamerson (January 29, 1936 – August 2, 1983) was an American bass player. He was the uncredited bassist on most of the Motown Records hits in the 1960s and early 1970s (Motown did not list session musician credits on their releases until 1971), and is now regarded as one of the most influential bass players in modern music history. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2000. As a session musician he played on twenty-three Billboard Hot 100 number-one hits, as well as fifty-six R&B; number-one hits. In its special issue "The 100 Greatest Bass Players" in 2017, Bass Player magazine ranked Jamerson number one and the most influential bass guitarist. In 2020, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Jamerson number one in its list of the 50 greatest bassists of all time. ==Early life== A native of Edisto Island, South Carolina, he was born to James Jamerson Sr. and Elizabeth Bacon. He was raised in part by his grandmother who played piano, and his aunt who sang in church choir. As a child he was a competent piano player and performed in public. He briefly played the trombone. As a teenager he was a reserved person, and passionate about music. He listened to gospel, blues and jazz music on the radio. ==Motown== Jamerson moved with his mother to Detroit in 1954. He attended Northwestern High School; there he started on the upright bass. He began playing in Detroit area blues and jazz clubs and was influenced by jazz bassists Ray Brown, Paul Chambers and Percy Heath. He was offered a scholarship to study music at Wayne State University, and he declined. After graduating from high school, he continued performing in Detroit clubs. He joined blues singer Washboard Willie's band and later toured with Jackie Wilson. His increasingly solid reputation started providing him opportunities for sessions at various local recording studios. Starting in 1959, he found steady work at Berry Gordy's Hitsville U.S.A. studio, home of the Motown record label. He played bass on the Smokey Robinson single "Way Over There" (1959), John Lee Hooker album Burnin' (1962) and The Reflections' "(Just Like) Romeo and Juliet" (1964). There he became a member of a core of studio musicians who informally called themselves The Funk Brothers. This close-knit group of musicians performed on the vast majority of Motown recordings during most of the 1960s. Jamerson's earliest sessions were performed on double bass but, in the early 1960s, he switched to playing an electric Fender Precision Bass for the most part. Like Jamerson, most of the Funk Brothers were jazz musicians who had been recruited by Gordy. For many years, they maintained a schedule of recording during the day at Motown's small basement "Studio A" (which they nicknamed "the Snakepit"), then playing gigs in jazz clubs at night. They also occasionally toured the U.S. with Motown artists. For most of their career, however, the Funk Brothers went uncredited on Motown singles and albums, and their pay was considerably less than that received by the main artists or the label, hence their occasional freelance work elsewhere. Eventually, Jamerson was put on retainer for $1,000 a week (US$ in dollars), which afforded him and his expanding family a comfortable lifestyle. Jamerson's discography at Motown reads as a catalog of soul hits of the 1960s and early 1970s. His work includes hits such as, among hundreds of others, "You Can't Hurry Love" by The Supremes, "My Girl" by The Temptations, "Shotgun" by Jr. Walker & the All Stars, "For Once in My Life" and "I Was Made to Love Her" by Stevie Wonder, "Going to a Go-Go" by The Miracles, "Dancing in the Street" by Martha and the Vandellas, "I Heard It Through the Grapevine" by Gladys Knight & the Pips and later by Marvin Gaye, and most of the album What's Going On by Marvin Gaye, "Reach Out I'll Be There" and "Bernadette" by the Four Tops. He occasionally recorded for other labels, such as "Boom Boom" by John Lee Hooker in 1962 and "Higher and Higher" by Jackie Wilson in 1967. Motown released 537 singles in 1960s and over 200 albums. According to fellow Funk Brothers in the 2002 documentary Standing in the Shadows of Motown, Gaye was desperate to have Jamerson play on "What's Going On", and went to several bars to find the bassist. When he did, he brought Jamerson to the studio, but Jamerson was too intoxicated to stay upright, so James played the classic line while lying flat on his back. Jamerson had stopped touring in 1964 and did studio work on a full-time basis. He is reported to have played on nearly every Motown recording between 1963 and 1968, which includes over 60 top- fifteen pop singles. Jamerson performed on 23 number-one hits on the pop charts, a record narrowly surpassed only by Paul McCartney of The Beatles who cites Jamerson as his biggest influence, and he performed on 56 number-one hits on the R&B; charts. ==Style and influence== Jamerson is noted for expanding the musical style and role of bass playing in popular music of the time, which, (in 1950s and '60s R&B;, rock and roll, and country), largely consisted of root notes, fifths and simple, repetitive patterns. By contrast, many of Jamerson's basslines relied heavily on chromatic runs, syncopation, ghost notes and inversions, with frequent use of open strings. His nimble bass playing was considered an integral part of the "Motown Sound". He created melodic lines that were nonetheless locked to the drum groove. Jamerson's transition from upright to electric bass was at a time when electric bass was a relatively new instrument, and its use and style of play was not well established. Jamerson's background as a jazz musician and upright bassist informed his playing style, and over time his technique and improvisational approach became more nuanced. By mid-1960s, his style became an indispensable part of the Motown sound and in turn impacted popular music. Early examples of Jamerson's impact are "Rescue Me" by Fontella Bass and "You Won't See Me" and "Nowhere Man" by the Beatles. Bassists who have noted Jamerson's contribution or been influenced by him include Rocco Prestia, Anthony Jackson, Pino Palladino, Paul McCartney, Bob Babbitt, Nathan Watts, Will Lee, Geddy Lee, Chuck Rainey, Marcus Miller, Mike Mills, Phil Chen, John Entwistle, Michael League, Mike Watt, Sting, John Paul Jones, Bernard Odum, Victor Wooten, Robert DeLeo, Glenn Hughes, Tommy Shannon, Suzi Quatro, Ron Asheton, Tony Sales, Peter Cetera, Robert Kool Bell, Bootsy Collins, Michael "Flea" Balzary, Jaco Pastorius, Stanley Clarke, Michael Henderson, Jack Bruce, John Patitucci, Jason Newsted, Rick Danko, Garry Tallent, Alan Gorrie, Jerry Jemmott, Andy Fraser, Brian Wilson and others. ==Post-Motown career== Shortly after Motown moved their headquarters to Los Angeles, California, in 1972, Jamerson moved there himself and found occasional studio work, but his relationship with Motown officially ended in 1973. He went on to perform on such 1970s hits as "Neither One of Us" by Gladys Knight & The Pips (1973), "Boogie Down" (Eddie Kendricks, 1974), "Boogie Fever" (The Sylvers, 1976), "You Don't Have to Be a Star (To Be in My Show)" (Marilyn McCoo and Billy Davis Jr., 1976), and "Heaven Must Have Sent You" (Bonnie Pointer, 1979). He also played on recordings by Robert Palmer (Pressure Drop, 1975), Dennis Coffey (Instant Coffey, 1974), Wah Wah Watson (Elementary, 1976), Rhythm Heritage (1976), Al Wilson (1977), Dennis Wilson (Pacific Ocean Blue, 1977), Eloise Laws (1977), Smokey Robinson (1978), Ben E. King (1978), Hubert Laws (1979), Tavares (1980), Joe Sample/David T. Walker (Swing Street Cafe, 1981), and Bloodstone (1982). However, in Los Angeles Jamerson was not working with a steady group of musicians, and he was not as free to improvise. He felt out of place and over time his increased dependence on alcohol affected his work. As other musicians went on to use high-tech amplifiers, round-wound strings, and simpler, more repetitive bass lines incorporating new techniques like slapping, Jamerson's style fell out of favor with local producers as he was reluctant to try new things. By the 1980s he was unable to get any serious gigs working as a session musician. ==Personal life and death== Jamerson married Annie Wells shortly before graduating from high school. They had four children. His son, James Jamerson Jr. (1957–2016), was a professional session bassist and a member of the disco band Chanson. He had two other sons, Joey and Derek, and a daughter Dorene (Penny). Long troubled by alcoholism, Jamerson died of complications from cirrhosis of the liver, heart failure and pneumonia on August 2, 1983, in Los Angeles. He is interred at Detroit's historic Woodlawn Cemetery. ==Recognition== Jamerson (as is the case with the other Funk Brothers) received little formal recognition for his lifetime contributions. His work was uncredited until later in his career, and he remained largely anonymous, even to bassists who emulated his style. The first time he was credited on a major Motown release was in 1971 for his performance on Marvin Gaye's What's Going On. He was noted as "the incomparable James Jamerson" on the record's sleeve. Jamerson was the subject of a book by Allan Slutsky in 1989 titled Standing in the Shadows of Motown. The book includes a biography of Jamerson, transcriptions of his bass lines, two CDs in which 26 bassists such as Pino Palladino, John Entwistle, Chuck Rainey, and Geddy Lee speak about Jamerson and play the transcriptions. His story was featured in the subsequent 2002 documentary film of the same title. Jamerson's work has continued to be the subject of various publications. Jamerson was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2000, among the first-ever group of "sidemen" to be inducted. He received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2004, and he was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame in 2007 both as a member of the Funk Brothers. In 2009 he was inducted into the Fender Hall of Fame by fellow Motown session bassist and friend, Bob Babbitt. He received the Bass Player magazine's Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011. He received the Samson, Hartke and Zoom International Bassist Award in 2012. He was awarded a bust at the Hollywood Guitar Center's Rock Walk, and in 2013 the Funk Brothers received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2015 songwriter and bassist Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys named Jamerson as his favorite bassist. Jamerson has received several accolades in his home state of South Carolina. These include a two-day tribute hosted by the Charleston Jazz Initiative and the College of Charleston's Avery Research Center (2003), the Gullah/GeeChee Anointed Spirit Award (2008), the Independent Tone Award for lifetime achievement (2016), the Dr. Martin Luther King Dream Keeper Award (2018), induction to the Lowcountry Music Hall of Fame (2018), induction to the Carolina Beach Music Hall of Fame (2018). Also, the South Carolina Senate, the House of Representatives and the town of Edisto Island have passed resolutions in recognition of his contributions. ==Jamerson's equipment== Jamerson started on a school owned upright bass. After graduating from high school, he bought a German upright bass which he later used on such Motown hits as "My Guy" by Mary Wells and "(Love Is Like a) Heat Wave" by Martha and the Vandellas. This instrument is in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 1960 to 1961 he transitioned to electric bass. Jamerson played mainly the Fender Precision Bass, but is known to have briefly used a Fender Bass V and a Hagström eight- string later in his career. He continued to use the upright bass occasionally, as in 1964's "My Guy". His first electric bass was a 1957 Precision Bass, refinished in black, with a gold-anodized pickguard and maple fretboard, nicknamed "Black Beauty". The bass was previously owned by his fellow bass player Horace "Chili" Ruth. But the instrument was soon stolen. After his 1957 Precision Bass was stolen, he briefly replaced it with an early sixties sunburst Precision which was also stolen. He then acquired a stock 1962 Fender Precision Bass which was dubbed "The Funk Machine" by his fellow musicians. It had a three-tone sunburst finish, a tortoiseshell pickguard, rosewood fretboard and chrome pickup and bridge covers (the latter containing a piece of foam used to dampen sustain and some overtones). On the heel of the instrument, he carved the word "FUNK" in blue ink. He typically set its volume and tone knobs on full. This instrument was also stolen, just days before Jamerson's death in 1983, and never recovered. Jamerson used La Bella heavy- gauge (.052–.110) flatwound strings which were never replaced, unless a string broke. He did not particularly take care of the instrument, as he stated: "The dirt keeps the funk". The neck may have eventually warped, as many claimed it was impossible to play. While this made it more difficult to fret, Jamerson believed it improved the quality of the tone. In the mid-1970s, a producer attempted to modernize Jamerson's sound by asking the bassist to switch to brighter-sounding roundwound bass strings, but Jamerson politely declined. One aspect of Jamerson's upright playing that carried over to the electric bass guitar was the fact that he generally used only his right index finger to pluck the strings while resting his third and fourth fingers on the chrome pickup cover. Jamerson's index finger even earned its own nickname: "The Hook". Another aspect of Jamerson's upright playing that carried over was his use of open strings, a technique long used by jazz bass players, to pivot around the fretboard which served to give his lines a fluid feeling. He played with a relaxed and light touch. Jamerson's amplifier of choice at club performances was an Ampeg B-15; in larger venues, he used a blue Kustom with twin 15-inch speakers. On both, the bass knob was typically turned up full and the treble turned halfway up. On most of his studio recordings, his bass was plugged directly into the custom-made mixing console together with the guitars from Eddie Willis, Robert White and Joe Messina. He adjusted the console so that his sound was slightly overdriven and had a mild tube compression. In 2017, it was reported that Jamerson gave a 1961 Fender Precision bass to bassist Billy Hayes in 1967 or 1968; the instrument was auctioned in 2017. In 1977, Jamerson was photographed with a 1965–1968 Precision bass (a line of instruments which had a transition logo). There is speculation that in mid to late-1960s Jamerson's then-primary instrument was parted with, and that he acquired and replaced it with a 1966 model. ==Quotations== In a 1983 interview with Musician magazine, Jamerson said about Motown's songwriting-production team that they "would give me the chord sheet, but they couldn't write for me. When they did, it didn't sound right. (...) When they gave me that chord sheet, I'd look at it, but then start doing what I felt and what I thought would fit. (...) I'd hear the melody line from the lyrics and I'd build the bass line around that." Motown's founder Berry Gordy called Jamerson an "incredible improviser" and said "I, like some of the other producers, would not do a session unless at least two of the Funk Brothers were present – namely, [drummer] Benny Benjamin and James Jamerson." ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * * * * * ==External links== * James Jamerson's recorded bass parts isolated * BassLand James Jamerson page * James Jamerson transcriptions and educational resources * Category:1936 births Category:1983 deaths Category:20th-century African-American musicians Category:20th-century American bass guitarists Category:20th-century American male musicians Category:20th-century double-bassists Category:African-American guitarists Category:Alcohol-related deaths in California Category:American double- bassists Category:American funk bass guitarists Category:American male bass guitarists Category:American rhythm and blues bass guitarists Category:American session musicians Category:Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Detroit) Category:Deaths from cirrhosis Category:Deaths from congestive heart failure Category:Deaths from pneumonia in California Category:Guitarists from Detroit Category:Guitarists from South Carolina Category:Male double-bassists Category:Northwestern High School (Michigan) alumni Category:People from Edisto Island, South Carolina Category:The Funk Brothers members
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Hope Logan is a fictional character from The Bold and the Beautiful, an American soap opera on the CBS network. The character was portrayed by several child actors since Hope's introduction in 2002, most notably Rachel and Amanda Pace. In 2010, the role was rapidly aged and recast with actress Kim Matula, who made her first appearance in January 2010. Matula departed the serial as a series regular in December 2014, but she made guest appearances in 2015 and 2016. As of 2018, the role is portrayed by Annika Noelle. Introduced in 2002, Hope is the result of an affair between Brooke Logan and Deacon Sharpe, Brooke's ex-son-in-law. Upon Matula's casting, her main storylines revolved around relationships with former love interests Liam and Wyatt Spencer, and rivalry with Steffy Forrester, the latter of which mirrors the rivalry between their mothers, Brooke Logan and Taylor Hayes. Matula was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series in 2014 for her portrayal of Hope. Noelle's portrayal later earned a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . == Casting == Between the years of 2002 and 2009, the character was played by child actresses, appearing as a young girl around 5 years old by 2007. On December 4, 2009, it was announced that Hope was to be dramatically aged and portrayed by Kim Matula. Matula signed on as a contract character. Matula began taping The Bold and the Beautiful on November 19, 2009, making her first appearance on January 11, 2010. On November 5, 2014, it was announced that after five years with the series, Matula would be departing the series. Matula taped her final scene on November 6, making her final appearance on December 12. In March 2015, Soap Opera Digest reported news that Matula would make a return to the series, in a guest appearance as Hope. She is set to report to set on March 4, 2015, she aired on April 17 and 20, 2015. In February 2016, Matula was reported to make a guest return to the soap; she appeared on March 16, 2016. In November 2017, Soap Opera Digest announced that actress Annika Noelle had been cast in the role of Hope; she made her first appearance on January 8, 2018. == Characterization == The young adult character of Hope was first described as "A polar opposite of what her mother Brooke once was, Hope makes no secret of her more traditional and reserved views on sex and marriage". Matula has described Hope as "Unlucky in love". Speaking about the character's dramatic aging and her storyline, head writer Bradley Bell stated: "Aging the character of ‘Hope’ to a teenager allows us to bring the next generation of ‘Logans’ to the forefront, as well as play a broader range of the ‘Forrester’ vs. ‘Logan’ story. ‘Hope’s’ presence at Forrester Creations, as well as in ‘Brooke’ and ‘Ridge’s’ home, sparks an intense competition between ‘Hope’ and her step-sister ‘Steffy’ as well as creates new conflict between long-time rivals ‘Brooke’ and ‘Taylor’ as each woman is determined to protect her own daughter." == Storylines == === Back story === Hope was conceived during an affair between Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang) and Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan). At the time, Deacon was married to Hope's half- sister, Bridget Forrester. Hope was born at the Big Bear Cabin and delivered by Stephanie. Deacon signed over his parental rights in 2007 to Ridge Forrester when Hope was taken from Brooke, as she was proven to be an unfit mother by Social Services. She was reported by Stephanie Forrester (Susan Flannery). Nick Marone (Jack Wagner) was also a father figure for Hope when he was married to Brooke. ===2010–2016=== After the character was dramatically aged (SORASed), Hope is almost raped by a photographer, Graham Darros, but she is saved by Nick and Aggie Jones. As high school graduation approaches, she meets Oliver Jones, a DJ who becomes her first serious boyfriend. Instantly, the assertive Steffy takes an interest in Oliver, teasing him in front of Hope for a reaction response. At a fashion show Pam Douglas tampers with a sign by removing the letters 'p' and 'e' out of Hope's name to create a sign that reads "Ho Logan". Then, at Hope's graduation party (with a mask theme), Brooke has sex with Oliver, claiming she thought it was her husband Ridge behind the mask; this is revealed by a video which Steffy located. It was later revealed the video was tampered by Justin Barber and Liam Cooper, who worked for Spencer Publications – who are against Forrester Creations. Despite unresolved feelings, Hope forgives her mother and tries to recover her relationship with Oliver, until she meets Liam. Hope meets Liam Cooper, who was soon to be revealed to be the son of Bill Spencer Jr., Hope and Liam forge a friendship but there is something more there which Oliver, her boyfriend, sees whenever they are together. Liam and Hope fall deeply in love. Their love grows despite Oliver trying to win back Hope by making her jealous. Liam and Hope's relationship faces hardship when Amber falls pregnant after supposedly sleeping with Liam, and Liam is thought to be the father. Amber manipulates Liam every chance she gets and causes problems for Liam and Hope. Hope tries to move on, but Steffy encourages her to trust Liam. The baby is born, and it is quite evident the baby is not Liam's, turns out to be Marcus's baby instead. Liam and Hope reunite, and he proposes to her. However, she wanted to use this as a way to promote her fashion line, so their wedding was planned for months ahead. Hope tells Liam she wants to wait to consummate their relationship after marriage, Steffy supports the relationship and Liam (who saves her from drowing, when she hits her head after falling in the bath) until she hears so much about the pain Liam is going through. Steffy came to believe that Hope was not right for him and fell in love with Liam. Finally, the night before the wedding (Hope/Liam), Steffy is conned into collecting Liam from his Bachelor Party. Steffy says goodbye and good luck to Liam and offers a goodbye kiss. After witnessing the kiss, Hope takes off her engagement ring and leaves it at Liam's house. Hope spoke with Liam, by phone and says that she doesn't want to be married, doesn't want to talk and doesn't want to see him again. Heartbroken and angry, Liam takes the ring and proposes to Steffy, who accepts. Liam and Steffy travel to Aspen, where they are married. Then Thomas set his eyes on Hope. They shared a kiss despite Hope's unresolved feelings for Liam. Thomas whisks her away to Mexico, for a weekend holiday, without realizing that he is taking Hope to Liam's honeymoon! Thomas proposes to Hope, who says she's not ready and that she still loves Liam, but 'I feel safe with you'. Liam sees Hope and goes after Thomas and Hope on an ATV chase, chasing Hope. Steffy, on her own ATV & goes after Liam and is injured when it all goes wrong. She ends up in the hospital and everyone flies down, and Bill decides to manipulate the situation. Bill perpetuates a lie about Steffy's health, bribing the doctors to say that her life was at risk, and she must not be upset. Katie finds out about the lie and 'blames' Steffy. Liam, feeling betrayed by Bill and Steffy, immediately leaves to find Hope. He finds her on the rooftop where he proposed to her and tells her that he loves her and that he wants to be with her to give their relationship a true chance, without manipulations. When they later confront Bill with what they know and what they want from him, Bill refuses to give in, reminding Liam that Steffy is his wife. Liam, decides to end his marriage with Steffy. mind Despite her pleading, Liam has annulment papers drawn, which Steffy refuses to sign. She offers him a divorce, but not an annulment. Brooke, arranges for a wedding for Hope and Liam in her home, convinced that her son Rick would seduce Steffy into signing the annulment papers. Steffy refuses, signing 'Sucker' on the paperwork, for Rick. Fearing that Liam might return to his 'wife', Brooke insists that Hope should have sex with Liam, as the only way to keep him. Hope's first attempt at 'adultery' did not go as well as Hope had wished, and she ended up traumatized. Brooke showed up early the next morning and found Hope in tears. Brooke took Hope to see a sex therapist, for some relaxation medication, to help her with her trauma and so she can be with Liam. All this accomplishes though is getting Hope hooked on anxiety pills and with the help of Amber, Hope begins to take illegal medication. When she passes out at the Forrester pool, Liam starts to worry. Liam is then sent, by Bill, to Aspen, to cover the ski Fashion (winter line), where Steffy is promoting her Forrester Creations Ski Line. Hope does not trust Liam and Steffy being together in their 'special' place and follows. On the slopes, Hope is high on her pills and accidentally runs into Steffy, on the slopes. Once again, Steffy is taken to hospital, after Liam finds her on the slopes. Liam is angry that Hope just left Steffy there and did not seek help. When the paramedics arrive, Liam refers to Steffy as his 'wife'. Hope then, confesses to Liam that she is hooked on the pills that she is taking, to allow her to commit adultery (which doesn't sit well for her). In the hospital, Steffy signs the annulment papers, which she has been carrying with her, but Liam tears them up, deciding instead to proceed with a divorce. Once the divorce becomes final, Liam and Hope went to Italy at Brooke's insistence to marry. Bill interferes, bringing in Deacon Sharpe, so Hope is late to the wedding and Liam thinking that she had once again walked out on him, turned to Steffy for comfort and asked her to leave with him and marry him again. Hope then arrived at Liam's hotel suite, with Steffy in the bathroom, hearing it all, while Hope told Liam what happened. Steffy insisted that Liam go ahead and marry Hope, so the wedding went off without a hitch. Once back in the States, Hope saw a video of Steffy and Liam kissing and falling onto the bed together on 'Hope's wedding day' and refuses to sign papers making their marriage legal in the US. Hope insists on another wedding. Liam agrees, and Hope plans another wedding at the Forrester Estate, with yet another new designer gown. The night before the next wedding, Hope and Liam make plans to spend the evening together – a 'date' night, but Stephanie is not well, and Hope decides to stay with her. Sworn to secrecy, by Stephanie about her illness, Hope phones Liam and cancels their 'date'. Liam goes straight to where he knows Steffy will be, with her girlfriends and a DJ stint (working). Liam went off with some people who were unknown to Steffy and returned, drunk and with a red streak in his hair and a removable tattoo. He went to the roof and fell asleep on a lounger. Steffy found him there and stayed, on another lounger, waking him, to take him to the wedding venue. Liam went to have a shower and clean up, for the wedding, but Hope heard Steffy's motorcycle and went to see Liam, before he had a chance to wash it off. Outraged by Liam's continued reliance on Steffy, Hope calls off the wedding and her relationship with Liam. Thomas and Hope then becomes friends. On the professional front, Hope cancels her line, the wedding line, making a public announcement, that there will be no wedding. Liam turns again to Steffy, entering a living commitment (Steffy doesn't trust marriage at that time, until she is sure). Steffy, is called to Paris, by her Father and before she leaves, takes a 'pregnancy test'. Hope, learns that she was lied to, by Rick, about what went on the night before their planned wedding. Hope, hearing that Steffy has just left for Paris (from Rick) races to 'their' (Liam and Steffy's) home, where she walks into their room and begins throwing Steffy's belongings around the room, then grabs Liam and falling on the bed, begins to attempt a seduction. At that moment, Steffy arrives home, to tell Liam that they are pregnant. Steffy leaves for Paris, leaving Liam to make up his mind what and who he wants, without knowing about the baby. Hope makes the most of Steffy's absence, but Liam cannot decide. He needs time. When Steffy returns from Paris, she is ready to share her news, but Liam asks Steffy to move out, so that he can decide where his future lies. Liam sets a date, on which he will finally make his decision. Steffy remains silent about the pregnancy, because she wants Liam to make up his own mind. However, the day before Liam is due to 'make his decision', Brooke set up a 'surprise' wedding for Hope and Liam! using Forrester staff. A staffer calls Steffy and tells her what is going on and all bets are off. If Liam is not given the opportunity to make up his own mind, but is being manipulated, then he'll do so, knowing the truth. Brooke, who has the priest from Italy, ready in a 'surprise', to tell Liam that he can marry him and Hope, phones Liam and asks him to come home. Brooke also calls Hope and asks her to meet at Liam's home. Liam feels trapped, but Brooke, whispers to him and Hope arrives in a white dress, ready for marriage. Just as he is dithering about actually making the 'commitment', Steffy arrives to tell liam about the baby. Steffy makes it very clear, that she is happy to co-parent, IF Liam has made the decision to be with Hope, but if he's only doing what Brooke has planned, then he deserves at least to know, before making that commitment. Liam tells Hope, that he will not leave Steffy, and will not leave a child, who was conceived in love! Hope leaves in tears, surprised by Liam's words and tells her Mother what was said. Brooke, declares that the only reason he is with Steffy – is because she got herself pregnant – on purpose. After Steffy is involved in an accident (a car runs a red light), losing her and Liam's child, she learns that she cannot have children. Steffy tells Hope she is leaving and asks Hope to be with Liam, love him and make him happy and give him the Family he so badly wants, without telling Hope or Liam the real issue. Hope and Liam go to Big Bear Cabin together, to talk. While on a walk, she sees a naked stranger taking a shower. She takes a photo of him, only for him to turn around and see her. She runs away and he chases her. She then falls and is knocked unconscious. The stranger then carries her to safety and when she wakes up, he kisses her. The mysterious stranger turns out to be Wyatt Fuller. After doing some digging, she learns he is the son of Bill Spencer, Jr., therefore the half-brother of Liam. Wyatt and Hope get closer after Liam flies off to see Steffy, at Hope's insistence, asking Steffy why she left the way she did. Steffy rejects him and Liam comes home and proposes to Hope, who accepts. Wyatt moves in with Liam, but when Liam catches him kissing Hope, he punches Wyatt, and after a fight between Bill and Wyatt, Wyatt moves out. After Hope and Liam have an argument, about him not being able to let go of Steffy, Hope and Wyatt fly to Mexico to get the Hope Diamond for the line, which makes problems for Liam. Eventually, Hope and Liam get engaged, but when Hope receives a goodbye video Liam made for Steffy, it creates tension between them. Liam, thinking it was Wyatt that sent the video, later finds out it was actually Quinn, and Liam quickly informs Hope. Confronting them both, Hope finds out that Quinn did send the video, but Wyatt had no idea of it until the Hope Diamond reveal. Hope forgives them both. She later ends her engagement to Liam when she is feeling insecure about Liam always turning to Steffy. They soon reconcile, but Hope wants to wait before they get married. Aly Forrester, who has a crush on Liam, sends him a picture of Wyatt and Hope kissing at a photoshoot. Liam decides to confront Hope about her refusal to marry, demands that they do so and that she cut all professional and personal ties with Wyatt and Quinn Artisan Jewelers. Hope chooses Liam over Wyatt and Eric reluctantly agrees to break the contract. Wyatt tries desperately to change Hope's mind but she won't, confessing to her mother that she had never met Liam & fallen in love with him, then Wyatt might have had a chance. On the day of the wedding, Hope goes to see Liam, where he is getting ready for the wedding, in the cabin, but she finds him with Steffy at the cabin. Knowing that Steffy is back from Paris, and guessing she would be back to fight for Liam, Hope decides to rehire Quinn, and she and Wyatt go to Hawaii together. Liam follows soon after to explain to Hope that Steffy had informed him that she is now able to conceive again, and that it was Quinn who once again interfered with their relationship. He then asks her to marry him immediately. Hope declines and ends her relationship with him, finally choosing Wyatt over Liam. Their happiness is short-lived when it is revealed by Liam that Wyatt took the Hope diamond as a P.R stunt, before the real jewel thieves had intentions to steal it. It almost ends their relationship completely, but Hope decides to give Wyatt another chance, much to Liam's dismay. Hope then endures a pregnancy scare, and with Liam's persuasion about making the right decision for her life before getting pregnant or married, Hope decides to date both brothers, agreeing that she will choose who she wants to spend the rest of her life with at the end of it. Finally, Hope chooses Liam and they become engaged. Quinn unsuccessfully tries to interfere. Wyatt declares his support for Liam and Hope's relationship. Because of this, Liam and Hope decide to rehire Wyatt at Forrester Creations. Wyatt inherits the Hope for the Future Diamond after Ricardo Montemayor dies. He gifts it to Hope, which causes friction between Liam and Hope, and the two brothers. When Liam demands Hope give it back to Wyatt, Hope refuses, and publicly declares at a press conference that she is keeping the diamond. Wyatt and Rick decide to take Hope and the diamond on a promotion tour, starting with a photo shoot in Paris. Hope, finally deciding to make her decision between the brothers, lays an ultimatum, for Liam to meet at the photo shoot, near the Eiffel Tower. Liam, feeling that he doesn't have time to make it, is planning not to try, but Ivy convinces him to make the effort. Wyatt begs Hope not to marry Liam, though she insists that she and Liam belong together. Liam misses his deadline with Hope, who then leaves with Wyatt on the Spencer jet. Wyatt takes her to Bill's yacht in Monte Carlo, where Wyatt proposes to Hope using the HFTF diamond, and Hope accepts and marries Wyatt. About a month later, Hope learns, from Liam, that Quinn orchestrated her and Wyatt's marriage by pushing Ivy off the Seine causing Liam to miss her ultimatum. After confronting Quinn for her role and Wyatt for defending his mother, Hope learned that she was pregnant. Liam and Hope met, privately, where Liam asked Hope, how she could be sure that the child was not his and asked her to leave Wyatt. Hope said that she 'just knows' that Wyatt is the Father, he is her husband. Liam then asks Hope to get rid of the baby, or let it be his and to come to him. Hope explains that she doesn't want her child to grow up with multiple fathers and have a complicated relationship like she did. She ended things with Liam for good and told him that she wanted to give her marriage to Wyatt a chance now with the baby on the way. This is all changed when she suffers a miscarriage, because she didn't pay attention to where she was going.. Hope left LA, after telling Liam that she was divorcing Wyatt and was available for him. Hope leaves in tears and visits Brooke in Milan, Italy. Hope does not return to L.A. with Brooke to get over the loss of her child. In Milan, according to Hope, she 'dated' and had a 'few relationships', but she could not get over Liam. When Brooke and Ridge married again, Hope was invited home, for the wedding and decided to stay. She made an agreement with Ridge, to stay out of Steffy's marriage with Liam, and she could work again on her 'label' HFTF. === 2018–present === Hope returns to Los Angeles in January 2018, at Ridge's request, to surprise her mother. She makes her intentions known of returning to Forrester. When Hope meets Sally Spectra, she finds out that Liam and Steffy's marriage is in trouble and so she visits Liam to offer her support and friendship. Hope learns of Steffy and Bill sleeping together. Hope later starts to fall in love with Liam again. Bill manipulates Liam to believe that Bill and Steffy are involved; Liam leaves Steffy and their daughter, Kelly, and proposes to Hope. Liam decides to give Steffy another chance for the sake of Kelly, but Hope soon discovers she's pregnant, from the one night she and Liam spent together before their aborted wedding. Steffy catches Liam and Hope making out behind the scenes of the Hope for the Future fashion show, and she breaks up with him; Steffy steps back and gives Liam to Hope because she can no longer be involved in a triangle for Liam's heart, and she needs to do what is best for Kelly. In August 2018, Hope and Liam wed in front of their friends, families, Steffy, and Taylor, and were finally together. They blissfully awaited the birth of their daughter & basked in the happiness they had always longed for. In January 2019, Hope and Liam are devastated when their infant daughter Elizabeth 'Beth' Avalon Spencer is stillborn. It is revealed that Dr. Reese Buckingham stole Hope and Liam's daughter Beth Spencer and gave them a stillborn baby girl. Reese later brought baby Beth Spencer to his apartment and his friend Flo pretended to be the birth mother. Steffy adopted the baby and named her Phoebe after Steffy's late sister. Hope holds Phoebe for the first time (Beth) and has a connection to her. Steffy then worries about Hope when she starts to get too conformable with Beth. After Steffy takes Kelly and Phoebe to Paris for Hope and Liam to work out their marriage, Hope and Liam's marriage starts to crumble. Hope later meets Wyatt's ex-girlfriend Flo, and learns that she was Phoebe's birth mother and is looking for her biological father. The Logan family learns that Flo is Storm's daughter revealing that Hope and Flo are cousins. Happy, Hope welcomes Flo into their family and in the Forester Company. Thomas Forester (Mathew Atkinson) returns to L.A with devastating news, about Caroline passing away. Hope then bonds with Douglas, and helps to heal him from losing Caroline. Afterwards Thomas starts to have an obsession with Hope and manipulates Caroline's death by writing a fake letter saying that Douglas needs a mother and wants Hope to be that mother figure for him. Also uses Douglas to convince Hope to be with his dad. Which lead to Hope and Liam getting an annulment, and wanting to fulfill Caroline's wish. Also, Hope pushes Liam into being with Steffy and wanting him to raise Kelly and Phoebe together. Hope accepts Thomas's proposal. Hope almost had second thoughts about marrying Thomas, until Liam revealed that he and Steffy had sex one night. When Hope and Thomas are married, she still loves Liam, but wants to move forward with Beth being gone. However, Hope feels unconformable with Thomas's advances and not wanting to have sex with him. When Hope is about to go on her honeymoon with Thomas, Douglas reveals to Hope and Liam that their daughter Beth is alive. Hope believes that Douglas is just confused, and goes on her Honeymoon with Thomas. Their Honeymoon is cut short when Hope still refuses to have sex with Thomas and Thomas receiving a call from Douglas. Thomas and Hope goes back to L.A at Forester's, and Hope locks the office door. Liam storms in the office to tell Hope that Douglas is telling the truth that Beth is alive, and Flo has lied about being Phoebe's birth mother. Hope at first refuses to believe Liam until he reveals to her, that he confronted Flo, and she confirmed that she was never pregnant. Hope tries to process Liam's information, but Thomas breaks down the door, punches Liam, and grabs Hope to the helicopter. Hope tries to calm him down and asks Thomas to tell her the truth about Beth. Thomas lies to her, and tells her to forget about Beth. Liam sprints and attacks Thomas. After Thomas trying to escape to the helicopter, Liam has him in a headlock and forces Thomas to tell Hope about keeping Beth away from her. When Hope realizing that Thomas could not look her in the eye, she finally realize that Beth is alive. Thomas then punches Liam again and escapes to his helicopter. Hope and Liam cry tears of joy, and Liam says that their daughter was here this whole time, and Steffy had her, but did not know about Phoebe being Beth. Finally, Hope and Liam go over Steffy's house and Hope holds her daughter Beth for the first time, realizing she is alive. When Hope asks how Steffy had their daughter Beth. Liam reveals that he overheard Thomas and Flo arguing at her and Thomas's wedding and Thomas saying that Hope cannot know about a secret. Liam asks Wyatt to talk to Flo to get her to open up, and Flo accidentally revealed that she never had a baby to Wyatt. After what Douglas had told Liam about Phoebe being Beth, Liam called the hospital in Vegas where Flo supposedly had Phoebe, and it turns out that Flo was never was a patient at the hospital in Vegas, there was no medical records of her being there according to Flo's supposed doctor. Also, Flo revealed to him and Wyatt that Dr. Buckingham owed some people for a gambling debt and needed to pay them, or they would kill his daughter Zoe. Liam goes on reveal that a woman was also Dr. Buckingham's patient lost her baby which was stillborn in Catalina. When Hope passed out after giving birth to Beth, he switch the babies. Hope learns that she held the unknown woman's stillborn baby, believing that Beth was dead. Liam says that Taylor told Reese that Steffy was looking to adopt a sister for Kelly and Reese told that there was a woman who is willing to adopt, in which Flo comes in. Liam explains to Hope that Dr. Buckingham and Flo knew each other from Vegas and he needed her to pose as the birth mother to "Phoebe". Liam then tells Hope that Taylor did not know about Phoebe being Beth and that she gave Dr. Buckingham a lot money in cash for their daughter. In shocked and crying, Hope asks Liam who else knew about Beth. Liam says that Zoe knew but did not want her dad to get arrested, Xander Avant, and Emma Barber. However, Liam reveals that Emma found out when Zoe and Xander was arguing and was on her way to tell Hope the truth before she died. Finally, Liam warns Hope that Thomas knew about Beth around the time they got an annulment and that he was chasing Emma crashed her car in a ditch because she was texting while driving. Hope apologizes to Liam, and vows to leave Thomas for his deceit. When Steffy returns Hope and Liam tells her about Flo not being Phoebe's birth mother and that Phoebe is Beth. Hope and Steffy argue about Beth and that Steffy still wants to keep her, but realizes that Hope was robbed of being Beth's mother and decides to give Beth back to Hope and Liam, much to Steffy's sadness. Afterwards Hope and Liam go to the cabin and Douglas arrives. Hope lets Douglas knows that she is happy that she has her daughter back, and that she thanks him for telling the truth. Also, she tells Douglas that she will still take care of him. Hope and Liam have a celebration on having Beth back with their family. While going back to the cabin Flo is there. After putting Beth down, Hope confront Flo about her betrayal, and tells her that she would never forgive her for keeping her daughter away from her for months. Hope and Liam talks with Justin about reversing the adoption and to serve Thomas annulment papers for his deceit. Hope later contacts Thomas to confront him on keeping Beth away from her, manipulating her grief, and using Douglas and announces that they are getting a divorce. When Hope is getting the rest of Beth's things from Steffy's house, Thomas shows up and wants to convince her to not end their marriage. Hope does not want to hear him, and tries to leave but Thomas grabs her. Hope breaks free and runs outside but Thomas tries to tell her that if he would had told the truth she would leave him for Liam. Hope tries to get out of his grip to tell him that it is over between them. Brooke arrives to the Steffy's house gets Hope out of Thomas grips. When Thomas tries to apologize, Brooke pushes him out of the way and Thomas falls over the cliff. At the hospital Hope angrily wants Thomas to wake up so that he can face the consequences of his action, Thomas then awakens. Thomas tells Detective Sanchez that his fall was an accident in front of Brooke, Ridge, Liam, and Hope. Also, he apologizes to Hope for lying to her and hopes she can forgive him. Hope, Liam, and Beth are at the cabin, and Hope tells Liam that she will never forgive Thomas for keeping Beth away from them, and believes that he only told Detective Sanchez that Brooke pushed him by accident in hopes to get back in her good graces. Liam tells her that they still got a lot of time with Beth, and to only worry about the present. == References == == External links == * Hope Logan profile – Soapcentral.com Category:The Bold and the Beautiful characters Category:Television characters introduced in 2002 Category:Female characters in television Category:Logan family
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The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU; , UIP) is an international organization of national parliaments. Its primary purpose is to promote democratic governance, accountability, and cooperation among its members; other initiatives include advancing gender parity among legislatures, empowering youth participation in politics, and sustainable development. The organization was established in 1889 as the Inter-Parliamentary Congress. Its founders were statesmen Frédéric Passy of France and William Randal Cremer of the United Kingdom, who sought to create the first permanent forum for political multilateral negotiations. Initially, IPU membership was reserved for individual parliamentarians, but has since transformed to include the legislatures of sovereign states. As of 2020, the national parliaments of 179 countries are members of the IPU, while 13 regional parliamentary assemblies are associate members. The IPU facilitates the development of international law and institutions, strengthening the foundations and enhancing the vision for peace and the common good, including the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the League of Nations, and the United Nations. It also sponsors and takes part in international conferences and forums, and has permanent observer status at the United Nations General Assembly. Consequently, eight individuals associated with the organization are Nobel Peace Prize laureates. ==History== The organisation's initial objective was the arbitration of conflicts. The IPU played an important part in setting up the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague. Over time, its mission has evolved towards the promotion of democracy and inter-parliamentary dialogue. The IPU has worked for establishment of institutions at the inter-governmental level, including the United Nations, an organization with which it cooperates and with which it has permanent observer status. The headquarters of the union have been moved several times since its inception. Locations: *1892–1911: Bern (Switzerland) *1911–1914: Brussels (Belgium) *1914–1920: Oslo (Norway) *1921–present: Geneva (Switzerland) Eight leading personalities of the IPU have received Nobel Peace Prizes: *1901: Frédéric Passy (France) *1902: Charles Albert Gobat (Switzerland) *1903: Randal Cremer (United Kingdom) *1908: Fredrik Bajer (Denmark) *1909: Auguste Marie François Beernaert (Belgium) *1913: Henri La Fontaine (Belgium) *1921: Christian Lange (Norway) *1927: Ferdinand Buisson (France) == Members and organization == ===Members=== thumb|right|300px|Map of IPU member states * Regional parliamentary assemblies may be admitted by the Governing Council as Associate Members * Every Parliament constituted in conformity with the laws of a sovereign State whose population it represents and on whose territory it functions may request affiliation to the Inter- Parliamentary Union. The decision to admit or readmit a Parliament shall be taken by the Governing Council. It is the duty of the Members of the IPU to submit the resolutions of the IPU within their respective Parliament, in the most appropriate form; to communicate them to the Government; to stimulate their implementation and to inform the IPU Secretariat, as often and fully as possible, particularly in its annual reports, as to the steps taken and the results obtained. As it can be seen on the map, mostly all the countries in the world have a parliament member of IPU, with the notable exception of the United States, although the 12th (1904), the 23rd (1925) and the 42nd (1953) conferences were hosted in the US. ;Associate Members The participating parliamentary assemblies other than national parliaments are the following: Name Related organization Andean Parliament CAN Central American Parliament SICA East African Legislative Assembly EAC European Parliament EU Inter- parliamentary Assembly of Member Nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States CIS Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy none Inter-Parliamentary Committee of the West African Economic and Monetary Union UEMOA Latin American Parliament none Multiple regional organizations in Latin America such as the Rio Group, Latin American Economic System and Latin American Integration Association have similar membership. Parliamentary Assembly of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation BSEC Parliament of the Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS Parliament of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa CEMAC Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe CoE Transitional Arab Parliament AL === Organs === thumb|right|Headquarters of the IPU in Geneva (2010) The organs of the Inter-Parliamentary Union are: * Assembly. Meeting biannually, the Assembly is composed of parliamentarians designated as delegates by the Members. The Assembly is assisted in its work by Standing Committees, whose number and terms of reference are determined by the Governing Council; Standing Committees shall normally prepare reports and draft resolutions for the Assembly. No one delegate may record more than ten votes. * Governing Council. The Governing Council normally holds two sessions a year. The Governing Council is composed of three representatives from each Member. The term of office of a member of the Governing Council lasts from one Assembly to the next and all the members of the Governing Council must be sitting members of Parliament. The Governing Council elects the President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union for a period of three years. It also elects the members of the executive committee and appoints the Secretary General of the Union. * Executive Committee. The executive committee is composed of the President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 15 members belonging to different Parliaments (elected by the Governing Council; not less than 12 are elected from among the members of the Governing Council) and the President of the Coordinating Committee of the Meeting of Women Parliamentarians. The fifteen elected seats are assigned to the geopolitical groups. Only parliamentarians from States where women have both the right to vote and the right to stand for election are eligible to the executive committee. The executive committee is the administrative organ of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. The current President is Gabriela Cuevas Barron of Mexico, who was elected to a three-year mandate in October 2017 at the 201st session of the Governing Council of the IPU in Geneva. * Secretariat. The Secretariat constitutes the totality of the staff of the organisation under the direction of the Secretary General, currently Martin Chungong of Cameroon. The Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments is a consultative body of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. == Conferences == The IPU Assembly (formerly known as the Inter-Parliamentary Conference) is the principal statutory body that expresses the views of the Inter-Parliamentary Union on political issues.Statutory Assemblies at IPU official website. Accessed 24 February 2014 # Host City Host Country Year 141st Belgrade 2019 140th Doha 2019 139th Geneva 2018 138th Geneva 2018 137th St. Petersburg 2017 136th Dhaka 2017 135th Geneva 2016 134th Lusaka 2016 133rd Geneva 2015 132nd Hanoi 2015 131st Geneva 2014 130th Geneva 2014 129th Geneva 2013 128th Quito 2013 127th Quebec City 2012 126th Kampala 2012 125th Bern 2011 124th Panama city 2011 123rd Geneva 2010 122nd Bangkok 2010 121st Geneva 2009 120th Addis Ababa 2009 119th Geneva 2008 118th Cape Town 2008 117th Geneva 2007 116th Nusa Dua, Bali 2007 115th Geneva 2006 114th Nairobi 2006 113th Geneva 2005 112th Manila 2005 111th Geneva 2004 110th Mexico 2004 109th Geneva 2003 108th Santiago 2003 107th Marrakesh 2002 106th Ouagadougou 2001 105th Havana 2001 104th Jakarta 2000 103rd Amman 2000 102nd Berlin 1999 101st Brussels 1999 100th Moscow 1998 99th Windhoek 1998 98th Cairo 1997 97th Seoul 1997 96th Beijing 1996 95th Istanbul 1996 94th Bucharest 1995 93rd Madrid 1995 92nd Copenhagen 1994 91st Paris 1994 90th Canberra 1993 89th New Delhi 1993 88th Stockholm 1992 87th Yaoundé 1992 86th Santiago 1991 85th Pyongyang 1991 84th Punta del Este 1990 83rd Nicosia 1990 82nd London 1989 81st Budapest 1989 80th Sofia 1988 79th Guatemala City 1988 78th Bangkok 1987 77th Managua 1987 76th Buenos Aires 1986 75th Mexico City 1986 74th Ottawa 1985 73rd Lomé 1985 72nd Geneva 1984 71st Geneva 1984 70th Seoul 1983 69th Rome 1982 68th Havana 1981 67th Berlin 1980 66th Caracas 1979 65th Bonn 1978 64th Sofia 1977 63rd Madrid 1976 62nd London 1975 61st Tokyo 1974 60th Rome 1972 59th Paris 1971 58th The Hague 1970 57th New Delhi 1969 56th Lima 1968 55th Tehran 1966 54th Ottawa 1965 53rd Copenhagen 1964 52nd Belgrade 1963 51st Brasilia 1962 50th Brussels 1961 49th Tokyo 1960 48th Warsaw 1959 47th Rio de Janeiro 1958 46th London 1957 45th Bangkok 1956 44th Helsinki 1955 43rd Vienna 1954 42nd Washington, D.C. 1953 41st Bern 1952 40th Istanbul 1951 39th Dublin 1950 38th Stockholm 1949 37th Rome 1948 36th Cairo 1947 35th Oslo 1939 34th The Hague 1938 33rd Paris 1937 32nd Budapest 1936 31st Brussels 1935 30th Istanbul 1934 29th Madrid 1933 28th Geneva 1932 27th Bucharest 1931 26th London 1930 25th Berlin 1928 24th Paris 1927 23rd Washington, D.C. 1925 23rd Ottawa 1925 22nd Bern 1924 21st Copenhagen 1923 20th Vienna 1922 19th Stockholm 1921 18th The Hague 1913 17th Geneva 1912 16th Brussels 1910 15th Berlin 1908 14th London 1906 13th Brussels 1905 12th St. Louis 1904 11th Vienna 1903 10th Paris 1900 9th Christiania 1899 8th Brussels 1897 7th Budapest 1896 6th Brussels 1895 5th The Hague 1894 4th Bern 1892 3rd Rome 1891 2nd London 1890 1st Paris 1889 ==Presidents== President Years Country Duarte Pacheco 2020–present Gabriela Cuevas Barron 2017–2020 Saber Hossain Chowdhury 2014–2017 Abdelwahad Radi 2011–2014 Theo-Ben Gurirab 2008–2011 Pier Ferdinando Casini 2005–2008 Sergio Paes Verdugo 2002–2005 Najma Heptulla 1999–2002 Miguel Angel Martinez 1997–1999 Ahmed Fathi Sorour 1994–1997 Michael Marshall 1991–1994 Dauda Sow 1988–1991 Hans Stercken 1985–1988 John Page 1985 Izz El Din El Sayed 1983–1985 Emile Cuvelier 1983 Johannes Virolainen 1982–1983 Rafael Caldera 1979–1982 Thomas Williams 1976–1979 Gurdial Singh Dhillon 1973–1976 André Chandernagor 1968–1973 Abderrahman Abdennebi 1967–1968 Ranieri Mazzilli 1962–1967 Giuseppe Codacci-Pisanelli 1957–1962 William Wedgwood Benn 1947–1957 Henri Carton de Wiart 1934–1947 Fernand Bouisson 1928–1934 Theodor Adelsward 1922–1928 Philip Stanhope 1912–1922 August Beernaert 1909–1912 ==Amendments to the Statutes == Any proposal to amend the Statutes shall be submitted in writing to the Secretariat of the Union at least three months before the meeting of the Assembly. The Secretariat will immediately communicate all such proposals to the Members of the Union. The consideration of such proposed amendments shall be automatically placed on the agenda of the Assembly. Any sub-amendments shall be submitted in writing to the Secretariat of the Union at least six weeks before the meeting of the Assembly. The Secretariat will immediately communicate all such sub-amendments to the Members of the Union. After hearing the opinion of the Governing Council, expressed through a simple majority vote, the Assembly shall decide on such proposals by a two-thirds majority vote. ==The IPU and the United Nations== The IPU marked the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, in 1995, by holding a special session in the General Assembly Hall before the start of the session, where they planned for closer cooperation with the United Nations. The General Assembly Resolution passed during that session requested the Secretary-General to put this into action. An agreement was signed between the IPU and the Secretary-General on 24 July 1996 and subsequently ratified by a General Assembly Resolution, where the United Nations recognizes IPU as the world organization of parliaments. Pursuant to this resolution, the Secretary-General submitted a report which was noted with appreciation by the General Assembly, who requested further strengthening of cooperation and another report. This report detailed the measures that had been taken, including opening a liaison office in New York, and cooperation on issues such land-mines and the promotion of representative democracy. Following an entire morning of debate the General Assembly passed a resolution which simply stated that it "looks forward to continued close cooperation". The following year (1999) the Secretary-General reported on an increased number of areas of cooperation, the issue was debated for an entire afternoon (interrupted by a minute of silence held for tribute to Vazgen Sargsyan, the Prime Minister of Armenia who had just at that time been killed by gunmen), and passed a resolution requesting the IPU be allowed to address the Millennium General Assembly directly. Following another report, and another half-day debate, the General Assembly welcomed the IPU declaration entitled "The Parliamentary vision for international cooperation at the dawn of the third millennium" and called for the Secretary-General to explore new and further ways in which the relationship could be strengthened. On 19 November 2002 the IPU was granted observer status to the General Assembly. In the Resolution 59/19, Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter- Parliamentary Union, the UN General Assembly takes note of the recommendations in regard to engaging parliamentarians more systematically in the work of the United Nations.Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, 17 December 2004 The final declaration of the Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliament, hosted at United Nations headquarters, took place in September 2005, was entitled Bridging the democracy gap in international relations: A stronger role for parliament.Bridging the democracy gap in international relations: A stronger role for parliaments UNO Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliaments, New York, 7 to 9 September 2005 In the Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly, 61/6, Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, on 27 November 2006, it calls for the further development of the annual parliamentary hearing at the United Nations and other specialized parliamentary meetings in the context of major United Nations meetings as joint United Nations-Inter-Parliamentary Union events.Resolution 61/6: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter- Parliamentary Union, 27 November 2006, at IPU official website Every year during the fall session of the General Assembly the IPU organises a Parliamentary Hearing.Cooperation with the UN: hearings at IPU official website A resolution on cooperation between the United Nations and the IPU allowed for circulation of official IPU documents in the General Assembly. UN and the IPU cooperate closely in various fields, in particular peace and security, economic and social development, international law, human rights, and democracy and gender issues, but IPU has not obtained the status of UN General Assembly subsidiary organ. === Fourth World Conference of Speakers of Parliament === The fourth world conference on UN 70th anniversary marked by Ban Ki-Moon as "UN70" was organised in September 2015 where Speakers of all IPU(Inter-Parliamentary Union) member parliaments and of non-member parliaments were invited from across the world. The theme was on peace, democracy, and development. === United Nations reports, resolutions, and agreements=== *Resolution of the United Nations: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 27 November 2006. *Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and regional and other organizations, 16 August 2006.Etpu *Resolution of the United Nations General Assembly: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 8 November 2004. * Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter- Parliamentary Union (see Part 5 of the Annex), 1 September 2004.Microsoft Word – 0447505e.doc * Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 21 November 2002.Microsoft Word – UND_GEN_N0254074_DOCU_N * Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: Observer status for the Inter-Parliamentary Union in the General Assembly, 19 November 2002.Resolution 57/32. Observer status for the Inter-Parliamentary Union in the General Assembly 19 November 2002 * Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 3 September 2002.Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union: Report of the Secretary- General—Summary at IPU official website, 3 September 2002 * Cooperation Agreement between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union of 1996.Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union: Report of the Secretary-General Full item, 25 September 1996, at UNO official website. Accessed 24 February 2014 ==See also== *Inter-parliamentary institution *e-democracy *Global democracy *Third World Conference of Speakers of Parliament *International Day of Democracy *Internationalism (politics) *List of peace activists *Millennium Development Goals *Supranational union *Sustainable Development Goals *United Nations Democracy Fund *United Nations Parliamentary Assembly *United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Cooperation with the United Nations at official website * The Inter-Parliamentary Union (1968) * Parliaments Across Frontiers: A Short History of the Inter- Parliamentary Union (1976) * Category:Elections Category:Parliamentary assemblies Category:United Nations General Assembly observers Category:Organizations established in 1889 Category:Organisations based in Geneva Category:1889 establishments in Switzerland Category:Peace organizations Category:Democracy promotion
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Tagged is a social discovery website based in San Francisco, California, founded in 2004. It allows members to browse the profiles of any other members, and share tags and virtual gifts. Tagged claims it has 300 million members as of 2014. As of September 2011, Quantcast estimates Tagged monthly unique users at 5.9 million in the United States, and 18.6 million globally. Michael Arrington wrote in April 2011 that Tagged is most notable for the ability to grow profitably during the era of Facebook. In 2009, Tagged was criticized for sending deceptive Email spam and paid $1.4 million in legal settlements regarding those practices. The company has since adopted privacy reforms and changed its invitation processes. Owned by Ifwe, Inc., it is an Inc. 500 company ranking #476 on the 2010 Inc. list of fastest-growing independent U.S. private companies and #80 on Forbes 2011 list of America's Most Promising Companies. On April 3, 2017, the company was acquired by The Meet Group. ==History== Tagged Inc. was co-founded in mid-2004 by entrepreneurs Greg Tseng and Johann Schleier-Smith, who wanted to build a "Teen Yahoo! or the next MTV". The pair had formerly co-founded internet incubator Jumpstart Technologies, which was later fined $900,000 for alleged violations of the CAN-SPAM Act, then the largest-ever penalty for spam. In September 2005 the company raised $1.5 million in angel investor funding and three months later raised an additional $7 million from Mayfield Fund, a venture capital firm. Originally an under-18 site, Tagged allowed users of any age to join from October 2006. In March 2008, Microsoft announced a commercial partnership with social networking sites Tagged, Facebook, LinkedIn, Bebo, and hi5 regarding email contacts APIs, which has since been implemented. Other past and current Tagged partnerships have included Slide, RockYou, PhotoBucket, Meebo, Razz, and Jangl. In February 2009, following complaints from the public Tagged was blocked in Qatar by the only ISP, Qtel, due to inappropriate content that Qtel could not selectively filter. Tagged.com had been one of the top ten most visited sites in Qatar. In January 2010, Tagged announced that it was donating $50,000 to the Yéle Haiti Earthquake Fund, partly stemming from user donations. In the same month, Tagged won a $200,000 judgment against Erik Voegler, who was spamming other Tagged users. In October 2010, Tagged ranked #100 on Deloitte's list of the top 500 fastest growing technology, media, telecommunications, life sciences and clean technology companies in North America. In April 2011, Tagged acquired Digsby, a multi- protocol instant messenger and social network notification client for Windows with 3 million registered users. As of October 2011, Tagged had 150 employees, an increase from 55 employees at the beginning of 2011. CEO Greg Tseng continues to interview employees, cater lunch and dinner, and hold office-wide meetings every Friday. Tagged is a member of the Social Media Advertising Consortium, a trade industry association that aims to increase advertising revenue and to facilitate collaboration among social networking sites, advertisers, and marketing researchers. In September 2011, Tagged made a second acquisition, the gaming application WeGame. In November 2011, Tagged was named to the Forbes list of "America's Most Promising Companies". In December 2011, Tagged acquired Hi5 Networks Inc., which was once the third- largest social network behind Facebook and MySpace. The deal, whose terms were not disclosed, added Hi5's 230 million members to Tagged's base of 100 million registered users. Also in December 2011, Tagged acquired Topicmarks, a natural language processing and machine learning company. === Deceptive bulk email === thumb|upright=1.8|right|Between April and June 2009, Tagged sent tens of millions of misleading spam emails like this one, which falsely stated that a contact sent photographs to the recipient. In June 2009, Time magazine columnist Sean Gregory called Tagged "The world's most annoying website". Tagged asked users for their email username and password, retrieved email addresses from their address books, and repeatedly sent email invitations to people who were not registered on Tagged, falsely stating that they have been "added as a friend" or that the inviter had sent them photos on Tagged. This process has been labelled an "e-mail scam" by consumer anti-fraud advocates and drawn criticism in the technology press and from users.User comments at McAfee Site Advisor The emails were discussed as possible spam by Black Web 2.0 and the resemblance to a virus was noted by Snopes.com. The New York Times referred to the practice as "contact scraping". In July 2009 New York State Attorney General Andrew Cuomo announced his intention to sue Tagged for "deceptive email marketing and invasion of privacy". Tagged reached a settlement in which it agreed to pay $500,000 and to modify its promotional practices. Simultaneously, Tagged settled an enforcement action by the state of Texas, agreeing to pay $250,000 in penalties and fees. Conditions of the settlement included "clear and conspicuous" disclosure of the use of information in the user's email address book, providing a clear method to skip the step and display to users the specific emails to be sent. Tagged has adopted these reforms and changed its invitation processes. In February 2010, Tagged settled a class action lawsuit about its former registration process with California residents Miriam Slater and Sara Golden and awarded them $10,000 each. Tagged also agreed to destroy email addresses that were collected from users between April and June 2009, if those users did not mean to invite their contacts to the site. In April 2010, San Francisco District Attorney Kamala Harris announced that Tagged agreed to pay $650,000 to settle claims of deceptive emails. This settlement related to emails sent from April 2009 through June 2009. === Aborted IPO, shift in focus === In October 2014, Tagged aborted plans to perform an initial public offering, citing decreased revenue due to the proliferation of mobile devices. On October 16, 2014, Tagged performed a number of changes at the corporate level, including acquiring the social messaging startup Tinode and naming its co-founders, Dash Gopinath and Gene Sokolov, to the positions of chief product officer and senior vice president of engineering, respectively. Tagged also announced that its parent company would be re-named Ifwe, Inc. (stylized If(we), and that the company overall would focus on becoming an incubator for new mobile software, although it will continue to run Tagged and Hi5. == Website == After registering a free account, Tagged users can customize their profile page, to which they can post a biography about themselves and their interests, post status updates, upload photos, and send and receive messages. There is also an option to upgrade the membership for a monthly fee, which allows users to see which other users have recently viewed their profile, among other additional features. They can also sort videos by most viewed, top rated, and most liked, and send virtual gifts to their friends. Virtual gifts are bought with "gold" which users buy with actual money or receive by completing special offers or tasks. There are chat rooms where users engage in real time online chat according to their age and mood. Designed to facilitate relationships and dating, Tagged allows users to send and receive notifications for "Luv", "Winks", and "Meet Me", a rating engine that allows users to rate the attractiveness of photos submitted by others. On October 30, 2009, Tagged announced a simpler signup process. ===Mobile versions=== Tagged developed a mobile version of its site in April 2011, making Tagged more usable by smartphones with a mobile internet browser. This version allows users to send and receive friend requests, play games, and send messages. This mobile version also offers location-based, real-time chat for users. Tagged began offering an iPhone application from July 2010, which was downloaded more than 100,000 times in its first week. Tagged's Android application became available in March 2011. By April 2011, the Android versions, had slightly more users than on the iPhone application, and in May 2011 it was the number three social networking application on the Android. In the latest update of their iOS and Android Apps, Tagged has added the capability of refreshing data by using the "pulling down" gesture and loading more data by using the "pulling up" gesture. In June 2011 Tagged launched its first BlackBerry application.Mobile Being a native application, it runs on a mixture of HTML and the device systems. ===Social games=== Social games on Tagged differ from those on other social networking services, because players are encouraged to make new friends through the games. In May 2010, Tagged opened its own in-house gaming division. Leading the division is Andrew Pedersen, former vice president of the Pogo division of Electronic Arts. Tagged plans to create more social games, several of which are already in development. Together with its acquisition of Digsby, Tagged's focus on social games signals an attempt to add more social communication options to its platform. Launched in 2008, Pets was Tagged's first game and, as of May 2011, remains the most popular. Similar to a fantasy sports league, players use virtual money to "buy" others and own them like pets, then barter them with other players or sell at a set price. Virtual cash can be earned by players in several ways, such as frequently logging into Tagged, converting Tagged gold at the Pets Cash Bar into Pets Cash and using real money. Farm was introduced in May 2011. Unlike Zynga's Farmville on Facebook, there is no animation or farmer. Advancement is based on virtual money earned by harvesting plants and animals in the game. Other past games on Tagged included Zynga games such as Mafia Wars and Poker and Crowdstar's Happy Aquarium. ==Child safety== Initially targeting U.S. teens, Tagged opened to users worldwide aged 13 and older in October 2006 and still maintains security measures for users under 18. Users over 16 and the public cannot view the profiles of 13- and 14-year-olds, and profiles for 15- and 16-year-olds are private to the public and to users over 18. The only way to add teens as friends is by knowing the email address or surnames to request the friendship, and the younger user must accept the friendship request. However, the security measures are not entirely successful. In February 2009, a high-school teacher was arrested after having sex with a 14-year-old girl he had met on Tagged. The 32-year-old teacher, who was not listed on either state or national sex offender websites, had over 100 female friends below the age of 17. In December 2009 New York State Attorney General Andrew Cuomo announced that Tagged and 13 other social networking sites agreed to remove registered sex offenders under the New York Electronic Securing and Targeting of Online Predators Act. Nevertheless, a 2010 undercover investigation by Cuomo's office claimed that graphic images of children being sexually abused were readily accessible on Tagged. Investigators registered accounts at Tagged and reported inappropriate content to Tagged administrators following procedures described on the site. They found "significant lapses" in Tagged's response to these reports. At a news conference, Cuomo referred to Tagged as "one of the worst social networking sites that we've encountered". As of February 20, 2014, users must be at least 18 years old to have an account on Tagged. ==User demographics and site traffic== , Alexa rankings suggest the popularity of Tagged peaked in early 2009 and has been declining since. Each month Tagged is visited by 5.9 million American users and 18.6 million users worldwide. Hitwise data shows that between December 2008 and December 2009 Facebook drove category growth, and the only other site to grow in market share during that period was Tagged, which increased its share by 35%. In September 2009, Tagged had a 2.38% share of the social networking site market in the United States based on monthly visits. Though originally a teen-only site, Tagged now has more members in the 35- to 49-year-old group than in any other; as of 2011, teens in the United States accounted for 10% of its members. Sixty-four percent of users earn under $60,000 per year and 60% have less than a college education. In the United States, users of Tagged are more likely than Internet users in general to be female or African American. Eighty percent of Tagged users also use Facebook. According to ComScore December 2009 data, users spent two minutes longer on average on Tagged than Facebook users do on Facebook. In May 2010, ComScore reported that Tagged entered the top 10 U.S. Online Display Ad Publishers for the first time. Tagged.com was ranked at number 10 with a 0.6% share of the total market, having served 6.8 billion ads in the United States in the first quarter 2010. In September 2010, Tagged surpassed 100 million registered members, of whom a quarter to a third were active monthly. Revenue grew to over $30 million, and 2011 revenue was predicted by Tseng to be over $50 million. ==References== ==External links== * Category:Spamming Category:Companies based in San Francisco Category:Internet properties established in 2004 Category:American social networking websites
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Hungary competed at the 2018 European Championships which last from 2 to 12 August 2018. Hungary competed in 6 sports. ==Medal summary== ===Medal table=== | style="text-align:left; width:75%; vertical-align:top;"| Medal Name Sport Event Date Gymnastics Women's vault Swimming Men's 200 m butterfly Swimming Women's 200 m butterfly Open water swimming Men's 5 km Swimming Women's 200 m individual medley Swimming Men's 400 m individual medley Open water swimming Men's 25 km Swimming Women's 800 m freestyle Swimming Men's 200 m butterfly Open water swimming Men's 10 km Swimming Women's 400 m freestyle Swimming Women's 1500 m freestyle Athletics Men's hammer throw Swimming Women's 200 m backstroke Gymnastics Men's horizontal bar | style="text- align:left; width:25%; vertical-align:top;"| Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Sport Total Aquatics 6 4 2 12 Athletics 0 0 1 1 Gymnastics 1 0 1 2 Total 7 4 4 15 Medals by date Medals by date Medals by date Medals by date Medals by date Medals by date Day Date Total 3 4 August 0 1 0 1 4 5 August 2 1 0 3 5 6 August 1 0 0 1 6 7 August 0 0 2 2 7 8 August 2 0 0 2 8 9 August 1 2 1 4 11 12 August 1 0 1 2 Total 7 4 4 15 Medals by gender Medals by gender Medals by gender Medals by gender Medals by gender Gender Total Male 4 2 2 8 Female 3 2 2 7 Total 7 4 4 15 ==Athletics== Hungary participates with 33 competitors (15 men, 18 women) at the 2018 European Athletics Championships. ==Aquatics== ===Swimming=== ;Men Athletes Event Heats Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Bence Biczó 200 m freestyle 1:51.12 48 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m butterfly 54.53 45 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m butterfly 1:55.86 3 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Richárd Bohus 50 m freestyle DNS DNS did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m freestyle 49.71 24 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 50 m backstroke DNS DNS did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m backstroke 54.85 15 54.58 10 did not advance did not advance László Cseh 400 m freestyle 3:55.49 27 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance 50 m butterfly 23.53 7 23.48 9 did not advance did not advance 100 m butterfly 51.92 4 51.65 1 51.84 8 200 m butterfly 1:55.91 5 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Gergely Gyurta 1500 m freestyle 15:28.70 16 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance 400 m medley 4:18.64 10 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance Balázs Holló 400 m freestyle 3:51.56 17 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance 400 m medley DNS DNS colspan=2 did not advance did not advance Péter Holoda 50 m freestyle 22.78 =27 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m freestyle 49.96 33 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Dávid Horváth 50 m breaststroke 29.03 46 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m breaststroke 1:01.39 28 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m breaststroke 2:11.85 14 2:10.70 11 did not advance did not advance Dominik Kozma 100 m freestyle 49.11 12 49.15 13 did not advance did not advance 200 m freestyle DNS DNS did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Tamás Kenderesi 200 m butterfly 1:54.91 2 1:55.26 1 1:54.36 Dávid Lakatos 800 m freestyle 8:07.51 23 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance 1500 m freestyle 15:33.96 17 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance Kristóf Milák 50 m butterfly 24.29 37 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m butterfly 52.04 5 51.76 4 51.51 4 200 m butterfly 1:54.17 1 1:55.48 2 1:52.79 CR Nándor Németh 50 m freestyle 22.77 26 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m freestyle 48.93 9 48.58 =3 48.55 6 200 m freestyle 1:49.41 19 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Ádám Telegdy 50 m backstroke 26.16 36 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m backstroke 1:58.96 7 1:59.05 12 did not advance did not advance Dávid Verrasztó 200 m medley 2:00.94 15 2:00.90 12 did not advance did not advance 400 m medley 4:14.18 1 colspan=2 4:10.65 Nándor Németh Dominik Kozma Péter Holoda Richárd Bohus 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 3:15.55 3 colspan=2 3:14.51 4 Balázs Holló Ádám Telegdy Benjámin Grátz Bence Biczó 4 × 200 m freestyle relay 7:18.19 9 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance Richárd Bohus Dávid Horváth Kristóf Milák Dominik Kozma Gábor Balog* László Cseh* 4 × 100 m medley relay 3:35.50 2 colspan=2 3:34.24 5 ;Women Athletes Event Heats Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Katalin Burián 50 m backstroke 28.94 25 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m backstroke 1:00.28 8 1:00.01 7 1:00.05 7 200 m backstroke 2:10.22 2 2:07.65 2 2:07.43 Katinka Hosszú 100 m backstroke 1:00.15 7 59.67 2 59.64 4 200 m backstroke DNS DNS did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m medley 2:11.09 1 2:10.49 2 2:10.17 Zsuzsanna Jakabos 200 m butterfly 2:09.46 5 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m medley 2:13.37 6 2:12.96 6 2:13.37 8 400 m medley 4:39.26 4 colspan=2 4:38.48 5 Ajna Késely 400 m freestyle 4:08.77 1 colspan=2 4:03.57 800 m freestyle 8:27.96 2 colspan=2 8:22.01 1500 m freestyle 16:19.14 3 colspan=2 16:03.22 Boglárka Kapás 400 m freestyle 4:14.23 10 colspan=2 did not advance did not advance 800 m freestyle 8:32.32 5 colspan=2 8:26.42 5 200 m butterfly 2:09.29 4 2:07.75 3 2:07.13 Dalma Sebestyén 100 m breaststroke 1:10.21 35 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m butterfly 1:00.80 27 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m medley 2:15.53 17 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance Liliána Szilágyi 50 m butterfly 27.09 21 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 100 m butterfly 58.95 12 58.53 11 did not advance did not advance 200 m butterfly 2:09.02 3 2:08.70 5 2:08.69 6 Anna Sztankovics 50 m breaststroke 31.15 12 31.34 11 did not advance did not advance 100 m breaststroke 1:08.05 11 1:08.59 15 did not advance did not advance Evelyn Verrasztó 100 m butterfly 59.94 18 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 200 m medley 2:15.04 12 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance 4 × 200 m freestyle relay DNS DNS colspan=2 did not advance did not advance Katinka Hosszú Anna Sztankovics Liliána Szilágyi Evelyn Verrasztó 4 × 100 m medley relay 4:03.92 8 colspan=2 4:04.58 8 ;Mixed team events Athletes Event Heats Final Result Rank Result Rank Nándor Németh Dominik Kozma Zsuzsanna Jakabos Evelyn Verrasztó Richárd Bohus (h) Maxim Lobanovszkij (h) 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 3:30.80 7 3:29.30 6 Kristóf Milák Nándor Németh Katinka Hosszú Zsuzsanna Jakabos Balázs Holló (h) Benjámin Grátz (h) Evelyn Verrasztó (h) 4 × 200 m freestyle relay 7:44.46 7 7:31.19 4 Gábor Balog Anna Sztankovics Evelyn Verrasztó Dominik Kozma 4 × 100 m medley relay DQ DQ did not advance did not advance ===Synchronized swimming=== Athletes Event Preliminary Final Points Rank Points Rank Szofi Kiss Solo free routine 79.2333 13 did not advance did not advance Solo technical routine colspan=2 76.4918 14 ===Open water swimming=== ;Men Athletes Event Result Rank Dávid Huszti 10 km DNF DNF Kristóf Rasovszky 5 km 52:38.9 Kristóf Rasovszky 10 km 1:49:28.6 Kristóf Rasovszky 25 km 4:57.53.5 Dániel Székelyi 5 km 53:12.5 10 Dániel Székelyi 10 km 1:49:53.3 14 Dániel Székelyi 25 km 5:03:34.6 14 ;Women Athletes Event Result Rank Melinda Novoszáth 10 km 2:02:28.9 20 Anna Olasz 10 km 1:57:43.8 11 Anna Olasz 25 km 5:24:35.9 6 Onon Sömenek 10 km 2:02:12.4 18 Onon Sömenek 25 km 5:28:28.0 10 ;Team Athletes Event Result Rank Dávid Huszti Melinda Novoszáth Anna Olasz Kristóf Rasovszky Team DQ DQ ==Cycling== ===Track=== ;Men ;Sprints Athlete Event Qualifying Qualifying 1/16 Finals 1/8 Finals Quarterfinals Semifinals Finals/ Classification races Finals/ Classification races Athlete Event Time Speed Rank Opposition Time Opposition Time Opposition Time Opposition Time Opposition Time Rank Sándor Szalontay Sprint 10.037 71.734 km/h 16 W 10.641 L did not advance did not advance did not advance 15 ;Omnium Athlete Event Scratch race Scratch race Tempo race Tempo race Elimination race Points race Points race Points race Total Rank Athlete Event Laps down Event points Points in race Event points Event points Lap points Sprint points Total points Total Rank Krisztián Lovassy Omnium −1 2 0 12 6 0 0 0 20 16 ;Points race Athlete Event Lap points Sprint points Total points Rank Viktor Filutás Points race 0 0 0 17 ===Mountain biking=== Athlete Event Time Rank András Parti Men's cross-country 1:40:53 40 Barbara Benkó Women's cross-country 1:40:29 18 ==Gymnastics== ;Men ;Team Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Ádám Babos Team 13.233 12.966 12.833 colspan=11 Krisztián Boncsér Team 13.466 colspan=2 13.866 12.900 colspan=10 Balázs Kiss Team 12.333 13.000 13.100 colspan=12 Ryan Macleod Sheppard Team 13.666 11.933 13.233 14.166 14.000 12.766 colspan=10 Dávid Vecsernyés Team 13.766 colspan=2 13.166 14.200 colspan=10 Total Team 39.465 38.932 39.199 41.132 39.999 39.866 238.593 11 did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance did not advance ;Women ;Team Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Noémi Makra Team 12.166 12.200 colspan=3 11.966 11.800 colspan=3 Dorina Böczögő Team 13.133 12.700 12.400 12.633 colspan=2 12.733 10.400 13.100 12.700 colspan=2 Boglárka Dévai Team 14.616 colspan=5 14.266 colspan=5 Nóra Fehér Team 12.833 12.766 12.433 colspan=2 12.966 12.166 12.000 colspan=2 Sára Péter Team 13.599 colspan=2 12.500 colspan=2 13.566 colspan=2 12.066 colspan=2 Total Team 41.499 37.699 37.366 37.566 154.130 6 Q 40.565 35.332 37.066 36.766 149.729 8 ;Men individual finals Athlete Event Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Dávid Vecsernyés Horizontal bar colspan=5 14.033 14.033 ;Women individual finals Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Boglárka Dévai Vault 14.349 colspan=3 14.349 ==Rowing== ;Men Athlete Event Preliminary Repechage Semifinal Final Athlete Event Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Gergely Papp Men's single sculls 7:29.91 6 7:21.84 6 FC colspan=2 7:12.77 17 Adrián Juhász Béla Simon Men's pair 7:07.91 6 6:52.80 5 FC colspan=2 6:40.38 15 Péter Galambos Lightweight men's single sculls 7:17.76 SA/B 1 colspan=2 7:09.88 2 FA 7:03.87 6 Péter Csiszár Balázs Fiala Bence Tamás Dávid Forrai Lightweight men's quadruple sculls 6:09.59 5 colspan=4 6:11.16 5 ;Women Athlete Event Preliminary Repechage Semifinal Final Athlete Event Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Eszter Krémer Dóra Polivka Women's pair 7:38.30 4 7:26.96 4 FB colspan=2 7:33.37 8 Qualification Legend: FA=Final A (medal); FB=Final B (non-medal); FC=Final C (non-medal); FD=Final D (non-medal); FE=Final E (non-medal); FF=Final F (non- medal); SA/B=Semifinals A/B; SC/D=Semifinals C/D; SE/F=Semifinals E/F; QF=Quarterfinals; R=Repechage ==Triathlon== Athlete Event Swim (1.5 km) Trans 1 Bike (40 km) Trans 2 Run (10 km) Total Time Rank Márk Dévay Men's 16:47 0:57 57:15 0:28 33:37 1:49:04 7 Gábor Faldum Men's 17:42 0:57 57:38 0:27 33:25 1:50:09 15 Tamás Tóth Men's 16:54 0:51 57:16 0:25 33:27 1:48:53 6 Zsanett Bragmayer Women's 18:43 0:59 1:05:58 0:32 did not finish did not finish did not finish Athlete Event Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Total Time Rank Zsófia Kovács Tamás Tóth Zsanett Bragmayer Márk Dévay Mixed team relay 19:23 17:47 19:58 18:58 1:16:06 4 ==References== ==External links== * European Championships official site 2018 Category:Nations at the 2018 European Championships Category:2018 in Hungarian sport
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The Card Players is a series of oil paintings by the French Post-Impressionist artist Paul Cézanne. Painted during Cézanne's final period in the early 1890s, there are five paintings in the series. The versions vary in size, the number of players, and the setting in which the game takes place. Cézanne also completed numerous drawings and studies in preparation for The Card Players series. One version of The Card Players was sold in 2011 to the Royal Family of Qatar for a price estimated at $250 million ($ million today), signifying a new mark for highest ever price for a painting, not surpassed until November 2017. ==Overview== The series is considered by critics to be a cornerstone of Cézanne's art during the early-to-mid 1890s period, as well as a "prelude" to his final years, when he painted some of his most acclaimed work. Each painting depicts Provençal peasants immersed in their pipes and playing cards. The subjects, all male, are displayed as studious within their card playing, eyes cast downward, intent on the game at hand. Cézanne adapted a motif from 17th-century Dutch and French genre painting which often depicted card games with rowdy, drunken gamblers in taverns, replacing them instead with stone- faced tradesmen in a more simplified setting. Whereas previous paintings of the genre had illustrated heightened moments of drama, Cézanne's portraits have been noted for their lack of drama, narrative, and conventional characterization. Other than an unused wine bottle in the two-player versions, there is an absence of drink and money, which were prominent fixtures of the 17th-century genre. A painting by one of the Le Nain brothers, hung in an Aix- en-Provence museum near the artist's home, depicts card players and is widely cited as an inspiration for the works by Cézanne. The models for the paintings were local farmhands, some of whom worked on the Cézanne family estate, the Jas de Bouffan. Each scene is depicted as one of quiet, still concentration; the men look down at their cards rather than at each other, with the cards being perhaps their sole means of communication outside of work. One critic described the scenes as "human still life", while another speculated that the men's intense focus on their game mirrors that of the painter's absorption in his art. ==Paintings== While there are, in total, five paintings of card players by Cézanne, the final three works were similar in composition and number of players (two), causing them to sometimes be grouped together as one version. The exact dates of the paintings are uncertain, but it is long believed Cézanne began with larger canvases and pared down in size with successive versions, though research in recent years has cast doubt on this assumption. The largest version, painted between the years 1890–1892, is the most complex, with five figures on a 134.6 x 180.3 cm (53 × 71 in) canvas. It features three card players at the forefront, seated in a semi-circle at a table, with two spectators behind. On the right side of the painting, seated behind the second man and to the right of the third, is a boy, eyes cast downward, also a fixed spectator of the game. Further back, on the left side between the first and second player is a man standing, back to the wall, smoking a pipe and presumably awaiting his turn at the table. It has been speculated Cézanne added the standing man to provide depth to the painting, as well as to draw the eye to the upper portion of the canvas. As with the other versions, it displays a suppressed storytelling of peasant men in loose- fitting garments with natural poses focused entirely on their game. Writer Nicholas Wadley described a "tension in opposites", in which elements such as shifts of color, light and shadow, shape of hat, and crease of cloth create a story of confrontation through opposition. Others have described an "alienation" displayed in the series to be most pronounced in this version. The painting is owned and displayed by the Barnes Foundation museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A more condensed version of this painting with four figures, long thought to be the second version of The Card Players, is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. At 65.4 x 81.9 cm (25 3/4 x 32 1/4 in), it is less than half the size of the Barnes painting. Here the composition remains virtually the same, minus the boy, with viewers' perspective slightly closer to the game, but with less space between the figures. In the previous painting, the center player as well as the boy were hatless, whereas this version has all the men hatted. Also gone are the shelf to the left with vase and lower half of a picture frame in the center of the wall, leaving only the four pipes and hanging cloth to join the smoking man behind the card players. The painting is brighter, with less focus on blue tones, than the larger version. X-ray and infrared studies of this version of The Card Players have shown layers of "speculative" graphite underdrawing, as well as heavy layers of worked oil paint, possibly suggesting it was the preliminary of Cézanne's two largest versions of the series, rather than the second version as historically believed. The underdrawing has also led analysts to believe Cézanne had difficulty transferring the men, previously painted individually in studies, onto one canvas. It has been speculated that Cézanne solved this "spatial conundrum" in the final three versions of The Card Players, by eliminating spectators and other "unnecessary detail" while displaying only the "absolute essentials": two players immersed in their game. The scene has been described as balanced but asymmetrical, as well as naturally symmetrical with the two players being each other's "partner in an agreed opposition". The man on the left is smoking a pipe, wearing a tophat with a downcast brim, in darker, more formal clothing, seated upright; the man to the right is pipeless, in a shorter hat with upcast brim, lighter, more loosely fit clothing, and hunched over the table. Even cards themselves are contrasting light and dark hues. In each of the two-player paintings, a sole wine bottle rests in the mid-part of the table, said to represent a dividing line between the two participants as well as the center of the painting's "symmetrical balance". Of the three versions, perhaps the best known and most often reproduced is in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. It is also the smallest at 47.5 x 57 cm (17 3/4 x 22 1/2 in). The Orsay painting was described by art historian Meyer Schapiro as "the most monumental and also the most refined" of the versions, with the shapes being simpler but more varied in their relationships. It is the most sparsely painted, and generally considered the last of the Card Players series. There is a shift of axis to the scene, in which the player to the left is more completely in the picture, chair included, with the appearance of being nearer to us. His partner to the right is cut off from the scene at his back, and the table is displayed at an angle to the plane. Critics have described a "deception of restraint" in Cézanne's use of color; graduated area of thinly applied, "priming" color used for solid forms and their appearance of structure is met with lilac and green used to "liven" the canvas, as well as the bright, deep color used on the lower half for the tablecloth. This version of the series was also part of a high-profile theft of eight Cézanne paintings from a traveling show at Aix in August 1961. The most valuable of the stolen works, The Card Players, was released as a four-color postage stamp by the French government in recognition of the loss. All of the paintings were recovered after a ransom was paid several months later. The other two-player paintings are in the Courtauld Institute of Art in London and in a private collection. In February 2012, Vanity Fair reported that the royal family of Qatar had, during 2011, purchased their version of the painting for a record price variously estimated at between $250 million and $320 million from the private collection of Greek shipping magnate George Embiricos. File:Les Joueurs de cartes, par Paul Cézanne.jpg|The Card Players 1894–95, Oil on canvas, 47.5 × 57 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris File:Paul Cézanne, 1892-95, Les joueurs de carte (The Card Players), 60 x 73 cm, oil on canvas, Courtauld Institute of Art, London.jpg|The Card Players 1892–1895, Oil on canvas, 60 x 73 cm, Courtauld Institute of Art, London File:Paul Cézanne 222.jpg|The Card Players 1892–93, Oil on canvas, 97 × 130 cm, Private collection ==Studies and sketches== Cézanne created a substantial number of studies and preparatory drawings for The Card Players series. While it had long been believed he began the series with the largest paintings and subsequently worked smaller, 21st-century x-rays of the paintings as well as further analysis of preparatory sketches and studies has led some scholars to believe Cézanne used both the studies and the smaller versions of The Card Players to prepare for the larger canvases. Over a dozen initial sketches and painted studies of local farmworkers were made by Cézanne in preparation for the final paintings. It has been speculated his models sat for the studies rather than the finished works themselves, and the painter possibly sketched preliminary work in an Aix cafe. Some of the studies have been well regarded as stand-alone works of their own volition, particularly the accompaniment piece Man with a Pipe, displayed alongside The Card Players at the Courtauld Gallery in London. The former, along with two similar paintings of smokers undertaken in the same period, are considered by many to be some of Cézanne's most masterful portraits. File:Paul Cézanne 102.jpg|Man with the Pipe c. 1890, Oil on canvas, 90 × 72 cm, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg File:Homme à la pipe, par Paul Cézanne, Institut Courtauld.jpg|Man with a Pipe c. 1892, Oil on canvas, 73 x 60 cm, Courtauld Institute of Art, London File:Cezanne - Pfeife rauchender Mann.jpg|Man Smoking a Pipe 1890–1892, Oil on canvas, 72 x 91 cm, Pushkin Museum, Moscow File:Cardplayers study bloch collection.jpg|Man with a Pipe (Study for The Card Players) 1890–1892, Oil on canvas, 39 x 30.2 cm, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri File:Cardplayers study worcester.jpg|Study for The Card Players 1890–1892, Oil on canvas, 32 x 35 cm, Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts File:Study for Card Players - Paul Cezanne.png|Study for Card Players 1890–1892, Graphite and watercolor on paper, Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Providence, Rhode Island ==Exhibitions== In 2010–11, a joint exhibition was curated by the Courtauld Gallery in London and Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York to display The Card Players paintings, early studies and sketches of the series, and accompanying works. The exhibition ran in London from 21 October 2010 to 16 January 2011 and in New York from 9 February 2011 to 8 May 2011. It was described as the first exhibition devoted to the series as well as the largest collection of Cézanne's Card Players paintings to ever be exhibited together. The exhibition included the paintings owned by the Courtauld, Metropolitan, and Musée d'Orsay. The versions at the Barnes Foundation and in a private collection were displayed as prints, due to the Barnes' policy of not lending and the private collector declining to release the work. The mini-series of men smoking pipes sometimes referred to as The Smokers was also included with over a dozen other studies and sketches, however a legal dispute also prevented the Hermitage Museum's version of Man with a Pipe from traveling to New York. ==See also== *List of paintings by Paul Cézanne *List of most expensive paintings ==References== Category:Paintings by Paul Cézanne Category:1890s paintings Category:Food and drink paintings Category:Paintings in the Musée d'Orsay Category:Collection of the Barnes Foundation Category:Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art Category:Paintings in the Courtauld Gallery Category:Playing cards in art
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Jaunpur district is a district in the Varanasi Division of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The district headquarters is the city of Jaunpur which is situated on the banks of the Gomti River. It is located 228 km southeast of the state capital Lucknow. 65 km northwest of Varanasi and 732 km southeast of New Delhi. The district has two Lok Sabha seats and nine Vidhan Sabha seats. According to the 2011 census, Jaunpur has a gender ratio of 1,018 females to 1,000 males, the highest in Uttar Pradesh. The main languages spoken in the district is Hindi and Urdu. ==Geography== thumbnail|The banks of river Gomati in Jaunpur|left The district of Jaunpur is situated in the northwest part of Varanasi Division. Its attitude varies from 261 ft to 290 ft above sea level. ===Rivers=== Gomti and Sai are its main parental rivers. Besides these, Varuna, Basuhi, Pili. Mamur and Gangi are the smaller rivers here. The rivers Gomti and Basuhi divide the district into nearly four equal landmasses. Jaunpur district is often affected by the disaster of floods. ===Climate=== Jaunpur district has a climate consistent with that of the Northern Plain and Central Highlands including the Aravalli range, hot semi-arid eco-region 4.3 and hot dry ecoregion 9.2. The temperature varies between about and .National Informatics Centre "Jaunpur official website." Government of India. Accessed 3 December 2013. The annual normal rainfall is . The monsoon season occurs from the third week of June to the first week of October. Normally, there are 46 rain days per year of which 31 occur in the monsoon season. The district regularly suffers drought and pestilence."Agricultural contingency plan for Jaunpur." Government of India. November 2013. Accessed 3 December 2013. ===Topography=== The topography of the district is a flat plain undulating with shallow river valleys. The main permanently flowing rivers are the Gomti and the Sai.Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium enterprises "A brief industrial profile of Jaunpur district." Government of India. Date not stated. Accessed 3 December 2013. The rivers of Jaunpur flow from northwest to southeast and the land slopes in the same direction. Thus, there is a more elevated area in the northwest and a less elevated area of land in the southeast.Prasad G. "Progress in Nanotechnology." Discovery Publishing House. 2008. Vol 2. pp 68-71. Accessed at Google Books 4 December 2013. ===Geology=== Beneath the surface of the district of Jaunpur, is a thick mantle consisting of the quaternary sediments (silt, sand and clay) of the Ganga river system. Below is vindhya range bedrock. Mineral deposits are rare but there is limestone as a conglomerate kanker in nodular and block forms. The limestone can be used in building. Earthquakes have been recorded, the largest in 1927 and 1954. == Demographics == In 2011, an official census was made in Jaunpur district. It recorded a population of 4,494,204 of which 2,258,437 were female and 2,217,635 male making it 7th most populated district in whole state. Jaunpur district has population density of 1,113 persons per km2. Between 2001 and 2011, the population of Jaunpur district grew 14.89%. Literacy increased from 59.84 to 73.66 percent. In 2011, 86.06 percent of men were literate and 61.7 percent of women. Children under six years formed 14.37% of the population. Scheduled Castes made up 22.04% of the population. Jaunpur ranks seventh in terms of population in the state and ranks first in terms of sex ratio (1,024). There are 663,513 households in the district accounting for 2% of the total households in the U.P. The average size of households in the district is 6.8 persons. Urban population in the district is only 7.7% of total population. ===Languages=== At the time of the 2011 Census of India, 92.65% of the population in the district spoke Hindi, 3.58% Bhojpuri, 1.90% Urdu and 1.73% Awadhi as their first language. ==Governance== ===Divisions=== Within the district, there are two national lower house constituencies, Lok Sabha, of which Jaunpur constituency is entirely in the district, and nine state lower house constituencies, Vidhan Sabha. Jaunpur district has six administrative subdivisions (Tahsils). 400px|thumbnail|right ====Tahsils==== * Shahganj * Badlapur * Machhali Shahar * Jaunpur * Mariahu * Kerakat. ====Development Blocks==== Jaunpur district is further divided into twenty-one "development blocks". * Sondhi (Shahganj) * Suithakala * Khuthan * Karanja Kala * Badlapur * Maharajganj * Sujanganj * Baksha * Mungra Badshahpur * Machhali Shahar * Mariahu * Barsathi * Rampur * Ramnagar * Jalalpur *Kerakat * Dobhi * Muftiganj * Dharmapur * Bijor * Sirkoni ====Thanas==== There are also twenty-six police districts (Thanas). * Kotwali * Sadar * Line Bazar * Zafarabad * KhetaSarai * Shahganj * Sarpatahan * Kerakat * Chandwak * Jalalpur * Sarai Khwaja * Gaura Badshahpur * Badlapur * Khuthan * Singra * Baksha * Sujanganj * Maharajganj * Mungra Badshahpur *Pawara *Machhlishahr * Meerganj * Sikrara * Mariahu * Rampur * Barsathi * Nevadhiya * Sureri * Baserawan * Kaserawan * Janghai ==Economy== The district's main economical activity is agriculture and allied sector. Jaunpur is the fastest developing area in eastern Uttar Pradesh with skill development, quality education and good infrastructure. ===Agriculture=== The main field crops of Jaunpur district are: rice, maize, pigeon pea, pearl millet, blackgram wheat and chickpea. Other crops are onion and potato and crops for fodder. The crops are grown with both rainfall and irrigation. There are cattle (both local low yielding and crossbred), and local low-yielding buffalo as well as goats, sheep, backyard chickens and pigs and occasional dairy farms. Approximately 29% of Jaunpur's population is employed. Approximately 40% of those employed work in manufacturing, 26% work in trade and commerce, 19% work in other services, 8% work in transport and communication, 4% work in agriculture, 2% work in construction, and 2% are marginal workers. There are 43 government reservoirs and many more private water sources. At Gujartal lake, west of Kheta Sarai, pisciculture is conducted. ===Industry=== There is little heavy industry in Jaunpur. The Varanasi Jaunpur highway allows for some industrial economic development. A cotton mill was operational near Karanja Kala but has now been replaced by a medical college and there are some textile manufacturers. Other manufactured products include perfume (jasmine oil and attar) and incense, furniture, carpets, chemical fertiliser and cement. Tertiary and service industries include repair workshops, print shops and internet cafes."Varanasi city guide" Eicher Goodearth Limited, 2002 , 9788187780045 p 182. Accessed at Google Books, 6 December 2013.Ram R. "Agricultural development: command area approach." Abhinav publications 1993. p88. Accessed at Google Books 4 December 2013.Sharma S. "India - a travel guide." Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd., 2008. , 9788128400674. p248. Accessed at Google Books 6 December 2013. There is a special economical zone located at Allahabad road near Mungra Badshahpur the Sathariya Industrial area or SIDA. Jaunpur has a problem of poor infrastructure development. Like many other districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jaunpur has poor road quality and a lack of electricity supply. National highway number 56 between Lucknow and Varanasi cross from Jaunpur. Agro-park in Varanasi near Babatpur airport on Varanasi-Jaunpur highway is said to boost the food-processing industry in the region. == Transport == === Roadways === Jaunpur is well-connected to Lucknow, Gorakhpur, Varanasi, Allahabad and other cities like Azamgarh, Ayodhya, Mirzapur, Janghai, Sultanpur, Kerakat, Ghazipur etc. Mariahu NH-56, SH-36 are the roadways connecting all major cities to Jaunpur. The major bus stations are in Jaunpur city and Machhlishahr. Road dividers are also being built to avoid traffic jams. === Railways === Jaunpur is well-connected with all major cities of India thanks to Indian Railways. It has four major railway stations: Jaunpur City Railway Station(JOP) and Jaunpur Junction (JNU), Shahganj Junction (SHG), Janghai Junction, Kerakat railway station (KCT). Zafarabad (ZBD) also a railway station where's many train routes are diverted i.e. Allahababd, Varanasi, Lucknow Via Sultanpur, Lucknow via Shahganj, Ghazipur via Jaunpur junction. thumb|Jaunpur Junction thumb|Zafrabaad Junction thumb|Shahganj Junction thumb|Janghai Junction Following is the list of all junctions and halt stations in Jaunpur Districts: * Jaunpur Junction * Shahganj Junction * Zafrabad Junction * Janghai Junction * Jaunpur City * Mahagava Halt * Mehrava * Mani Kalan Halt * Kheta Sarai * Yadavendranagar * Muftiganj * Gangauli * Kerakat * Dobhi * Daudhondha * Sirkoni * Jalalganj * Trilochan * Baksha * Sarai Harkhu * Shri Krishna Nagar * Harpalganj * Salakhpur * Mariyahu * Bhannor * Barsathi * Jarauna * Nibhapur * Badshahpur === Airways === thumb|Varansi Airport is 35 km away from Main city The nearest airport is Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport in Varanasi, which is roughly 39 km (24 mi) from the city. The other nearest airport to Jaunpur is in Prayagraj which is roughly 142 km (88 mi) away. ==Historic places and sights== ===Atala Masjid=== 300px|thumbnail|right|Main pishtaq leading into the iwan of Atala Masjid Firoz Shah III began the construction of the Atala Masjid in 1393. The Atala masjid is model of Indo-Iran architecture. The Atala became a model for other Masjids in the Jaunpur district. Architecturally, it retained and advanced the element of monumentalism. The height of the Atala masjid is over . The perimeter is . The entrance has three massive stone pylons. The central one consists of a high arch between two sloping towers. These are decorated with arched niches and stone screened windows."Atala Masjid" Jaunpur City website. Accessed 5 May 2012 ===Jhanjhari Masjid=== The Jhanjhari Masjid, on the north bank of the Gomti river, was built by Ibrahim in the Sipah locality of Jaunpur township. It was a residence of Ibrahim himself, as well as a place for saints, scholars (pandits) and the army (who kept animals such as elephants, camels, horses and mules). After human destruction and flood damage, only the facade remains. This consists of an arch, high and wide. Some of the stones from this masjid were used in the construction of the Shahi bridge. ===Masjid Jama ash Sharq (Jama Masjid)=== 300px|thumbnail|right|Main arcade facade, Jama Masjid The Jama Masjid is another of the Sharqi dynasty period, started by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi and after a number of construction phases, completed by Hussain Shah. It is located on the Shahganj road near the Purani bazaar in Jaunpur City. The size of the masjid interior is x . 27 steps climb to the top. There are four gates, one at each cardinal point. The eastern gateway was destroyed by Sikander Lodhi. The masjid is decorated with Egyptian style engravings and lotus, sunflower and rose motifs. ===Lal Darwaza Masjid=== This Masjid was built in 1447 (as per inscription of this masjid) at Begumganj, north of Jaunpur, during the reign of Sultan Mahmud Sharqi, by Queen Bibi Rajyi, dedicated to Maulana Sayyid Ali Dawood Kutubbudin, a celebrated saint (Maulana) of Jaunpur, whose descendants still live in the mohalla bazaar bhua Pandariba Jaunpur and mohalla Namaz Gah laldarwaza. The masjid occupies x and has three entrances and a courtyard. It is also known as the "Red Portal Masjid". ===Shahi Pul=== thumb|303x303px|Shahi Pul Night view The Shahi Pul is a bridge over the Gomti river at Jaunpur township. It was built by Khankhana in 1564 for Akbar. The bridge is wide. At each end were pillboxes to house stalls. On a square platform in the middle of the bridge, there is a large sculpture of a lion with an elephant underneath its forepaws. The statue originated in a Buddhist monastery. There is an associated mosque at Idgah on the Allahabad road. ===Shahi Qila=== In 1462, Firoz Shah III built the Shahi Qila (the imperial fort). The Kerar Kot fort once stood on the same site in Jaunpur township on the north bank of the Gomti river. It contained a mosque and a spacious and stylish set of baths (hammam) installed by Ibrahim, Firoz's brother. The layout of the fort is an irregular quadrangle enclosed in stone walls. The walls surround raised earthworks. Most of the remains of the original structures are buried or in ruin."Jaunpur Fort," Archaeological Survey of India website. Accessed 7 December 2013. The main gates face east. The largest inner gate is in height. Its external surface is set with ashlar stone. A further, outer, gate was installed during the reign of the Mughal king, Akbar, under the patronage of the governor of Jaunpur, Min'im Khan in the 16th century. It is designed in the shape of a flanking bastion. The spandrels or spaces between the arches of the outer gate were decorated with blue and yellow tiles. Ornamental niches are built into the walls of the outer gate. The two story residential and administrative building or "palace" was built in a square layout. An interior pillared verandah or aiwan overlooked the ground floor from the first. thumb|304x304px|Shahi Qila on banks of Gomti Aerial View The mosque or masjid is likely the oldest building in Jaunpur township. It was a simple arcade of about x . It was supported by pillars in the Bengali style. There are three low central domes and no minars. (There are two nearby stone pillars instead).Yasin M. and Yasin M. (Ed.)"Reading in Indian History." Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1988. p66. Accessed at Google Books 6 December 2013.Asher C. B. "Architecture of Mughal India, Part 1, Volume 4. From "The New Cambridge History of India." Cambridge University Press, 1992 , 9780521267281. p88 Accessed at Google Books 6 December 2013. Akriti Shukla(Gupta ji). ===Sheetla Chowkiya Dham=== Located at Chowkiya, Panchhatiya, the temple is devoted to goddess Shitala, who resides in the main temple of the complex. There are other temples of god and goddess of mostly of the local deities. There is also a pond.The temple is very much popular among the locals. It is believed that before leaving the district, it's necessary to take blessings of Mata Sheetla for safety and well-being. There is a Neem tree in temple believed to be more than 300 years old. === Raja Ki Haveli === thumb|305x305px|Royal Palace of Jaunpur It is situated on Panchatiya Road. The palace of royal family of Jaunpur was once owned by Raja Yadvendra Dutt Dubey. Now the palace has been converted into Wedding Lawn. The palace also has a Pokhra where events like Ravan Dahan and Dussehra mela takes place every year. == Notable people == * Dinesh Kunwar Patel, developer of world's first homemade humanoid Robot "Shalu" that can speak 47 languages (from Rajamalpur village in Mariahu, Jaunpur) *Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay - Indian Bengali language writer and script writer in Bollywood. Creator of the famous detective character Byomkesh Bakshi and also huge number of historical fiction novels and short stories in Bengali language. *Ashok Bhushan - Judge at the Supreme Court of India and was 31st Chief Justice of Kerala High Court *Muhammad Yunus Jawnpuri, Indian hadith scholar and former Shaykh al-Hadith of Mazahir Uloom, Saharanpur. *Ravi Kishan - Actor and MP *Mohammad Akram Nadwi - Dean faculty of Islamic studies Oxford University London *Acharya Ramamurti - Indian social activist (Gandhian) and educationist *Rambhadracharya - Hindu spiritual leader, poet, commentator, educationist, religious and social figure *Indu Prakash Singh - Philosopher, economist, politician and former diplomat with the Indian Foreign Service * Justice Surendra Kumar Yadav Special Judge in Demolition of the Babri Masjid case *Tufani Saroj - Former Member of Parliament Machhlishahr *Lalji Singh - Scientist who worked in the field of DNA fingerprinting technology *Rajesh Vivek - Actor *Jagmohan Yadav - Former IPS police officer and former Director-General of Uttar Pradesh Police *Parasnath Yadava - Former MP and former Cabinet minister of Uttar Pradesh Government *Shailendra Yadav Lalai - MLA Shahganj and former minister of Uttar Pradesh Government ==Temples== Bijethua Mahavir, Chaukiya Mandir, Chota Kashi Temple, Mahiyar Devi Temple. ==References== ==External links== * * First website of Jaunpur in Hindi * First website of Jaunpur in English Category:Districts of Uttar Pradesh
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The Iowa Barnstormers are a professional indoor football team based in Des Moines, Iowa. They are currently members of the Indoor Football League (IFL). They play their home games at Wells Fargo Arena, known in indoor football circles as "The Well". Several teams called the Iowa Barnstormers have played in different indoor football leagues since 1995. The original Arena Football League team played in Des Moines' Veterans Memorial Auditorium from 1995 to 2001, and subsequently relocated to Uniondale, New York, where they were known as the New York Dragons. Des Moines was awarded a franchise in the developmental AF2 league in 2001 that carried on the Barnstormers name and branding, but the team suspended operations after the end of the season. In 2008 a new Barnstormers team began play in the AF2, now based in the new Wells Fargo Arena; this team joined the new AFL in 2010 following the league's reorganization. For the 2015 season, the Barnstormers left the AFL and became members of the IFL.Barnstormers Join Indoor Football League, Hire Head Coach, Iowa Barnstormers website, August 27, 2014 ==History== ===Original Barnstormers: 1995–2000=== On April 25, 1994, the Arena Football League approved an expansion team to be based in Des Moines, Iowa, to begin play in the 1995 season. The team was owned by Jim Foster, the inventor/creator of arena football, and the founder of the Arena Football League. On May 12, 1995, the Barnstormers played their first regular season game, on the road against the Milwaukee Mustangs. In a wild finish that saw both teams combine to score 24 points in the final 40.4 seconds of the fourth quarter, the Barnstormers won, 69–61. The next weekend, May 20, 1995, the Barnstormers played their first regular season home game against the Miami Hooters at Veterans Memorial Auditorium, winning 41–29. Behind the strength of AFL Coach of the Year John Gregory, the Barnstormers raced to a 3–0 start and secured the 5th seed for the playoffs. After upsetting defending ArenaBowl champion Arizona, 56–52, in their first playoff game, the Barnstormers fell, 56–49, to 6th-seeded Orlando in the semifinals. After an 0–1 start to their second season, the Barnstormers won their first Central Division title on the strength of eight consecutive wins to close the season. After edging St. Louis and Albany in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the top-seeded Barnstormers lost a 42–38 heartbreaker at home to second-seeded Tampa Bay in ArenaBowl X. In 1997, the Barnstormers repeated as Central Division champions with an 11–3 record, including a 61–38 road thrashing of the rival Storm to avenge the previous season's ArenaBowl defeat. With the 2nd seed in the playoffs, the Barnstormers avenged a regular season defeat against 7th-seeded San Jose, 68–59, before racing past 4th- seeded Orlando 52–34 to reach the franchise's second ArenaBowl in three seasons. However, in ArenaBowl XI, Arizona used a 42–13 scoring stretch over the 2nd and 3rd Quarters to roll past Iowa, 55–33. Star offensive specialist Willis Jacox retired after the 1997 season, while star quarterback Kurt Warner signed with the St. Louis Rams of the National Football League (NFL). Forced to rebuild after losing the eventual two-time NFL MVP, the Barnstormers limped to an 0–5 start in 1998. After acquiring Aaron Garcia from New Jersey, the Barnstormers improved, with a three-game winning streak sparked by Garcia and rookie sensation Kevin Swayne, putting the Barnstormers in playoff contention late in the year. But, in the end, they faltered, finishing 5–9, their worst season of their years in Iowa. In 1999, the Barnstomer resurgence under Garcia continued, with Iowa winning nine of their last ten regular season games (following a 2–2 start) to capture their third Central Division title in four seasons and secure the 2nd seed in the playoffs. A thrashing of division rival Milwaukee in the quarterfinals paired with 8th-seeded Orlando's 41–19 shocker at Tampa Bay set Iowa up at home against the 6th-seeded Predators with a chance to advance to another home ArenaBowl. However, Orlando continued its shocking run to ArenaBowl XIII with a 56–49 upset of the Barnstormers. The 2000 Barnstormers put up startling offensive numbers, as Garcia threw for 92 touchdowns against just 8 interceptions, with 46 of the touchdowns going to Mike Horacek. Despite this prolific offense, Iowa started slowly, losing three of their first four games. However, a five-game winning streak return the Barnstormers to the thick of the playoff hunt. Iowa went on to win their fourth Central Division crown in six seasons of play, earning the 3rd seed in the newly expanded playoffs. However, Iowa's playoff run came to a quick end on a Sunday afternoon in the quarterfinals, as the 6th-seeded Nashville scored the final 14 points to defeat Iowa, 49–42. Historically, the Barnstormers have ranked high in home paid attendance. In the Arena Football League, they finished 7th in 1995, 8th in 1996, 9th in 1997, 8th in 1998, 9th in 1999, and 9th in 2000. ===AF2 years: 2001, 2008–2009=== The need for a more modern venue as well as the league's desire for a larger market led to the move to New York City despite two failed past attempts in the city, the New York Knights (1988) and the New York CityHawks (1997–1998), both of which played at Madison Square Garden in Manhattan. The team was purchased by Charles Wang, who is also the Islanders' majority owner, and renamed the New York Dragons. Aside from the league's desire to re-enter the New York market, another major reason cited for the team's relocation was the inadequacy of their Des Moines venue, the Iowa Veterans Memorial Auditorium, also known as "The Barn". Most of the seats in this venue were located directly along the sidelines as is typical of high school sports venues. The Barnstormers organization constantly lobbied for the construction of a better facility during their time in Des Moines to no avail. The arena Football organization awarded an AF2 franchise to Iowa for the 2001 season, which continued the Barnstormer name. However, low attendance (less than half of the average of the AFL franchise) and a relatively poor season (a five-game winning streak to close the season wasn't able to turn a 4–7 start into a playoff berth) would lead to that franchise suspending operations following their first season. On September 20, 2007, the AF2 announced that they had approved the inactive franchise's new ownership, meaning that the Barnstormers resumed play in 2008 at the Wells Fargo Arena. They held practices at the historic Veterans Memorial Auditorium, and they inherited the tradition of the original Barnstormers. The team adopted the original unique uniforms, which in keeping with the aviation theme included the depiction of goggles on the helmets, wings on the shoulders of the jerseys, and propellers on the pants legs. The mascot, a dog named Ace, is featured in this helmet, along with the uniform jersey and pants. After being on hiatus for six seasons, the Barnstormers played their first regular season game of 2008, falling at the Louisville Fire 58–28 on March 29, 2008. The following week, they would return home for a Monday Night primetime match-up with the Lexington Horsemen on April 14, 2008. In the debut of Arena Football at the Wells Fargo Arena, the Barnstormers lost a close 43–41 contest. The next week, Iowa won their first regular season match-up since 2001 (their 75th overall), defeating the Quad City Steamwheelers 58–38 on April 19 in Moline, Illinois. The team would win their first home game at the Wells Fargo Arena on April 26, 2008, defeating the Stockton Lightning 47–24. During the 2008 season, the Barnstormers ranked 17th in average home paid attendance out of the 46 combined teams in the Arena Football League and AF2. In both 2008 and 2009, Iowa ranked second in AF2 attendance to the Spokane Shock, with attendances of 9,341 and 9,520, respectively. ===Return to the AFL (2010–2014)=== On September 28, 2009, the Barnstormers announced their status as a charter member of the new Arena Football League, marking their return to playing top- notch arena football after almost a decade of lower levels and inactivity.Official Team Press Release: Barnstormers Back Where We Belong! A franchise-record 12,184 fans attended the 2010 opener; however, Iowa's first play from scrimmage resulted in an interception return for a touchdown by the Chicago Rush, an ominous harbinger of an eventual 7–9 season. ===Indoor Football League (2015–present)=== On July 27, 2014, Barnstormers president Jeff Lamberti told WHO-TV in Des Moines that the franchise will explore "all options" in the off-season of their continuance to play, including leaving the AFL and going to the Indoor Football League for 2015. The Barnstormers had not had a winning season since their revival as a top-level arena football team, mainly because of the difficulty in attracting top-ticket free agents to the AFL's smallest market.Barnstormers May Leave AFL, Join Different League, John Sears, WHO-TV website, July 27, 2014 On August 27, 2014, Lamberti announced that the Iowa Barnstormers had officially become members of the IFL and named former Barnstormers quarterback Joe Brannen to replace Mike Hohensee. The Barnstormers became the first team to directly leave the AFL for a new league, although previously the Austin Wranglers had been demoted from the AFL to the AFL's former minor league, af2. The Arkansas Twisters, Tri-Cities Fever, and Green Bay Blizzard were former af2 teams which jumped to the IFL. "We are excited to bring the Barnstormers to the IFL", said Lamberti. "The chance to sign more local players, see more fans at road games, and create friendly rivalries with other teams of the Midwest are just a few of the opportunities that we look forward to." Iowa Barnstormers Announce Future Plans, Barnstormers Join Indoor Football League, Hire Head Coach, Iowa Barnstormers website, August 27, 2014 AFL commissioner Jerry Kurz released a statement regarding the Barnstormers departure from the AFL: "We wish the Iowa Barnstormers all the best in their new endeavor. Their organization has been a part of the rich history of Arena Football for years now and will always be thought of fondly by those who love our sport." It was also noted that players currently under contract with the team were not obligated to remain with the club, essentially making them free agents.AFL Issues Statement on Iowa Barnstormers Franchise, AFL website, August 27, 2014 IFL commissioner Mike Allshouse commented: "This is a monumental day in the history of the Indoor Football League. These are exciting times for the IFL as we continue to improve and expand our business model."Iowa Barnstormers Make Move to the IFL , IFL website, August 27, 2014 To adjust to their new league, the Barnstormers removed the word "arena" from their logo as they are no longer with the Arena Football League, yet will retain the history of their time with the AFL. They did use the rebound nets they owned from their AFL days in 2015, but under IFL rules, any ball that hits the netting is a dead ball. The rebound nets were taken down in 2016 and replaced by the standard indoor football goalposts with netting surrounding each end zone. On July 11, 2016, Brannen was fired as the Barnstormers head coach. On August 24, 2016, Brannen was replaced by Dixie Wooten. Wooten had been serving as the offensive coordinator for the Cedar Rapids Titans. In his second year as head coach, Wooten led the Barnstormers to their first championship on July 7, 2018, over the Sioux Falls Storm 42–38 in the United Bowl. Wooten led the team to a 12–2 record in 2019, but again lost to Sioux Falls in the semifinals. After the season, he was hired away by the 2019 expansion team Tucson Sugar Skulls. Wooten was replaced by Ameer Ismail, the former head coach of the Massachusetts Pirates. However, he would not coach a game for the team as the 2020 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Longtime general manager John Pettit died in December 2020 after complications from COVID-19 and his daughter Juli was named the team's new general manager. The Barnstormers hired former Jacksonville Sharks head coach Les Moss for the 2021 season. Moss then brought former Albany Empire head coach Rob Keefe to Iowa after serving as Keefe's assistant in Albany. The Barnstormers finished 6–6 and were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. Moss was released in September 2021. The Barnstormers then hired former Albany Empire assistant general manager Dave Mogensen as its head coach for the 2022 season. The team made the playoffs yet again under his leadership. The 2023 season will be remembered as one of the worst in franchise history. ==Logos and uniforms== When the Barnstormers began playing in 1995, the team's logo consisted of a circular logo, which depicted a barnstorming airplane over the city of Des Moines. The logo was surrounded by a circular script reading, "Arena Football Club". The word "Arena" was removed when the team moved to the IFL. The circle logo also has wings on each side, with the words "Iowa" and "Barnstormers" on two lines above the circle logo. Below the logo was the words, "Des Moines." The team's colors consisted of black, gold and cardinal. The three colors are a combination of the Iowa Hawkeyes black and gold, and the Iowa State Cyclones cardinal and gold. ===Uniforms=== The goggles on the team's helmet make the Barnstormers helmet one of the most recognized helmets in AFL history. In a 2008 Yahoo! article, the Barnstormers' helmet was ranked as the 8th best helmet in pro football history. Until 2012, the helmet was gold with black goggles; this was reversed beginning in the 2013 season. The Barnstormers' original uniform designed consisted of a gold helmet, and either black or white jerseys with gold numbers on the black jerseys and black numbers on the white jersey with pilots' wings on the front of both. Gold pants were used with both jerseys. A side stripe on the pants was in the design of a propeller blade. Upon the club's return, the wings were removed from the jersey. Beginning in 2013, the team switched to black pants. ==Notable players== ===Current roster=== Iowa Barnstormers roster Quarterbacks Running backs Wide receivers Offensive linemen Defensive linemen Linebackers Defensive backs Kickers Reserve lists *Currently vacant Rookies in italics Roster updated April 23, 2023 29 active, 0 Inactive → More rosters ===Retired uniform numbers=== Iowa Barnstormers retired numbers No. Player Position Seasons Ref. 13 Kurt Warner QB 1995–1997 ===Arena Football League Hall of Famers=== Iowa Barnstormers Hall of Famers No. Name Year Inducted Position(s) Years w/ Barnstormers \-- Jim Foster 1998 Owner 1995–2001 \-- Jon Roehlk 1999 OL/DL 1995–1996 \-- Mike Hohensee 2012 Head Coach/Coach 2012-2014 13 Kurt Warner 2002 QB 1995–1997 ===Indoor Football League Hall of Famers=== Iowa Barnstormers Hall of Famers No. Name Year Inducted Position(s) Years w/ Barnstormers 23 Javicz Jones 2019 LB 2015–2017 4 Bryan Pray 2019 WR 2017 \-- John Pettit 2021 GM/VP 2008–2020 ===All-Arena players=== The following Barnstormers players have been named to All-Arena Teams: *QB Kurt Warner (2), Aaron Garcia *WR/DB Carlos James (3) *WR Jesse Schmidt (2), Marco Thomas, Darius Reynolds *OS Lamart Cooper, Mike Horacek *DL Mike Lewis (2) *DB Tanner Varner, Jason Simpson *DS Shea Showers, Kevin Kaesviharn *K Mike Black, Clay Rush ===All-IFL players=== The following Barnstormers players have been named to All-IFL Teams: *QB Travis Partridge, Drew Powell, Daquan Neal *WR Brady Roland (4), Bryan Pray, Ryan Balentine *OL D'Angelo McCray, Brandon Haskin, Demarious Loving, *DL Ra'Shawde Myers *LB Javicz Jones (2), Zachary Allen, Treyvon Williams *DB Jamie Bender, Bryce Enyard, Jourdan Wickliffe, Tyrell Pearson *K Gabriel Rui ===Individual awards=== Offensive Player of the Year Season Player Position Mike Horacek OS Wide Receiver of the Year Season Player Position Marco Thomas WR Adam Pringle Award Season Player Position Peter Evans OL Defensive Player of the Year Season Player Position Javicz Jones LB Bryce Enyard DB Most Improved Player Season Player Position Travis Partridge QB Most Valuable Player Season Player Position Drew Powell QB Daquan Neal QB Coach of the Year Season Player Position Dixie Wooten HC ==Staff== Iowa Barnstormers staff Front office *Principal Owner – Jeff Lamberti *President/General Manager/COO – Juli Pettit *Owner – Don Lamberti *Honorary owner – Ben Silverstein *Owner – David Silverstein *Owner – Scott Thurber *Owner – Dave Knau *Owner – Jim Gocke *Owner – Dan Stanbrough *Owner – Jeff Lipman *Owner – Tom Nelson *Owner – Dan Ochylski *Owner – Brian Chittenden Head coach – Dave Mogensen \-- > Assistant coaches *Defensive coordinator – Jermaine Hampton ==Statistics and records== ===Season-by-season records=== ===Head coaching records=== Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2021 Indoor Football League season. Name Term Regular season Playoffs Achievements W L T Win% W L John Gregory – – 82 57 0 7 6 Art Haege 2001 2 4 0 — — Earle Bruce 2001 7 3 0 0 0 J. T. Smith 3 6 0 0 0 Mike Hohensee – 19 35 0 0 0 Joe Brannen – 10 20 0 0 0 Dixie Wooten – 36 8 0 2 1 Coach of the Year () Les Moss 6 6 0 0 1 Dave Mogensen 9 7 0 0 1 ==References== ==External links== *Iowa Barnstormers official website *AFL's Iowa Barnstormers on ArenaFan.Com *af2's Iowa Barnstormers on ArenaFan.Com *AFL's Iowa Barnstormers on OurSportsCentral.Com Category:1995 establishments in Iowa
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